TAMIL NADU AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

From To
Dr.A.Subramanian, Ph.D., The Dean (Agriculture)
Professor and Head Tamil Nadu Agrl. University
Department of Sericulture Coimbatore-3.
Tamil Nadu Agrl. University
Coimbatore -3.

No.CPPS/Seri./F1/UG Edn./Lect. notes/2003 dt.20.10.2003

Sir,

Sub : CPPS-Sericulture-SER 401-Sericulture Technology (1+1)-class

notes-hosting in websites-reg.

Ref : Lr.No.Dean (Agri.)/Edn./EC/UG education/S1/2003 dt.17.10.2003.

Adverting to the reference cited above, I submit to inform that the

class notes (six lectures along with course schedule and syllabus) pertaining to the

UG course SER 401 Sericulture Technology (1+1) of this department handled by

Dr.S.Douressamy, Assistant Professor (Agrl.Entomology) were hosted in the

website.

Professor and Head

Dept. of Sericulture
 TAMIL NADU AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
CENTRE FOR PLANT PROTECTION STUDIES
DEPARTMENT OF SERICULTURE

IV B.Sc (ag) Eighth Semester (2002 - 03)

SER 401 SERICULTURE TECHNOLOGY (1+1)

Course Teacher : Dr. S. Douressamy , Assitant Professor (Agrl. Entomology)
Course Associates : Dr. M. Muthuswami and Dr. R .Krishnan

SYLLABUS

THEORY

Importance and history of sericulture – organisations involved in sericulture –

silkworm types – Mulberry cultivation - varieties and management practices –– pruning
and harvesting – Pests, diseases and nematodes of mulberry and their management.

Mulberry silkworm – origin – classification based on voltinism, moultinism,

geographical distribution and genetic nature – Pure races – multivoltine and bivoltine
races – cross breeds – bivoltine hybrids – Morphology and biology of silkworm – mouth
parts of larva – silkworm genetics – chromosome number in wild and domesticated
species – sex limited characters – Anatomy and physiology of digestive and excretory
systems of larva – structure and function of silk glands.

Rearing house – types – disinfection – room and bed disinfectants – Egg

incubation methods – Chawki rearing – feeding, cleaning and spacing – Rearing of late
age worms – feeding, cleaning, spacing and moulting care different stages – spinning –
Mountages – harvesting - Pests and diseases of silkworm and their management – Post
cocoon technology - stifling to weaving – Non-mulberry silkworms - Eri, Tasar and
Muga silkworms.
PRACTICAL

Morphology of mulberry plants – Identification of popular mulberry genotypes –

Nursery bed and main field preparation - planting methods – Identification of nutrient
deficiency symptoms – Identification of weeds – herbicide application method – pruning
and harvesting methods – Identification of pests, diseases and nematodes of mulberry.

Morphology of silkworm – Identification of races – Dissection of mouth parts and

silk glands – Disinfection techniques – rearing facilities - silkworm rearing – feeding,
cleaning and spacing – Identification of pests and diseases of silkworm –
hyperparasitoids and mass multiplication techniques – Visit to grainage, cocoon market,
sericulture farms and silk reeling centre – Non-mulberry silkworms – Eri and Tasar
silkworms – food plants – rearing methods.

LECTURE SCHEDULE

THEORY

1. Importance of sericulture – History of sericulture – silk road – Organizations in

sericulture industry – Types of silkworm – Mulberry – origin – species – Morphology
of mulberry plant – shoot system – importance of different morphological characters
influencing leaf yield.

2. Ecological requirements for mulberry cultivation – soil type – mulberry varieties –

Methods of propagation – merits and demerits – selection of semi hard wood cuttings
– Nursery preparation – Main field preparation – methods of planting – pit, row,
paired row and Kolar system of planting – merits and demerits.

3. Nutritional requirements – organic, inorganic and biofertilizers – Intercropping –

Water management – Types of weeds and their management

4. Pruning methods – bottom, middle, Kolar or strip system of pruning – Methods of

harvesting – preservation of leaves
5. Pests of mulberry – foliage feeders – sucking insects – subterranean insects –
management of pests.

6. Diseases of mulberry – foliar diseases – soil borne pathogens – Nematodes -

management of diseases and nematodes

7. Mulberry silkworm – origin – classification based on voltinism, moultinism,

geographical distribution and genetic nature – Characters of multivoltine races,
bivoltine races, cross breeds and bivoltine hybrids – suitability for rearing in different
seasons

8. Morphology and biology of silkworm – sexual dimorphism in immature and adult

stages – silkworm genetics – chromosome number – sex limited characters in egg and
larva

9. Mid-Semester Examination

10. Anatomy of digestive system – physiology of digestion and excretion – silk glands –
silk synthesis – physico chemical properties of silk.

11. Rearing house – types - Hygienic rearing – Methods of disinfection – disinfectants ––

– Egg transportation and incubation methods – black boxing

12. Environmental requirements for different stages of silkworm - Chawki rearing –

brushing – spacing – feeding – cleaning – Selection of leaf for feeding – care
during feeding, moulting, mounting and bed cleaning.

13. Rearing of late age worms – different methods – floor, shelf and shoot feeding –
cleaning – spacing – moulting – Different mountages – merits and demerits –
spinning – harvesting.

14. Pests of silkworm – uzifly – dermestid beetle – management practices

15. Diseases of silkworm – pebrine – flacherie - grasserie – muscardine – life cycle,

pathological symptoms and management practices
16. Post cocoon technology – selection of cocoons – Methods of stifling – cooking for
different races – Reeling devices – charka – cottage basin – multi end reeling machine
– advantages – re reeling – twisting - degumming – dyeing – weaving – By product
utilization.

17. Non mulberry silkworms – Eri, Tasar and Muga Silkworms – food plants –
rearing methods.

PRACTICAL

1. Morphology of mulberry plant – description – leaf – types – distinguishing

characters of promising mulberry genotypes

2. Nursery bed preparation – care in selection of planting materials – Biofertilizer

treatment in nursery – main field preparation – methods of planting

3. Identification of nutrient deficiency symptoms – corrective measures – Identification

of weeds – Herbicide application method

4. Pruning methods – leaf harvest based on the larval instar stage - preservation of
leaves

5. Identification of different stages of pests of mulberry

6. Identification of symptoms of diseases and nematodes of mulberry

7. Morphology of silkworm – different stages – Identification of races by cocoon shape,

colour and larval markings – Dissection of mouth parts and silk glands

8. Rearing house and appliances - Methods of disinfection

9. Incubation of eggs – methods – acid treatment of eggs – Chawki rearing – brushing –

feeding
10. Silkworm rearing – shelf and shoot rearing – skill involved in brushing – moulting
care – bed cleaning – spacing – feeding – spinning and cocoon harvest

11. Identification of pests and diseases of silkworm – Mass multiplication of

hyperparasitoid

12. Visit to grainage and cocoon market – observing the activities involved in selection
of parent races – pairing – depairing – egg collection – cold storage – mother moth
testing – fixing up of cocoon price – auction procedures

13. Visit to silk reeling centre – observing various processes – stifling – cooking –reeling
– rereeling – winding – rewinding – bleaching – dyeing – weaving – silk grades -
Working out economics of raw silk production – Byproducts from reeling units

14. Eri silkworm – morphology – food plants – methods of rearing – methods of

spinning – methods of collection of cocoons – Tasar silkworm - morphology – food
plants – early and late instar rearing

15. Economics of silkworm rearing

16. Visit to sericulture farms – Interaction with sericulturists

17. Final Practical Examination

Assignment : Rearing of 50 larvae of cross breed silkworm from larva to cocoon

by each student.

