18

8 (a) (i) Show that the momentum p of a photon of electromagnetic radiation with wavelength λ is
given by
h
p=
λ
where h is the Planck constant.

[2]

(ii) Use the expression in (a)(i) to show that a photon in free space that has a momentum of
9.5 × 10–28 N s is a photon of red light.

[1]

(b) A beam of red light of intensity 160 W m–2 is incident normally on a plane mirror, as shown in
Fig. 8.1. The momentum of each photon in the beam is 9.5 × 10–28 N s.

plane mirror

beam of red light,

intensity 160 W m–2

Fig. 8.1

All of the light is reflected by the mirror in the opposite direction to its original path.
The cross-sectional area of the beam is 2.5 × 10–6 m2.
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(i) Show that the number of photons incident on the mirror per unit time is 1.4 × 1015 s–1.

[2]

(ii) Use the information in (b)(i) to determine the pressure exerted by the light beam on the
mirror.

pressure = .................................................... Pa [3]

(c) The beam of red light in (b) is now replaced with a beam of blue light of the same intensity.

Suggest and explain whether the pressure exerted on the mirror by the beam of blue light is
less than, the same as, or greater than the pressure exerted by the beam of red light.

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................. [2]

[Total: 10]
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9 (a) State what is meant by nuclear fusion.

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................. [2]

(b) On Fig. 9.1, sketch the variation of binding energy per nucleon with nucleon number A for
values of A between 1 and 250.

binding energy
per nucleon

0
1 250
A

Fig. 9.1
[2]

(c) On your line in Fig. 9.1, label:

(i) a point X that could represent a nucleus that undergoes alpha-decay [1]

(ii) a point Y that could represent a nucleus that undergoes nuclear fusion. [1]

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(d) A nucleus Z undergoes nuclear fission to form strontium-93 ( 93 139

38Sr) and xenon-139 ( 54Xe)
according to

1n + Z 93Sr + 139Xe + 210n.

0 38 54

Table 9.1 shows the binding energies of the strontium-93 and xenon-139 nuclei.

Table 9.1

nucleus binding energy / J

93Sr 1.25 × 10–10
38
139Xe 1.81 × 10–10
54

The fission of 1.00 mol of Z releases 1.77 × 1013 J of energy.

Determine the binding energy per nucleon, in MeV, of Z.

binding energy per nucleon = ................................................. MeV [4]

[Total: 10]

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8 (a) State what is meant by a photon.

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................. [2]

(b) When the surface of a metal plate is illuminated with electromagnetic radiation, electrons are
sometimes emitted from the metal.

(i) State the name of this phenomenon.

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) It is observed that this phenomenon occurs only when the frequency of the
electromagnetic radiation is greater than a certain minimum value, regardless of the
intensity of the radiation.

Explain how this observation provides evidence for the existence of photons.

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [3]

(c) Fig. 8.1 shows the variation of the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons in (b) with
the frequency of the incident radiation.

maximum
kinetic energy

0
0 frequency

Fig. 8.1
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State the name of the quantity represented by:

(i) the gradient of the line in Fig. 8.1

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) the y-intercept of the extrapolated line in Fig. 8.1.

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

[Total: 8]

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9 Fluorine-18 (189F) is a radioactive nuclide that is used as a tracer in positron emission tomography
(PET scanning). Fluorine-18 decays to a nuclide of oxygen (O) according to

PX +
18 Q R
9F 8 O.

(a) (i) State what is meant by a tracer.

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) State the symbol of the particle that is represented by X and the values of P, Q and R.

X: ....................................................... P: .......................................................

Q: ....................................................... R: .......................................................
[2]

(b) (i) Explain how the radioactive decay of fluorine-18 results in the emission from the body of
the gamma-ray photons that are detected during a PET scan.

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [2]

(ii) Explain how the detection of the gamma-ray photons is used to produce an image of the
tissue being examined.

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [2]

(c) The half-life of fluorine-18 is T.

A patient is injected with amount of substance n of fluorine-18.

(i) Determine an expression for the initial value R0 of the rate R of production of gamma-ray
photons by the tracer, in terms of n, T and the Avogadro constant NA.
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(ii) On Fig. 9.1, sketch the variation with time t of R.

R0

0
0 T
t

Fig. 9.1
[2]

[Total: 12]

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7 (a) State what is meant by the de Broglie wavelength.

...................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................. [1]

(b) Fig. 7.1 shows a glass tube in which electrons are accelerated through a high p.d. to form a
beam that is incident on a thin graphite crystal.

vacuum
graphite crystal

filament fluorescent
cathode anode screen

electron beam

– + collimator
glass tube
high p.d.

(not to scale)
Fig. 7.1 (not to scale)

After passing through the graphite crystal, the electrons reach the fluorescent screen. The
screen glows where the electrons strike it.

Fig. 7.2 shows the fluorescent screen viewed end-on, from the right-hand side of Fig. 7.1.

Fig. 7.2
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(i) State the name of the phenomenon demonstrated by the pattern shown in Fig. 7.2.

