Contents

List of contributors xi 1.15 Phage therapy an alternative to

antibiotics 24
1. Antibiotic resistance: retrospect and 1.16 Phage antibiotic synergies 25
1.17 Conclusion 26
prospect 1
References 26
Bilal Aslam, Moeed Ahmad, Muhammad Usama Tariq,
Saima Muzammil, Abu Baker Siddique, Mohsin Khurshid,
Aqsa Shahid, Muhammad Hidayat Rasool, 2. Antibiotics and antibiotic-resistant
Tamoor Hamid Chaudhry, Afreenish Amir, bacteria in the environment:
Muhammad Salman and Zulqarnain Baloch
sources and impacts 39
1.1 Introduction to antibiotics 1 Aqsa Shahid, Saima Muzammil, Bilal Aslam, Usman Ali Ashfaq,
1.1.1 Natural products as conventional Sumreen Hayat, Muhammad Bilal, Muhammad Shahid Riaz Rajoka,
Muhammad Atif Nisar and Mohsin Khurshid
antibiotics and their derivatives 2
1.2 Antibiotics timeline 3 2.1 Introduction 39
1.3 The emergence of resistance 5 2.2 Antibiotic consumption and occurrence of
1.4 Historical evidence of antibiotic-resistant antibiotics in the environment 40
genes 5 2.3 Antimicrobial resistance and
1.5 Global emerging threats 7 environment 43
1.6 Antimicrobial resistance in ESKAPE 2.4 Antimicrobial-resistant determinants in the
pathogens 7 environment 45
1.6.1 Resistant Staphylococcus aureus 8 2.5 Modes of antibiotic-resistant bacteria
1.6.2 Vancomycon-resistant enterococci 9 transmission 47
1.6.3 Klebsiella pneumoniae 9 2.5.1 Surface waters 48
1.6.4 Acinetobacter baumannii 10 2.5.2 Air 49
1.6.5 Pseudomonas areuginosa 11 2.5.3 Animal vectors 49
1.6.6 Enterobacter species 11 2.6 Effects of antibiotics residue on the
1.6.7 Escherichia coli 12 environment 52
1.6.8 Mycobacterium tuberculosis 12 2.6.1 Disruption of bacterial
1.7 One health and antibiotic resistance 13 communities 53
1.8 Living with superbugs 14 2.6.2 Antibiotic residue and human and
1.9 Future prospects 15 animal health 54
1.9.1 Antimicrobial resistance 2.7 Conclusions 56
associated with economic and References 56
health burdens 15
1.10 Next-generation antibiotics 16 3. Ecological distribution of environmental
1.11 RNA-based antibiotics 16 resistome and its challenges 67
1.12 CRISPR-Cas systems as alternative
Sejal Mahalle, Shishir Bobate, Shweta Srivastava,
therapeutics 19 Abhay Bajaj and Nishant A. Dafale
1.13 Hybrid antibiotics 20
1.14 Antimicrobial stewardship 22 3.1 Introduction 67