REFERENCES

Aruga, H. 1994. Principles of Sericulture. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi, 376 p.
David, B.V. and T.Kumaraswami. 1988. Elements of Economic Entomology, 4th
Edition. Popular Book Depot, Madras, 536 p.
Jolly, M.S. 1987. Appropriate Sericulture Techniques. Central Sericultural Research
and Training Institute, Mysore, 176 p.
Jolly, M.S., S.K. Sen, T.N. Sonwalker and G.K.Prasad. 1981. Non-mulberry Silks.
FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin 29. Food and Agriculture
Organisation of the United Nations, Rome, 178 p.
Kim, B.H. 1978. Raw Silk Reeling. Associated Business Centre Ltd., Colombo, Sri
Lanka, 275 p.
Krishnaswami, S., M.N.Narasimhanna, S.K. Suryanarayan and S.Kumararaj. 1978.
Sericulture Manual 2 - Silkworm Rearing. FAO Agricultural Services
Bulletin 15/2. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
Rome, 131 p.
Rangaswami, G., M.N. Narasimhanna, K.Kasiviswanathan, C.R.Sastry and
M.S.Jolly.1978. Sericulture Manual 1- Mulberry Cultivation. FAO
Agricultural Services Bulletin 15/1. Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations, Rome, 150p.

Sarkar, D.C. 1988. Ericulture in India. Central Silk Board, Bangalore, 51p.
Ullal, S.R. and M.N. Narasimhanna. 1987. Hand book of Practical Sericulture.
Central Silk Board, Bangalore, 166 p.
 Lecture I

Sericulture Technology (1+1)

Sericulture
It is a multidisciplinary programme, which involve cultivation of food
plants like mulberry, silkworm rearing and silk reeling, weaving and marketing.

Importance of Sericulture
1) Sericulture is an agro based cottage industry with large labour involvement
and higher income generation potential.
2) India, the second largest silk producer next to china, has a unique position
in the world being the only country producing all the four commercial types
of natural silk viz., mulberry, tasar, eri and muga.
3) Sericulture involves low investment. Once the plantation is established it
will continue to yield for 10 to 12 years with minimum expenditure for
maintenance. Therefore maximum turnout can be obtained with minimum
investment.
4) It is highly suitable, as it is within the reach of small and marginal farmers.
5) All the sericultural activities are village based and hence prevents migration
of people from rural to urban areas in search of jobs.
6) Silk being an expensive commonly used mostly by the affluent society,
transfer of money from rich to poor is ensured.
7) Mulberry ensures higher income per unit area than that from a number of
agricultural crops. Sericulture gives income 5-6 times a year.
8) Sericulture technology is very simple. It can be followed even by illiterate
farmers.
9) Sericulture mostly requires use of simple appliances which are easily
available in rural areas.
 10) In drought conditions, when most of the agricultural crops do not revive
even after a few showers,
11) Mulberry being a perennial crop will sprout and yield leaves for rearing
silkworms.
12) Sericulture provides self-employment opportunities to the educated
unemployed youth in its varied sectors.

Economic importance
There is high export possibility creating trade surplus. Sericulture is a good
source for earning foreign exchange. The export earnings from fabric and
garments were in the order of about Rs.800 crores. Mulberry silk production
accounts for about 92% of total silk produced in India.

World mulberry raw silk production

2000
Country 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2002
(P)
China 64,613 59,000 52,700 49,430 55,990 57,432
India 12,884 12,954 14,048 14,260 13,944 14,432 18,000
Japan 3,240 2,580 1,920 1,108 650 557
Brazil 2,468 2,270 2,120 1,821 1,554 1,389
Koreahepbulic 946 506 272 210 178 165
Uzbekistan 1,320 2,500 2,000 1,500 923 1,100
Thailand 1,313 1,144 1,039 900 1,000 955
Vietnam 2,100 1,500 1,000 862 780 780
Others 2,967 2,766 2,117 1,544 1,272 1,272
Total 91,851 85,220 77,216 71,635 76,291 78,082

Source : ISA news letter September 2001

Figures of India is for financial year April to March.
 P-Provisional
The above table indicates the following
1) The raw silk production in China and India has increased several times.
2) Sericulture in China is mostly of temperate kind and it produces 70% of
bivoltine silk, whereas that of India is mostly tropical and it produces 90%
of multivoltine x bivoltine silk.

History of sericulture and silk Rod

Historical evidence shows that silk was discovered in China and that the
industry spread from there to other parts of the world.
The earliest authentic reference to silk is to be found in the chronicles of
Chou-King (2200 B.C) where silk figured prominently in public ceremonies as a
symbol of homage to the emperors.
The silk industry originated in the province of Chan-Tong and the secret
was jealously guarded by the Chinese for about 3,000 years. When commercial
relations were established between China and Persia, and later other countries, the
export of raw silk and silk goods assumed great importance. By the first century
B.C markets as far away as Southern Europe began to receive silk fabrics made in
the East.

Organizations in sericulture industry

Land marks

1943 : Central Sericultural Research Station, Berhampore established.

1949 : Central Silk Board (established)
1962 : Central Sericultural Research and Training Institute (CSR &TI),
Mysore.
1964 : Central Tasar Research Station
1972 : i) Regional Tasar Research Station on Temperate oak Tasar.
ii) Regional Research Station, Mirza
iii) Regional Research Station, Titabar.

1983 : Central Silk Technology Research Institute (CSTRI), Bangalore.

1990 : Dept. of Sericulture started in TNAU, CBE-3.

Mulberry
Mulberry forms the basic food material for silkworms and the bulk of the
silk goods produced in the world are from mulberry silkworms.
Morus is the Latin world for mulberry (French : muries, Italian : gelso,
Japanese : lewwa). Mulberry leaf protein is the source for the silkworm to bio-
synthesize the silk which is made up of two proteins, fibroin and sericin. Nearly
70% of the silk proteins produced by a silkworm is derived directly from the
proteins of the mulberry leaves.

Origin
Mulberry is believed to be a native either of India or China and it is
believed to have originated on the lower slopes of Himalayas.

Distribution
A global survey of sericulture industry reveals that there are about atleast
29 countries where mulberry is cultivated they are (1) Japan (2) China, the Repulic
of Korea, the USSR, India, Brazil, Italy, France, Spain, Greece, Yugoslavia,
Turkey , Srilanka, Hungargy etc.

Morphology of mulberry plant

Trees or shrubs, leaves alternate, entire toothed or three lobed, base three to
five nerved, stipules small. Flowers mono or dioecious, spikate. Male flowers
sepals four imbricate. Stamens four, inflexed in bucl – Pistil lode tubinate. Female
flower sepals four, ducussate, fruit. Ovary included straight one celled, style
central, two partite of two fid : Seed subglobose.

Plant habitat
The plant is a perennial one, grown as bush, tree or middling. Profuse
branching is preferred as the production of leaves will be more.