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) Explain what can be concluded from the pattern in Fig. 7.2 about the nature of electrons.

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [2]

(c) The electrons in (b) are now accelerated through a greater potential difference between the
cathode and the anode.

(i) On Fig. 7.3, sketch the pattern that is now seen on the fluorescent screen in Fig. 7.1.

Fig. 7.3
[2]

(ii) Explain, with reference to de Broglie wavelength, the change in the pattern on the
fluorescent screen.

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [3]

[Total: 9]
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9 Carbon-11 is radioactive and decays by β+ emission to form boron-11. Carbon-11 has a half-life of
20 minutes. Boron-11 is stable.

(a) Define half-life.

...................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................. [1]

(b) A sample contains N0 nuclei of carbon-11 and no other nuclei at time t = 0.

On Fig. 9.1, sketch the variation with t of the number of nuclei of boron-11 in the sample.

1.0 N0

number of nuclei

0.5 N0

0
0 20 40 60 80
t / min

Fig. 9.1
[3]

(c) (i) Explain, with reference to the random nature of radioactive decay, why the activity of the
carbon-11 sample in (b) decreases with time.

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [2]

(ii) State, with reasons, whether a radiation detector placed near to the sample of carbon-11
indicates a measured count rate from the sample that is less than, the same as or greater
than the activity of the sample.

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [3]

[Total: 9]
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8 Fig. 8.1 shows the lowest four energy levels of an electron in an isolated atom.

n=4
n=3

n=2

increasing
energy

n=1

Fig. 8.1

Fig. 8.2 shows the lines in the emission spectrum of the atom that correspond to the transitions of
the electron from n = 3 to n = 1 and from n = 4 to n = 1.

increasing frequency

Fig. 8.2

(a) Explain, with reference to photons, why there is a single frequency of electromagnetic
radiation that corresponds to each of these transitions.

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................. [2]

(b) (i) On Fig. 8.2, draw a line that corresponds to the transition of the electron from n = 2 to n = 1.
Label this line A. [2]

(ii) On Fig. 8.2, draw a line that corresponds to the transition of the electron from n = 3 to n = 2.
Label this line B. [2]
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(c) The frequency of radiation represented by line A is fA.

The frequency of radiation represented by line B is fB.
The energy of the ground state (n = 1) is E1.

Determine an expression, in terms of fA, fB, E1 and the Planck constant h, for the energy E3 of
the energy level n = 3.

E3 = ......................................................... [2]

[Total: 8]

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9 (a) Define mass defect.

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................. [2]

(b) Table 9.1 shows the mass defects of three nuclei.

Table 9.1

nucleus mass defect / u

2 0.002 388
1H

3
1H
0.009 105

4
2He
0.030 377

The nuclear fusion process in a particular star is described by

2 3 4
1H + 1H 2He + X

where X is a particle that has no mass defect.

(i) State the name of particle X.

..................................................................................................................................... [1]
4
(ii) Show that the energy released when one nucleus of 2He is formed in this fusion reaction
is 2.8 × 10–12 J.

[3]
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7 (a) A beam of white light passes through a cloud of cool gas. The spectrum of the transmitted
light is viewed and contains a number of dark lines.

Explain why these dark lines occur.

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................. [4]

(b) Some energy levels for the electron in an isolated hydrogen atom are illustrated in Fig. 7.1.

n=6
n=5
n=4

n=3
energy

n=2

Fig. 7.1

Table 7.1 shows the wavelengths of photons that are emitted in the transitions to n = 2 from
the other energy levels shown in Fig. 7.1.

Table 7.1

wavelength / nm
412
435
488
658

The energy associated with the energy level n = 2 is – 3.40 eV.

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Calculate the energy, in J, of energy level n = 3.

energy = ...................................................... J [3]

[Total: 7]

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8 Plutonium-238 (238
94Pu) is unstable and undergoes alpha decay.

(a) Complete the equation to show the decay of plutonium-238.

238Pu ........ ........

94 U + α
........ ........
[2]

(b) The power source in a space probe contains 0.874 kg of plutonium-238. Each nucleus of
plutonium-238 that decays emits 5.59 MeV of energy. The half-life of plutonium-238 is
87.7 years.

(i) Calculate the initial number No of nuclei of plutonium-238 in the power source.

No = ......................................................... [1]

(ii) Determine the initial activity of the source. Give a unit with your answer.

activity = .................................. unit .................. [2]

(iii) Use your answer in (b)(ii) to determine the initial power output from the source due to
the decay of plutonium-238.

power output = ..................................................... W [2]

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(iv) The space probe will continue to function until the power output from the plutonium in the
source decreases to 65.3% of its initial value.

Calculate the time, in years, for which the space probe will function.

time = ............................................... years [2]

(c) An alternative power source uses energy generated from the radioactive decay of
polonium-210. This isotope has a half-life of 0.378 years. The mass of the isotope needed for
the same initial power output as in (b) is 3.37 g.