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3.2 Hospital effluent: a potential source for 4.6.2 Novel alternatives 105
environmental resistome 68 4.6.3 Government administration 107
3.3 Municipal sewage: a hub for environmental 4.6.4 Effective detection techniques 107
resistome growth 71 4.7 Conclusions 107
3.4 Distribution of antibiotic resistance across References 107
ecosystems 76
3.4.1 Antimicrobial resistance and terrestrial
ecosystem 76 5. Antibiotics, antibiotic-resistant
3.4.2 Antimicrobial resistance and aquatic bacteria, and the environment 117
ecosystem 79 Shailendra Yadav, Upasana Arora and Kamran Zaman
3.5 Development of environmental resistome:
role of veterinary farming and waste 81 5.1 Introduction 117
3.6 Conclusion 82 5.1.1 Antibiotics in environment 120
Acknowledgment 83 5.2 Sources of antibiotics and antibiotic-resistant
References 83 bacteria in the environment 123
5.2.1 Natural sources and antibiotic-resistant
gene dissemination in the
4. Current problems with the environment 123
antibiotic-resistant bacteria and 5.2.2 Anthropogenic antibiotic sources,
antibiotic-resistant genes, and
multiresistance bacteria 89
antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the
Xiumin Wang and Ting Li
environment 125
5.3 Mechanism of resistance 131
4.1 Introduction 89
5.3.1 Antibiotic-resistant bacteria in
4.2 Antibiotic-resistant bacteria 90
environment 132
4.2.1 Enterococci 90
5.4 Future perspectives 133
4.2.2 S. aureus 91
References 134
4.2.3 K. pneumoniae 91
4.2.4 A. baumannii 92
4.2.5 P. aeruginosa 92
4.2.6 Enterobacteriaceae 92
6. Antibiotics as contaminants of
4.3 Antibiotic resistance phenotypes and aquatic ecosystems: antibiotic-resistant
transfer mechanisms in bacteria 93 genes and antibiotic-resistant
4.3.1 Intrinsic resistance 93 bacteria 143
4.3.2 Acquired antibiotic Ignacio Alejandro Pérez-Legaspi and Roberto Rico-Martı́nez
resistance 94
4.4 Influences of antibiotic resistance 98 6.1 Introduction 143
4.4.1 Global health 98 6.2 Sources 144
4.4.2 Food security 99 6.2.1 Hospitals 145
4.4.3 Economic burden 100 6.2.2 Waste water treatment plants 145
4.5 Detection methods of bacterial 6.2.3 Livestock 146
antibiotic-resistant genes 100 6.2.4 Aquaculture 147
4.5.1 Different PCR assays 101 6.3 Antibiotic-resistant bacterias and
4.5.2 Southern hybridization 103 antibiotic-resistant genes 149
4.5.3 Microarray 103 6.4 Distribution and adverse effects of
4.5.4 Metagenomic sequencing 104 antibiotics, antibiotic-resistant genes and
4.6 Strategies in the battle against antibiotic antibiotic-resistant bacterias in aquatic
resistance of bacteria 105 ecosystems 150
4.6.1 Appropriate application 105 6.5 Aquatic ecosystems 150
 Contents
6.6 Effects 154
6.7 Prospective and future research 155
References 156
7. Antibiotics in wastewater: perspective
of biological treatment processes 159
Purusottam Tripathy, Om Prakash, Abhishek Sharma,
Deepak Panchal and Sukdeb Pal
7.1 Introduction 159
7.2 Background 161
7.2.1 Antibiotics classification 161
7.2.2 Occurrence in the environment 161
7.2.3 Sources and pathways of antibiotics in
the environment 162
7.2.4 Detection of antibiotics 164
7.3 Factors and processes influencing antibiotic
removal 164
7.3.1 Retransformation procedures 164
7.3.2 Solid retention time 165
7.4 Estimation and prediction of antibiotic
removal 166
7.4.1 Waste streams dynamics 166
7.4.2 Laboratory-scale estimation of process
parameters 166
7.5 Remediation methods 167
7.5.1 Anerobic treatment 168
7.5.2 Aerobic treatment 169
7.5.3 Integrated anaerobic aerobic treatment
process 170
7.6 Conclusion 172
Acknowledgment 173
References 173
8. Antibiotic pollution and antibiotic-
resistant bacteria in water bodies 179
Nalini Singh Chauhan and Abhay Punia
8.1 Antibiotics and antibiotic resistance 179
8.1.1 Antibiotics 179
8.1.2 Antibiotic resistance 181
8.2 Antibiotic pollution 181
8.2.1 Impacts on humans 182
8.3 Antibiotic resistance in bacteria 184
8.3.1 Antibiotic resistance in aquaculture and
agriculture 185
8.3.2 Antibiotic resistance in aquatic
bacteria 186
vii
8.4 Impact of antibiotic-resistant bacteria on
microbial diversity and ecosystems
functions 190
8.5 Transmission of antibiotic resistance in
aquatic environment 190
8.5.1 Vectors of antibiotic-resistant gene
transmission 192
8.6 Mitigating the problem 192
8.7 Conclusion 194
References 194
9. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria in
natural water bodies: causes, routes, and
remedies 203
Ifeoluwa Funmilola Omotade, Kayode Hassan Lasisi,
Fidelis Odedishemi Ajibade, Temitope Fausat Ajibade,
Bashir Adelodun, Pankaj Kumar, Nathaniel Azibuike Nwogwu,
Israel Adedayo Adeoye, Olawale Olugbenga Olanrewaju and
James Rotimi Adewumi
9.1 Background 203
9.2 Bacteria 204
9.2.1 Essence and effect of bacteria 205
9.2.2 Control of bacteria 205
9.3 Antibiotics, antibiotic resistance and
antibiotic-resistant bacteria 205
9.3.1 The concept and classification of
antibiotics 205
9.3.2 Sources and route of antibiotics 206
9.3.3 Interrelationship of antibiotics and
bacteria 207
9.3.4 Common existing antibiotic
groups 208
9.3.5 The concept of antibiotic
resistance and antibiotic-resistant
bacteria 211
9.3.6 Causes of antibiotic resistance and
antibiotic-resistant bacteria 212
9.4 Antibiotic-resistant bacteria and natural water
bodies 214
9.4.1 Forms of natural water bodies in the
ecosystem 214
9.4.2 Antibiotic-resistant bacteria in natural
water bodies 214
9.5 Combating and curbing the impacts of AR and
ARBs in natural water bodies: a sustainable
approach to water security 218
9.6 Conclusion 219
References 220
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10. Impact of antibiotics on agricultural 11.2.3 Mechanisms of antibiotic resistance in