Plant height
In the multivoltine areas like Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, the plants are
grown as bushes by pruning the plants once a year of after every crop. This
method facilitates easy for the harvesting of leaf.

Stem
Mulberry plants show a number of stem colours depending upon their
species, climate and origin.

Bud
In mulberry, generally one bud is found in the axil of a leaf. Sometimes
two or more independent buds on either side of the main bud are also found. There
are called accessory buds. Buds are protected by the covering of young leaves
which are, in turn, covered by older and oldest leaves. The growing point emerges
as a shoot under favourable climatic conditions.

Leaves
The size of mulberry leaf varies in different species and varieties. Varieties
like V1, DD are characterized by large leaves and varieties like Mysore local bear
only small leaves. The leaf size is an important character taken into consideration
in selecting high yielding varieties. The leaves are simple, alternate and stipulate.
The thickness of the leaf is about 100 – 200µ. The shape of he leaf is generally
ovate or ovate – cordate as in the case of Morus indica, M.serata and M.laevigata.
The shape of the leaf is decided by the main, side and bottom veins. The base of
the leaf may be curved ie cordate or strainght and truncate or ordinary. The leaf tip
is generally of four types viz., acute, double acute, acuminate and long acuminate.

Inflorescence
The inflorescence of mulberry is a CATKIN. With its characteristic pendent
or drooping peduncle, bearing unisexual flowers. The plants are generally
dioecious and monoecious are not uncommon.

Flower
The flowers of mulberry are small, usually sessile or infrequently shortly
pedicillate, regular and unisexual.

Seed
Mulberry seed is oval in shape with a nearly flat surface at the micropylar
region.
 Lecture – 2
Mulberry species

The important characteristic of the members of the family Moraceae is the

presence of idioblast which is nothing but the enlarged epidermal cell in the leaf.
The idioblasts contain deposits of calcium carbonate. The shape of the idioblast is
taken into consideration on classifying the different species of Morus. Those with
narrow beck are grouped under “Dolichocystolithiae” group as in Morus
bombycis, M.australis and M.Kagayamae and those with broken beak are grouped
under “Brachy cystolithiae” group as in M.latifolia, M.alba. The size of the
idioblast varies with the maturity of the leaf. The idioblasts connected with vein
are bigger than these unconnected with verin. These with thinner cuticle, thinner
leaf blade and fewer number of cystoliths are more palatable to silkworms.

Ecological requirements for mulberry cultivation climate

Mulberry can be grown upto 800m MSL. For the optimum growth of
mulberry and good sprouting of the buds, the mean atmospheric temperature
should be in the range of 13ºC to 37.7ºC. The ideal temperature should be between
24 and 28ºC with relative humidity of 65 to 80 percent and sun shine duration of 5
to 12 hours per day.
Mulberry can be grown in a rainfall range of 600 mm to 2500mm under
low rainfall conditions, the supplemental irrigation. On an average, 50mm once in
10 days is considered ideal for mulberry.

Soil
The soil should be deep fertile, well drained, clayey loam in texture, friable,
porous and with good moisture holding capacity. Slightly acidic soils (6.2 to 6.8
pH) free from in jury salts are ideal for good growth of mulberry plant. Saline and
alkaline soils are not preferred.
Mulberry varieties
Diploid varieties : (24 = 28) : S30, S54, S13, S34, RFS135.
Aneuploids (secondary polyploid (24 : 30) : Kanva2 and S36.
Irrigated : kanva 2 (M5), MR2, S30, S36, S54, DD (viswa), V1.
Semi irrigated : Kanva 2 (M5), MR2
Rainfed : S13, S34, RFS 135, RFS 175, S1635, Palladam local.

Methods of propagation
The method of propagation of mulberry plants is classified into two types viz.,
sexual and asexual. The sexual method of propagation is used for breeding purpose
and for the production of triploids. Since mulberry is mostly cross pollinated crop,
true to type of plant materials cannot be assured from seeds.
In the asexual method of propagation, there are 3 methods viz., grafting,
layering and cuttings. Grafting and layering methods are not popular because of the
laborious process, high cost and skill involved in it moreover, a large number of
planting materials cannot be obtained in short period of time.
In cutting method of propagation, cuttings may be planted straight away in the
main field itself or nursery may be raised and the sprouted and rooted saplings may be
planted in the main field. The latter method is advisable because of its easy
establishment in the main field.

Selection of planting material

Generally the mulberry plants are raised from semi hard wood cuttings. The
cuttings are selected from well established garden of 8-12 months old. Only full
grown thick main stem, free from insect and disease damages having a diameter of 7-
10mm are chosen for preparation of cuttings.
The cuttings should be of 15-20 cm with 3.4 active buds and should have 45º
slanting cut at the bottom end. Care should be taken to make a sharp clean cut at both
the ends of cuttings without splitting the nark.
Nursery
Nursery bed preparation
Select 800 sq.m area of red loamy soil near water source for raising spellings
for planting one hectare of main field. Apply 1600 kg of FYM @ 20 T/ha in the
nursery area. Mix will with the soil. Raise nursery beds of 3m x 1.7m size. The length
may be of convenient size depending upon the slope irrigation source etc. provide a
drainage channel and avoid shady area.
Nursery management
Irrigate the nursery once in 3 days. Dust one kg of any one of the following
chemicals around the nursery bed to avoid termite attack. Endosulfan, malathion,
quinalphos.
The avoid root rot and collar rot, drench the soil with carbendazim (2gm/l)
using rose can. Apply 100gm of urea/m2 of nursery between 55 and 60 DAP along
with weeding.
Age of sapling
The saplings are ready for transplanting in the main field after go 120 days
after planting.
Main field preparation
Bring the soil to fine tilts by repeated ploughings and harrowing use mould
board plough first flowed by country plough / cultivator and motivator if hard pan is
present, use chisel plough at 0.5 m distance in perpendicular direction.
Planting method
Under irrigated condition itself two to three types of spacing is practiced.
When the plants are grown, by following regular inter row spacing, it is called normal
row planting.
60cm x 60cm = 27,777 plants / ha
90cm x 90cm = 12, 345 plants/ha
90cm x 60cm = 18,518 plants/ha.
 Lecture 3

Nutritional requirements to mulberry

Cultivation of mulberry is the most important factor in the rearing of
silkworm because silkworm are monophagous insects which grow by feeding only
on mulberry leaves. In any cultivation system large quantities of nutrient elements
taken from the soil are harvested in the form of biomass.
Sixteen nutrient elements are recognized as being essential to all plants for
their normal growth and development.

Macro nutrients
Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium
Secondary nutrients – relative small amounts calcium, magnesium, sulphur (from
soils).
Micronutrients – iron, manganese, boron, Mo, Cu, Zn, Co

Importance of nutrients
Nitrogen
Important constituent of chlorophyll, protoplasm, proline and nucleic acid.
Increases growth and development of all living tissue.
Improves the quality of leafy vegetable and fodders.

Phosphorus
A constituent of phosphatides like nucleic acids, proteins, phospholipids
and co-enzymes.
Constituent of certain amino acids. Necessary for cell division and root
development necessary for meristmatic growth. Seed and fruit development
stimulate flowering.
Potassium
As an activator of enzymes involved in protein and carbohydrate metabolism.
Helps in carbohydrate translocation, synthesis of protein, stomatal opening and pH
control.
Helps to resist cold and other adverse condition and disease.
Induce plumpness of grains and improve the quality of fruits and vegetables.