Suggest one advantage and one disadvantage of using polonium-210 as the source of
energy.

advantage .................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

disadvantage ............................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................
[2]

[Total: 11]

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8 (a) State what is meant by the work function energy of a metal.

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................. [2]

(b) Ultraviolet radiation of frequency 1.36 × 1015 Hz is incident, in a vacuum, on a metal surface.
The power of the radiation incident on the surface is 8.36 mW. Photoelectrons are emitted
with a maximum kinetic energy of 3.09 × 10–19 J.

(i) Determine the number of photons incident on the surface per unit time.

number per unit time = ................................................... s–1 [2]

(ii) Calculate the work function energy Φ of the metal.

Φ = ...................................................... J [2]

(c) The frequency of the radiation incident on the surface in (b) is increased while the power
remains constant.

State and explain the effect of this change on:

(i) the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [2]

(ii) the rate of emission of photoelectrons.

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................
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10 Carbon-15 (156C) is an isotope of carbon that undergoes radioactive decay to nitrogen-15 (157 N),
which is a stable isotope of nitrogen.

Radioactive decay is both a random and a spontaneous process.

(a) State what is meant by:

(i) random

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) spontaneous.

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(b) A small sample of carbon-15 decays. The mass M of carbon-15 in the sample decreases with
time t.

Fig. 10.1 shows the variation with t of the value of ln (M / 10–16 g).

–4
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
t/s

–5

In (M / 10–16 g)

–6

–7

–8

Fig. 10.1

(i) State how Fig. 10.1 demonstrates that radioactive decay is random.

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [1]
m

(ii) On Fig. 10.1, draw the straight line of best fit. [1]
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9 (a) Fig. 9.1 shows the visible part of the emission spectrum from hydrogen gas in a laboratory on
the Earth. The numbers indicate the wavelength, in nm, represented by each line.

411 435 488 658

Fig. 9.1

(i) Explain how the emission spectrum provides evidence for the existence of discrete
energy levels for the electron in a hydrogen atom.

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [3]

(ii) Fig. 9.2 shows five of the energy levels in the hydrogen atom. The wavelengths of
radiation shown in Fig. 9.1 relate to transitions to the – 3.400 eV level in Fig. 9.2.

– 0.378 eV
– 0.544 eV

– 0.850 eV

energy
X

– 3.400 eV

Fig. 9.2 (not to scale)

Show that the energy level X is –1.51 eV.

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(b) The same part of the emission spectrum from hydrogen as in (a), observed in light from stars
in a distant galaxy, is shown in Fig. 9.3. The numbers indicate the wavelengths in nm.

429 454 509 686

Fig. 9.3

The spectrum shows the same pattern as Fig. 9.1 but with different wavelengths.

(i) State the name of the phenomenon that gives rise to the change in the wavelengths.

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) State what this phenomenon shows about the motion of the galaxy.

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(iii) Use one of the lines in Fig. 9.1, and the corresponding line in Fig. 9.3, to determine the
speed of the distant galaxy relative to the observer.

speed = ................................................ m s–1 [3]

(c) The galaxy in (b) is known to be a distance of 5.7 × 1024 m from the Earth.

Use your answer in (b)(iii) to determine a value for the Hubble constant H0.

H0 = ................................................... s–1 [2]

[Total: 13]
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8 (a) State one piece of experimental evidence for:

(i) the particulate nature of electromagnetic radiation

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) the wave nature of matter.

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(b) (i) Calculate the de Broglie wavelength λ of an alpha-particle moving at a speed of

6.2 × 107 m s–1.

λ = ..................................................... m [3]

(ii) The speed v of the alpha-particle in (b)(i) is gradually reduced to zero.

On Fig. 8.1, sketch the variation with v of λ.

0
0 6.2 v / 107 m s–1

Fig. 8.1
[2]

(c) Suggest an explanation for why people are not observed to diffract when they walk through a
doorway.

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................. [1]

[Total: 8]
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10 (a) State what is meant by radioactive decay.

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................. [2]

(b) A radioactive sample consists of an isotope X of half-life T that decays to form a stable
product. Only X and the stable product are present in the sample.

At time t = 0, the sample has an activity of A0 and contains N0 nuclei of X.

(i) On Fig. 10.1, sketch the variation with t of the number N of nuclei of X present in the
sample. Your line should extend from time t = 0 to time t = 3T.

1.00N0

0.75N0

0.50N0

0.25N0

0
0 T 2T 3T
t

Fig. 10.1
[3]
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(ii) On Fig. 10.2, sketch the variation with N of the activity A of the sample for values of N
between N = 0 and N = N0.

1.0A0

0.5A0

0
0 0.5N0 1.0N0
N

Fig. 10.2
[2]

(c) State the name of the quantity represented by the gradient of your line in:

(i) Fig. 10.1

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) Fig. 10.2.

..................................................................................................................................... [1]
N
(d) For the sample in (b), calculate the fraction N at time t = 1.70T.
0

N
N0 = ......................................................... [2]
[Total: 11]
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