microbiome: emergence of antibiotic bacteria 253
11.3 Human health impacts of antibiotics in
resistance bacteria 231
agriculture 255
Pallavi Agarwal, Neha Singh and Alvina Farooqui
11.3.1 Linking antibiotic-resistant bacteria to
human health 255
10.1 Introduction 231
11.3.2 Addressing risk factors 259
10.1.1 Fate of antibiotics in soil
11.3.3 The impact of banning antibiotic use
environment 234
in agriculture 261
10.1.2 Soil factors affecting antibiotics
11.4 Alternative strategies to limit antibiotic-
degradation in the
resistant bacteria in agriculture
environment 234
microbiology 261
10.1.3 Soil type 234
11.4.1 Developing comprehensive
10.1.4 Temperature 235
surveillance to better understand
10.1.5 Oxygen content 235
antibiotic-resistant bacteria 261
10.1.6 Ionization/pH 236
11.4.2 Detection and analysis 263
10.1.7 Antibiotics concentration in soil 236
11.4.3 Regulation and policies 263
10.1.8 Soil microorganisms 237
11.4.4 Development of novel
10.1.9 Physiochemical properties of
antibiotics 264
antibiotics affecting its degradation
11.5 Outlook and future directions 265
in soil 237
References 266
10.1.10 Impact of antibiotics on terrestrial
and aquatic flora and fauna 237
10.1.11 Effect of antibiotics on soil microbial 12. Recent advances in the degradation
community 238 and deactivation of antibiotic-resistant
10.1.12 Phylogenetic analyses 239
10.2 Effect of antibiotics on microbial
bacteria and antibiotic-resistant genes
processes 240 during wastewater treatment 275
10.2.1 Enzyme activities 241 Shradhanjali Sethi, Ankita Bharshankh, Rohan Gupta,
10.3 Diversity of antimicrobial resistance Bijaylaxmi Sahoo and Rima Biswas
genes 241
12.1 Introduction 275
10.3.1 Strategies for prevention of the spread
12.2 Wastewater treatment plants—hot-spots of
of antibiotic resistance 242
antibiotic-resistant bacteria and
10.4 Conclusion 242
antibiotic-resistant gene 276
References 243
12.3 Antibiotic-resistant gene removal in
wastewater treatment plants 277
11. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria and 12.3.1 The primary wastewater treatment
antibiotic-resistant genes in agriculture: technologies 279
a rising alarm for future 247 12.3.2 The secondary wastewater treatment
Stephen Browne, Sparsh Bhatia, Niloy Sarkar and Mahima Kaushik technologies 279
12.3.3 The natural treatment systems 281
11.1 Introduction 247 12.3.4 Tertiary wastewater treatment
11.2 Antibiotic use in agriculture and the rise of technologies 282
antibiotic resistance 249 12.4 Advanced oxidation processes 283
11.2.1 Plant agriculture, animal husbandry, 12.4.1 Fenton and Fenton-like
and aquaculture 249 processes 284
11.2.2 Antibiotic resistance during 12.4.2 Ultraviolet-hydrogen peroxide 286
wastewater reuse and soil 12.4.3 Ultrasonic oxidation/cavitation 286
application 252 12.4.4 Ozonation 287
 Contents ix
12.4.5 Photocatalysis 287 14.3 Mechanism of catalytic ozonation 319
12.4.6 Sulfate radical-based advanced 14.3.1 Heterogeouns catalytic
oxidation process 288 ozonation 319
12.5 Challenges in the removal of AMRs and 14.3.2 Metal oxide 320
ARGs in WWTPs and future 14.3.3 Carbon-based materials 324
perspectives 288 14.4 Photocatalytic ozonation 325
Acknowledgment 289 14.4.1 Mechanism 325
References 289 14.4.2 Degradation of antibiotics by
photocatalytic ozonation 328
14.5 Economic aspects of photocatalytic
13. Aerobic and anaerobic methods for the ozonation 332
degradations of antibiotic-resistant genes 14.6 Degradation pathway 333
and antibiotic-resistant bacteria from 14.7 Toxicity reduction of antibiotics 334
waste streams 297 14.8 Concluding remarks and future studies 334
Roberto Rico-Martı́nez, Jesús Alvarado-Flores, Acknowledgement 335
Gustavo Emilio Santos-Medrano and Daniel Robles-Vargas References 335