Deficiency symptoms of major nutrients

Nitrogen
This is a mobile element bottom leaves show chlorosis with hecrotic spots.
Spreading from tip to base. With advancement of time, the whole leaves become
golden yellow in colour, wither and fable off leaf growth and weight is reduced.

Corrective measures
Soil application of 300kg N/ha in 5 split doses for row system in irrigated /
semi irrigated and six split doses for pit system.

Phosphorus
Leaves become pale yellow and veins and interspaces near the midrib,
developed red, purplish and brown coloration. This is coupled with necroses and
dried necrotic areas are papery and become pieces.
The necrotic spots will increase from margin to midrib, resulting in inward
curling no secondary branches will develop. Powdery mildew will be prominent in
P deficient leaves.

Corrective measures
120kg/ha in two split doses. Foliar application of DAP (1%).
Potassium
Symptoms appear on the older leaves. Initially yellow patches appear on
the margins and develop chlorosis uniformly from tip to the base.
Brown marginal drying. Brown is restricted.
Powdery mildew, will appear, predominantly on the lower surface of
leaves.

Corrective measures
120kg/ha in two split doses. Foliar : MOP (1%).

Deficiency symptoms
Zinc : Stunted plant growth, chlorosis of young leaves, bottom leaves with
bleached spots. Leaves colour becomes lemon yellow.

Copper : Leaf tip becomes white narrow and twisted, stunted growth, dieback of
terminal bud, marginal chlorosis.

Iron : Typical intervenal chlorosis, papery white leaves with necrotic spot.

Boron : Resetting of terminal growth, death of terminal bud and cracked stem,
bleaching of mid rib and vein.

Molybdenum : Undulating leaf surface necrotic spots along mid rib, oozing of
gum from mid rib.

Manganese : Thin foliage, dark green bands along the midrib, light green stripe
between dark green veins, twigs with dieback symptom leaf tapering.
Corrective measures
Foliar spray ZnSO4 59m/l
FeSO4 10 g/l
Borax 2.5 g/l
CuSO4 2.5 g/l
Mn 2.5 g/l or Sodium molybdate

on 20th and 40th day after pruning. Add wetting agent teepol @ 0.5 ml/l for better
adherence on the foliage.

Biofertilizers
Biofertilizers are the inoculum of microbial strains capable of enhancing
the availability of certain plant nutrients.

N2 fixing micro organisms

Azospirillum is an associative microaerophilic diazotroph isolated from the root
and above grained parts of a variety of crop plants.
Azotobacter : free living diazotroph and is highly aerobic.

Colonization
Colonization starts generally from a chemotactic attraction of the bacterium
towards the roots. Azospirillum show chemotactic behaviour towards specific
sugars, organic acids, amino acids of other unknown molecules present in the root
exudates. After chemotactic attraction adsorption to the roots, takes place due to
membrane polysaccharides. As soon as azospirllium reaches are root if shorts the
process of adhesion and then of colonization. It colonizes the root both externally
and internally. Adhesion and colonization takes place after 48 hrs of inoculation
savings of 25% N.
 • Apart from N2 fixation, azospirillum is known for its abiliz to produce
plant hormones as IAA, GA and cytochinens.
• Synthesis of vitamins and antibiotics thiamine and riboflavin are produced
by azospirillum strains.

Water management
Mulberry requires about 1250 to 1500 mm of water over a period of 12
months. Irrigation is done once in 15 days for clay soil. Once in 10 days for clayey
loam and once in 7 days for sandy soil. 2.5 ha cm of water is to be applied per
irrigation.

Methods of irrigation
1. Ridges and furrows
2. Flat bed method
3. Drip irrigation

Drip irrigation
The drip irrigation method is suitable when the water source is limited. The
system can be laid out in such a way that one dripper should cater the need of four
plants. The daily dosage of 32 litres per day per pet to cater 4 plants has been
found adequate cost Rs.30,000 to 50,000/ha.

Drip fertigation
Application of high grade water soluble fertilizers particularly under drip
system can save the cost of fertilizers by 20-30% and water by 30 to 40%.
Advantages of fertigation

• Higher use efficiency of both water and fertilizer. Minimum losses of

nitrogen due to prevention of leaching.
• Optimization of nutrient balance of N, P2O5 and K2O by supplying these
nutrients directly to the root zone of the crop.
• Regulation and monitoring of fertilizer doses through desired nutrient
concentration in solution to effect timely supply of nutrients on a
continuous basis.
• Savings in application cost. Important of physical and biological
conditioning of soil.

Intercropping
Intercropping with short duration pulse crop enriches the soil, gives
additional revenue and also controls the weed growth.
Balckgram - CO5, VBN1
Green gram - CO5, Paiyur-1, Pusa bold.
Cowpea – CO4, CO5, Pusa 152
Seed rate @ 10kg/ha
Sow the intercrop after pruning and earthling up.

Weed mangement
Common weed flora
Monocotyleadonous
Cyperus rotudus
Cynodon dactylon
Dicotyledonous
Abutilon indicum
Amaranths viridis
Acalypha Indica
Croton sparsiflorus
Parthenium
Trianthema portula castrum
Tridax

IWM
Cultural
Remove the stales and roots of weeds while preparing the land.
Use well decomposed manure to avoid dissemination of weeds clean the
implements before use keep the channels free of weeds.

Mech : operate country plough, remove weeds by handhoe

Chemical : Post emergence – paraquat (grammaxone) Spray glycel @ 7 ml + 2.4

at 5mg /l – post emergence.
 Lecture 4

Pruning and harvest of leaves

Pruning
Pruning is the methodical removal of branches of mulberry plant with the
objective of giving a convenient shape and size to increase the leaf yield and to
improve its feeding value. Pruning of mulberry plant is also useful in adjusting the
production period to synchronize with the leaf requirement for silkworm rearing
and also to extend the leaf production period throughout the year.

Bottom pruning
In this method, the plants are cut at ground level leaving 10-15cm stump
above the ground. This type of pruning is done once in a year.

Middle pruning
In this, the branches are cut at 40-60 cm above the ground level. After
bottom prunings, subsequent cuts are made at 45-50 cm height.

Kolar or strip system

In closely planted area, this type of pruning is done. In this, the branches
are cut at ground level every time. Thus, it receives five prunings every year. This
type of severe pruning requires heavy fertilization and irrigation.

Cut forms
There are 3 types of cut forms
1. Low cut / semicut : Main stem height is maintained below 50 cm
2. Medium cut : Main stem is maintained upto a height of 1m
3. High cut : Main stem is maintained beyond a height of 1m
 By repeated prunings at the same height, the base of the shoot gets a special
shape in mulberry. There are two types of shape.
1. Fist form
2. Non-fist form
3. Draw the sketches of fist and non-fist forms.

c) Harvesting
The method of leaf harvest depends on the type of rearing practiced.
There are three methods of harvesting mulberry leaves viz ., (i) leaf picking
(ii) branch cutting and (iii) whole shoot harvest.

i) Leaf picking
In this methods, individual leaves are harvested with or without petiole.
Leaf picking starts 10 weeks after bottom pruning and subsequent pickings are
done at an interval of 7-8 weeks.

ii) Branch cutting

In this method, the entire branches are cut and fed to the worms. Before
that, topping is done to ensure uniform maturity of the lower leaves.
 Lecture 5

Pests of mulberry and their management

Mulberry is the sole food plant of silkworm, which feeds only on the fresh
leaves of specific quality depending upon its age. Of the different factors
responsible for successful silkworm rearing, mulberry leaf alone plays the leading
role, contributing to 38.2 %. The mulberry cultivation plays a vital role in
determining the cost of production of cocoons quality and quantities of silk. It is
estimated that about 60% of the cost of cocoon production goes to mulberry leaf
production. Similarly, 70% of the silk produced by silkworm is directly derived
from the protein of mulberry leaf.
About 20-25 % of crop loss occurs by combined incidence of pests and
diseases.
Sucking pests
1. Pink mealy bug : Maconellicoccus hirsutus Pseudococcidae, Hemiptera.
2. Jassids : Empoasca flavescens cicadellidae, Hemiptera
3. Spiralling whitefly : Aleurodicus dispersus Aleyrodidae : Homoptera
4. Thrips : Pseudodendrothrips mori Thrips flavus Thripidae,
Thysanoptera.
5. Black scale : Saissetia nigra coccidae : Hemiptera
6. Red scale : Aonidiella aurantii coccidae : Hemiptera
7. Mealy scale : Pulvinaria maxima Coccidae Hemiptera
8. Mite : Tetranychus ludani, Tetranyctidae, Acarina
9. Eriophyid mite : Aceria mori : Eriophyidae, Acarina
10. Muranai / yellow mite : Polyphagotarsonemus latus Tarsonemidae

II. Foliage feeders

1. Leaf webber : Diaphania pulverulentalis pyralidae ; lepidoptera
2. Cutworms : Spodoptera litura Nochiidae Lepidoptera
3. Red hairy caterpillar Amsacta albistriga Arctiidae ; Lepidoptera
4. Bihar hairy caterpillar Spilocrita obliqua Arctiidae ; Lepidoptera
5. Tussorkmoth Euproctis fraternal Lymantridae ; Lepidoptera
6. Wasp moth Amata pasalis Lymantridae ; Lepidoptera
7. Moringa hairy caterpillar Eupterote mollifera Bombycidae ; Lepidoptera
8. Ash weevil Myllocerus spp curculionidae ; Coleoptera
9. Grasshopper Neorthacris acuticeps nilgriensis Acrididae ;
orthoptera.

III. Borers
1. Stem girdler beetle : Sthenias grisatar
2. Stem borer : Batocera rufomaculata cerambycidae ; coleoptera

IV Subterranean insects
1. Termites : Odontotermes sp. Termitidae ; Isoptera
2. White grub : Lactonosterna consanguinea Anomala dorsalis
Melolonthidae ; Coleoptera.

Sucking pests
Pink mealy bug
Sucks sap by piercing the plant tissue. It causes hypertrophy of cells.
Particularly the cortical and pith cells in radial direction with the formation of
giant cells in the inner layer of cortex vessels and tracheids of the secondary xylem
become less lignified. The infestation occurs in the nodal joints at the succulent
apical region. Inducement of deep green colour and swelling occurs four to five
days after infestation.
The growing region becomes thick and curled dark coloured and unsuitable for
feeding.
Biology
The mealy bug lays the eggs in a loose cottony terminal ovisac. Freshly laid
eggs are orange in colour, smooth and oval with slightly tapering ends. The eggs
turn pink before they hatch. The mealy bug completes its life cycle in 23 to 29
days. The pest occurs throughout the year on mulberry plants.

Management
1. In endemic area, application of malathion, endosulfan dust around the
bushes to kill the ants. It should be carried out immediately after pruning.
2. Destroy and burn the affected shoots.
3. Predators C.montrouzieri 750 beetles / ha. Indigenous ; Scymnus coccivora
@ 1000 beetles / ha.

2) Jassids
Attack is severe during October – May greenish hoppers feed on the
underside of the leaf, sucking the sap from veins and causing the characteristic
symptoms known as hopper burn.
First symptom appears as triangular brown spot at the tip of the leaf.
Similar triangles appears at the end of each vein or the whole margin may roll
upward and turn down at one time as though scorched by fire or drought.

Biology
The female lays pale yellow coloured elongated eggs in the epidermis under
the leaf blade. The eggs hatch out within 10 days. The nymphs are similar in
shape to the adults, but lack the wings and are very small and pale green coloured.
The adults are small green winged insects measuring 2.5 to 4.0 mm in length.
They are elongated towards posterior side.
Management
Nuvan 2 ml / litre
 Lecture 6

Diseases of mulberry and their management

I Fungal diseases
(i) Leaf spot : Cercospora moricola
sub division : Deuteromycotena
Class : Hyphomycetes
Order : Moniliales
Family : Dematiaceae

Symptoms
Brownish irregular leaf spot in the initial stage, shot holes are seen in later
stages, severely affected leaves become yellowish and fall off prematurely.

Epidimeology
The disease is common in rainy and winter seasons (June-December) and
reduce the leaf yield by 10-30%. Maximum occurrence is during August –
September optimum temperature for disease development is 24-26ºC, with RH
60%. The disease spreads through rain splash and dispersal of conidia is by rain
droplets and wind.

Management
i) Six genotypes viz .Kajali, MR2, S36, S54, K2 and local showed resistance
to the disease under both natural conditions and high load of inoculum. S34
and sujanpur were susceptible.
ii) Removal of weeds
iii) Disease incidence is higher in plants pruned at basal region than top
clipping or middle pruning.
iv) Application of FYM @ 40 T/ha + NPK @ 225 : 150 : 150 kg/ha reduce the
disease incidence significantly. When phosphorus, potash and FYM dose is
reduced. The disease incidence increases.

Leaf extracts from Allium sativum, Ocimum canum flower extracts from Allium
cepa were inhibiting to C. moricola.

Two foliar sprays with systemic fungicide, Bavistin 50 WP (0.1%) @ 500-650

g/ha at an interval of 10-15 days reduced the leaf spot incidence and safer period 8
days.

2. Powdery mildew Phyllachinia corylea

Sub division : Ascomycotena
Class : Plectomycetes
Order : Erysiphales
Family : Erysiphaceae

Symptoms
Initially white powdery patches appear on the lower surface of the leaves.
The diseased patches then spread to entire leaf surface. The leaf colour turn
yellow, brown and then to black. The yield loss was upto 40 percent.

Epidemiology
The disease occur in rainy, winter season (July-March) and reach the peak
during November and December. High humidity above 70 per cent and low
temperature of 24-26ºC favour out break the disease.
The infected leaves reduced the protein content and causes increase in
nickel, but decrease in copper content. The infected leaves contain less moisture,
greater starch and ash contents than healthy leaves.
Management
Varieties like mandalaya, katama, china white, panjab local and MR2 are
field resistant (below 5%).
FYM 40 T/ha + NPK 225 : 150 : 150 kg/ha/yr. (chawki garden).

• Coccinellid beetles like Illeis cincta and I.indica are report to feet on the
mycelia and spores.
• Spraying carbendazim (0.1%) – 500 – 625 gm/ha.