13.1 Water and treatment plants 297

13.2 What are antibiotic-resistant gene and 15. Advanced oxidation processes in the
antibiotic-resistant bacteria mitigation of antibiotic-resistant genes in
contaminants? 300 effluents 341
13.2.1 Antibiotic-resistant bacteria and Nadia Andrade Aleixo, Anderson Schmeing,
antibiotic-resistant genes 301 Ailton Barbosa Perdão, Jéssica Demitrol Silva,
13.3 Degradation of antibiotic-resistant bacteria Eduardo Lucas Subtil, Rodrigo Bueno and
Lúcia Helena Gomes Coelho
and antibiotic-resistant genes 302
13.4 Anaerobic methods for the degradation of
15.1 Introduction 341
antibiotic-resistant genes and antibiotic-
15.2 Effluent treatment 344
resistant bacteria from waste streams 303
15.2.1 Preliminary treatment 345
13.5 Mechanisms for degradation of
15.2.2 Primary treatment 346
antibiotics 307
15.2.3 Secondary treatment 346
13.6 Mechanisms for lysis, removal and degradation
15.2.4 Tertiary treatment 347
of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and antibiotic-
15.3 Antibiotic-resistant genes in effluents 347
resistant genes 308
15.4 Advanced oxidation processes 350
13.7 Prospective and future research 310
15.4.1 Ozonation 350
References 310
15.4.2 Hydrogen peroxide 354
Further reading 315
15.4.3 Fenton reaction 356
15.4.4 Photocatalysis 357
14. Degradation of antibiotics in 15.5 Supplementary information 358
wastewater using ozonation-based hybrid 15.6 Final consideration and conclusions 359
References 362
advanced oxidation processes: economic
aspect, degradation pathway and toxicity
reduction 317 16. Advance oxidation processes for
Mohamed Hussein Abdurahman, Noor Fazliani Shopware,
remediation of antibiotics from
Oh Wen Da and Ahmad Zuhairi Abdullah wastewater 369
Om Prakash, Purusottam Tripathy, Deepak Panchal,
14.1 Introduction 317 Abhishek Sharma and Sukdeb Pal
14.2 Occurrence of antibiotics in wastewater
treatment plants 319 16.1 Introduction 369
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16.2 Treatment technologies for degradation of 17.2 Morphologies of graphene-based

antibiotics 370 materials 391
16.2.1 Advanced oxidation techniques 375 17.3 Functionalization of graphene-based
16.2.2 Adsorption 382 nanocomposites 393
16.2.3 Membrane techniques 383 17.4 Graphene-based material
16.3 Conclusion 383 characterization 394
Acknowledgments 384 17.5 The catalytic activity of graphene-based
References 384 materials 395
17.6 Statistical analysis 404
17. Photocatalytic degradations of 17.7 Conclusions and outlook 406
antibiotics using graphene-based References 406
nanocomposites 389
C. Shobha Devi, Rajeshwar Rao Aerva and Penumaka Nagababu Index 411
17.1 Introduction 389