3) Leaf rust Cerotelium fici

Sub division : Basidiomycotesna
Class : Teliomycetes
Order : Urediriales
Family : Pucciniaceae

Symptoms
Presence of brownish to black eruptive lesions / spots on the leaf surface.
Leaves become yellowish and wither off prematurely. The typical brown pustules
appear on all the aerial parts including leaf, shoots and buds yield less. 5-10%
significant reduction in moisture, crude protein and total sugars.

Epidemiology
Common during winter and optimum temperature is 22-24ºC with high
relative humidity.

Management
Varieties MS2 and S13 are moderately resistant under field conditions.
Spray carbendazim 500-625 g/ha.
4) Twig blight : Fusarium pallidoroseum
Systems
The leaves show marginal browning in the beginning and complete burning
in the later stages resulting in severe defoliation. The diseased plants show bushy
appearance due to the profuse growth of the auxiliary buds. The pathogen
produces black longitudinal lesions in the branches leading to the splitting and
drying of the branches.

Epidemiology
Generally the disease is observed throughout the year. The incidence is mor
in rainy season (June-October). The loss is 5-6%.

Management
Removal of affected branches spraying fungicide like Foltafo 2% on the
foliage and drenching in the soil.

Root rot
Black root rot : Macrophomina phaseolina
Sub division : Deuteromycotena
Class : Coelomycetes
Order : Sphaeropsitales
Family : Sphaeropsitaceae

Symptoms
Sudden withering of leaves and affected plants fall to sprout after pruning
and dry completely. Affected plants can be pulled out easily. Roots contains large
number of black sclerotia.
Violet root rot Helicobasidum momba
Symptoms
Sudden withering of leaves and collapse of plants during raining season.
The epidermal tissues of larger and smaller roots are covered by thick whitish
violet coloured mycelial mat. As the disease advances the rotting spreads to xylem
tissue also. Under adverse conditions, sclerotia are formed the hardened mass of
hyphae, remain for a long time on the dead root tissues or in the soil and later
germinate during favourable seasons to produce new hyphae which infect plant.
 Lecture – 7

Mulberry silkworm origin

According to Western Historians, silk industry was brought to India from

China through Khotan in 140 BC. But Indian scholars do believe that sericulture
was practiced in the foot hills of the Sub-Himalayas much earlier to that and silk
culture originated somewhere in the areas flanking Ganga and Brahmaputra.

Classification of silkworms
Kinds of silkworms
Silkworms belong to two important families viz., Bombycidae and
Saturniidae. The mulberry silkworm can be easily distinguished from non-
mulberry silkworms.
S.No Bombycidae Saturniidae
1. Wings are without transparent Wings are with circular or crescent
membrane shaped transparent membrane
2. Cocoon is small and yields Cocoon is long and bag like – gives
continuous non porous filament both continuous (tasar and muga) and
Eg. Mulberry. B.mori discontinuous or porous filament.
1) Eri – Samia cynthia ricini
2) Tasar – Antheraea mylitta
3) Muga – A. assamenses

Non-mulberry silkworms
Character Eri silkworm Tasar silkworm Muga
Host plants Castor, papaya, Terminalia, Som (Machilus
tapioca, Ailanthus Dalbergia, bombycina)
zizyphus, ficus Soaleu (Litsaea
polyantha)
Cocoon
a) Colour White or brick red Brown Lustrous golden
yellow
b) Filament Neither uniform Uniform and Uniform and
nor continuous continuous continuous
c) Silk production Moderate High Less

Important species exploited for tasar

a) Tropical tasar : Antheraea mylitta = (A. paphia) (India)
b) Temperate tasar : A. proylei (India)
c) Chinese tasar : A. pernyi (China and Russia)
d) Japanese tasar : A. yamamai (Japan)

Mulberry silkworm classification

This is a domesticated species and has been exploited for over 4000 years.
All the different races of the present species have been derived from wild
ancestor, Mandarina silkworm, B. mandarina (n = 27) which is a pest on mulberry
in Himalayan region.
B. mori n = 28

1) Geographical distribution Japanese

Chinese
European
Indian

2) Number of generations / broods / year (voltinism)

Univoltine
Bivoltine
Multi or polyvoltine
 Voltinism is controlled by genes at different loci and is also influenced by
temperature and light at various developmental stages. Voltinism in B.mori is
maternally inherited. Univoltinism is dominant over bivoltinism and bivoltinium is
dominant over multivoltinism. Voltinism in bivoltines is influenced by
temperature and light. Incubation of bivoltine eggs at 15ºC after blastokinesis
produces moths laying non-hibernating eggs while eggs incubated at 24ºC produce
months laying hibernating eggs.

c) Based on number of moults Trimoulter

Tetramoulter
Pentamoulter

d) Genetic nature pure race

hybrid monohybrid
polyhybrid

Characteristics of different races of B.mori

Uni / bivoltine
Multivoltine non-
Egg Diapausing /non-
diapausing
diapausing
Length of silk filament in 1000-1600 300-400
cocoon (m)
Shell ratio (%) 15-25 10-12
Raw silk (%) 80-85 40-45

Early races and their maintenance

A good number of univoltine and bivoltine silkworm races were imported
from countries like Italy, France, Russia and China. However, only a few races
survived under Indian conditions, and Indian sericulture industry remained as
 multivoltine oriented. To mention a few races that were maintained in the early
part of 20th century, are Barapolu, Chotapolu and Nistari of West Bengal, Sarupat
of north eastern regions (Assam, Meghalaya and Mizoram). Pure Mysore of
Karnataka and a univoltine silkworm breed producing white and yellow cocoons
of Kashmir state. But this Kashmir indigenous race became extinct due to pebrine
during the late 19th century. During the mid 20th century a bivoltine race, namely
C. nichi was introduced in India in the traditional areas of Karnataka. Due to
continuous use of this race and acclimatization to tropical conditions, it became a
multivoltine and is maintained now as a multivoltine race.
Table 1a. Characteristics of indigenous multivoltine silkworm races of India
Cocoon Cocoon Shell Fll.
Survival SR
Breed Origin shape and weight weight Length
(%) (%)
colour (g) (g) (m)
Pure Karnataka Spindle,
Mysore greenish >90% 1.0 0.12 12.0 250-300
yellow
Nistari W.Bengal Spindle,
greenish >90% 1.0 0.11 11.0 250-300
yellow
Sarupat Assam Spindle,
greenish >90% 1.0 0.11 11.0 250-300
white
Moria Assam Spindle,
greenish >90% 1.0 0.12 12.0 250-300
white

Races developed by KSSRDI, Bangalore

Keeping the field requirement in view, KSO1 and SP2 have been evolved
with main emphasis on robustness. These races have been bred utilizing South
Korean, Taiwanese bivoltine, NB4D2 and Pure Mysore races adopting
hybridization and selection method. The pure races are characterized by medium
cocoon weight, yield, size and silk percentage. The larval duration is 23-24 days
and is shorter by 1 to 2 days compared to existing hybrids. The hybrids ie., KSO1
x SP2 and SP2 x KSO1 have better hybrid vigour, robustness and productivity.
The new hybrids can tolerate higher temperature and, thus can be reared during
unfavourable seasons also. The new hybrids can be reared by an average
crossbreed farmer and can realize better cocoon yield and returns..
 Lecture - 8

Morphology and biology of silkworm

Silkworms are holometabolous insects and they pass through complete

metamorphoses from egg to adult stage through two intermediate stages of larva
and pupa.

Egg
The silkworm eggs are tiny and weigh around 2000 eggs to a gram. They
measure 1.0 to 1.3 mm in length and 0.9 to 1.2 mm in width. They may be avoid,
flat, elliptical or oval and flat with a micropyle at the anterior pole and slightly off
centre. Races producing white cocoons lay pale yellow eggs while races producing
yellow cocoons lay deep yellow eggs.
The egg has an outer – shell or chorion.

Larva
The larva of B.mori is of the cruciform or polypod type with abdominal
prologs. The newly hatched larva is about 3 mm long, black in colour and is
covered with bristles. It is popularly called ‘blackworm or ant’. The bristles / setae
are situated on four pairs of tubercles in each segment of the body.
As the larva grows, it moults and enters into the late instars, the cuticle
becomes smooth and stretched, and the setae are shed and tubercles become less
prominent. The colour also becomes pale. The last instar larva is 10 cm long.
When the size of the larva at the time of maximum degree of growth is
compared to the size at the time of hatching , it is found that it increases by 10,000
times in terms of weight and about 25 times in terms of body length.
The body of the larva is divided into three regions head, thorax and
abdomen. The head is formed by the fusion of 6 segments, the thorax has three
segments and the abdomen has 11 segments.
Head
The head is small, hypognathous heavily chitonised and brown in colour. It
has two sets of six ocelli (stemmata) which are situated just behind and downward
on the left and right face. Antennae are situated a little under the ocelli. The
antenna is composed of 3 short segments. The mouth parts are located downward
and in front of the face and are composed of a pair of mandibles and maxillae with
labrum and labium. The mandibles are used for mastication and consists of two
hard pieces. The maxilla consists of single maxillary lobe and the palpi is made of
3 segments. The labrum hangs down from the frontal position to form a flap of the
mouth. A spinneret is situated at the proximal position between the two labial
palpi. The silk thread exudes through the spinneret when the larva spins the
cocoons.
Among the various sclerites on the head, the apical plate also known as the
epicranial plate is the largest. A little below in the front of it, there is the prefrontal
sclerite separated by Y– shaped suture.

Thorax
It comprises of three segments with one pair of spiracles in the prothrorax
and jointed append – 3 segments a sharp claw at the tip. The legs are not used for
walking but used for holding the mulberry leaves while feeding. The prothorax is
smaller than meso and metathorax. There is a dorsal eyespot in the mesothorax.

Abdomen
It consists of 11 segments (nine are visible) with eight pairs of spiracles
(in the first 8 segments), four pairs of abdominal legs (3, 4, 5 and 6 abdomen), one
pair of caudal legs and one caudation (on the dorsum of the eight segment).
The larva has number of markings on skin (crescents or lunels) on the
second abdominal segment and star spots on the fifth abdominal segment.
Sex discrimination of larva
Markings developed in IV and V instar

Female Male
Ventral side of eight and ninth Single median but at the function of
abdominal segments Ishiwata’s fore eight and ninth segments called
glands and Ishiwata’s hind glands Herold’s gland. Seen in freshly moulted
larva early stage of 4th and 5th instar

Pupa
The pupal moult occurs within the cocoon spun by the final instar larva.
Pupae are soft and white soon after the moult but become hard and brown with
tanning of the pupal cuticle. The larval organs are destroyed and adult organs are
differentiated during this stage. The pupa is obtect type.

Head
It is small, situated on the ventral side of thorax. It has a pair of compound
eyes, a pair of large antennae and vestigial mouth parts.

Thorax
Large and prominent. Two pairs of wings and 3 pairs of legs are
immunably pressed against the body on the ventral side and enclosed in a
chitonous case.

Abdomen
Composed of 11 segments but only nine are visible dorsally. Seven pairs of
spiracles are represented in the first 7 abdominal segments 2 of these, the last pair
is non-functional.
Sex discrimination
Sex markings are clearly visible than in the larva.

Female Male
Pupa is larger; broader abdomen Narrow abdomen
At the centre of eighth abdominal A small round spot on the ninth
segment a vertical line on ventral size segment

Cocoon
Colour of the cocoon is mostly white. There are cocoons of different
colours, golden yellow, flesh colour, crimson, bamboo leaf colour and green. The
colour pigment of cocoon is chiefly present on sericin, removed by degumming.
Cocoons are of various shapes – barrel shaped, oval, round and spindle shaped.

Adult
The moths have lost their flight due to domestication for more than four
thousand years. They do not feed during their short life span of three to six days.
The size of the moth is about 4 cm x 2 cm. The entire body and the wings are
covered with epidermal scale.

Head
Small, hypognathus, paired compound eyes, prominent on the sides of the
head, bipectinate antennae. The coiled proboscis is non-functional.

Thorax
Three segments, three pairs legs and two pair wing are present.
Abdomen
Eight segments for males and seven segments for females. There are six
pair of spiracles present laterally on either side of the body. The male and female
moths can be identified from the size of the abdomen, the size of the antennae and
external genitalia colour.

S.No Female Male

1. Colour Paler Darker
2. Activity Less active More active
3. Antennae Small Large cadaphalus to sense
sex pheromones of females
4. Body size Large Small
5. Abdomen Large and flat Long and narrow
6. External The caudal end has a The caudal end has a pair of
genitalia median knob like hooks known as harps
projection with sensory helping in copulation
hairs which is protruded
and retraced to expel the
pheromone
Egg period 9 – 12 days (Multivoltine )
11 – 14 days (Bivoltine)
Aestivation and hibernation -- 4 – 10 months

Biology
Multivoltine Uni and Bivoltine Multivoltine
Stage Duration Temp oC Duration Temp oC Duration Temp oC
RH % RH % RH %
I instar 3 days 27 3 days 27 4 days 26-28
I moult 20 hours 80 -85 20 hours 85 20 hours 80 -85
II instar 2 days 27 2 days 27 2 days 26-28
II moult 20 hours 80 -85 20 hours 85 20 hours 80 -85
III instar 3 days 27 3 days 25 4-5 days 25-26
III moult 1 day 80 -85 1 day 80 1 day 75-80
IV instar 4 days 25-26 5 days 22-24 4-5 days 24-26
IV moult 1 day 70-80 1 day 75 1 day 70-75
V instar 6-7 days 25-26 9-10 days 20-23 6-8 days 24-25
70-80 70 65-70
Total 22-23 days 26-27 22-24 days
days
Spinning period : 2-3 days
Pupation: 1-2 days
Pupal period : 8-10 days (Multivoltine); 10-12 days (Uni and Bivoltine)
Moulting
Each larval instar can be broadly divided into two phases : The feeding
phase and the moulting phase. After feeding voraciously and having attained full
growth for the particular instar the worm loses its appetite and the larva prepares
to moult and cast off its old skin. Prior to each moulting, the larva stops feeding
and rests with its head held up. The lustrous body skin gradually becomes
translucent, loose and wrinkled and the worm becomes dull in appearance and
wanders about in search of a resting place. It emits a silky substance with which it
fixes itself to dry leaves. This resting for moulting is often referred to as “ going to
sleep” and the coming out of the worm from moult as “waking up”.

Sex limited races

Sex limited nature of the larval markings in silkworm has been studied as
early as 1941 by Tazima. The females with a translocated dominant gene +P in
the ‘W’ chromosome manifested morphological feature with eye spot, crescent
mark and star spot (ECS) markings on the body while the males were plain
without any markings.

At egg stage Tazima was able to synthesize sex

Black eggs – female limited black egg strain, when the
Plain eggs – male fragment of 10th chromosome carrying
Cocoon W2 gene was translocated to W
Yellow cocoons – female chromosomes, where the female eggs
White cocoons – male were black
 In the report on the technical co-operation to the World Bank aided
sericultural project in Karnataka, Hirobe (1983), advised rearing of P1
multivoltine males in order to produce cross breeds, by crossing multivoltine x
bivoltine. He recommended the schematic plan as follows.

Sex limited multivoltine x Ordinary multivoltine plain (Like Hosa

Mysore and not Pure Mysore)

F1 marked female : Plain male

X Bivoltine race (Plain) Cross breed

Eg : Bivoltine pure races : CSR 18, CSR19, CSR3, CSR12

 Lecture – 9 – mid semester exam

Lecture – 10

Anatomy and physiology of digestive system

In the silkworm larva the digestive system is more or less a straight

tube from the mouth to the anus divided into three main parts (i) the fore-gut or
stomodeum, ii) midgut or mesenteron and iii) hind gut or proctodeum. The oral
aperture opens into the mouth cavity which is followed by a narrow pharynx and
oesophagus. The oesophagus is narrow at the anterior end and gradually widens
towards the posterior end. There is a cardiac or stomodeal valve at the end of the
foregut that retains the chewed mulberry leaf bits in the oesophagus for sometime
and also prevents the regurgitation of food from midgut to foregut. The midgut is
long, wide cylindrical tube, narrow at the posterior end. Digestion and
assimilation of food, take place mainly in the mid-gut. The digestive fluid is
secreted principally from the goblet cells at the midgut epithelium and the
cylindrical cells absorb the digested food. The fore and hindguts have a chitinous
lining, but an inner layer of peritrophic membrane in the mid-gut generally
protects the mid-gut epithelium from mechanical damage due to food particles.
The hindgut consists of the small intestine, colon and rectum, and a pylorus valve
near the anterior end of the small intestine which guards and regulates the passage
of digested food from the mid-gut to the hindgut. The hindgut is a passage for the
absorption of a large portion of food moisture and elimination of digested food. In
the anterio–posterior direction, the rectum has six muscles for pressing the
excrements. The faecal matter is pressed in the rectum and expelled from the anus
as faecal pellets bearing hexagonal marks.
 In the adult, the proboscis is vestigial as well as non-functional and the
adult does not feed. Hence the adult digestive system appears degenerated and less
prominent than the larval digestive system. The alimentary tract is formed of a
long oesophagus of narrow caliber with a diverticulum attached to the oesophagus
by a short tube, followed by a tubular stomach, hind–intestine and rectal sac. The
diverticulum (sucking–stomach) of the fore intestine appears to be a main
receptacle for the air that is swallowed and distends the body after metamorphosis.
Since the adult takes no food this may be its main function. A couple of salivary
glands open into the oesophagus. Six malpighian tubes are present, three arising
from each side of the hindgut by a common tube. The hind intestine enlarges into a
rectal sac and ends in the anus by a short tube.

Excretory system
The malpighian tubes are the primary organs of excretion. In the larva the
malpighian tubus arise at the junction of small intestine and colon in the hindgut of
the digestive tract. The tube arising on each side of the hindgut is enlarged into an
excretory chamber from which two branches arise. One of the tubes situated on the
dorsal side branches further into three tubes. In all there are three pairs of
malpighian tubes in the silkworm larva that stick to the midgut and run towards
the anterior side, turn back and ultimately open into the rectum. Nitrogenous
compounds like protein are metabolised by these tubes and excreted principally as
uric acid. They also excrete calcium oxalate. The malpighian tubes in the mature
larvae are light yellow and their walls contain large quantities of yellow vitamin
B2.

Silk glands
It is the second largest organ of the silkworm body secreting silk substance.
These are transformed labial glands, ectodermal in origin, cylindrical and tubular
with characteristically branched nuclei. They are situated on the ventro-lateral
sides of the mid intestine and the posterior ends are blunt. Anteriorly, the paired
ducts unite and open into the spinneret. Silk glands may be divided into three
distinct regions, anterior, middle and posterior, spinneret besides a pair of semi-
translucent, grape shaped Fillipis gland (Lyonnet’s glands) opens into silk glands
where the right and left glands unite.

Spinneret
It is a delicate tube inside the posterior part of the silk gland and opens at
distal end of the prementum. It is composed of three parts viz., spinning arid,
thread press and common tube. On the dorsal, lateral and ventral sides of thread
press, 6 sets of muscular fibres develop, of which makes use of their expansion,
contraction, flexibility and acquires the role of regulating the flow of silk
substances, coarseness of cocoon silk as well as the pressure in silk formation.

Anterior region of silk gland

It is the most delicate part of silk gland and measures about 35-40 mm in
length with a diameter of 0.05 to 0.30 mm. It unites at the anterior region and
opens as a common duct in spinneret and not secretary. Its main function is to
transport silk substance from middle part to spinneret. Fibroin molecules mature in
the tube and dehydrate.

Middle region of silk gland

This is the largest part of silk gland. It secretes sericin, the gummy
substance and stores the fluid fibroin for dehydration. It has two ‘S’ shaped bends
and divided into three parts viz., anterior, middle and posterior parts. They secrete
sericin in three layers, namely, outer, middle and inner (sericin I, II and III). This
middle region is again divided into posterior zone, posterior membrane in middle
zone, anterior membrane in middle zone and anterior zone.
 The sericin secreted by the middle part of silk gland covers the liquid
fibroin in the form of globular pellets and is subsequently transferred forward. The
forward transferred liquid silk before it reaches spinneret increases in density by
30 per cent. During spinning, sericin plays the role of wetting in the process of silk
fibrion fibrillation. Sericin has four layers and solubility gradually decreases from
sericin I to IV. The ratio of sericin content are 4 : 4 : 2 for sericin I, II and III.
Sericin is classified as α and β sericin. α sericin is more in inner layer and β
sericin in the outer layer. At the time of cocoon shell formation it bonds and forms
cocoon. Outer shell of cocoon shell has maximum sericin content (45- 49%)
followed by decrease in the inner layers.

Posterior region
The longest and most twisted part of silk gland. The length of the gland is
200-250 mm with a diameter of 0.4-0.8 mm. The posterior region is closed.
Fillipis gland elaborate certain secretions which help unite the moulded silk
material from the two excretory canals and prevent the freshly moulded silk from
hardening.

Cocoon filament formation

When the silkworm reaches end of the fifth instar it body turns into
lusterous and translucent due to disappearance of urate crystals in the epidermal
cells. This stage is referred as ripening stage. Silk gland lumen is with full of silk
substance in liquid state called fibroin. It is a non-crystallized α type fibroin.
Fibroin liquid gets dehydrated when it reaches the middle part. The sericin
secreted by middle part surrounds the outer surface of fibroin liquid. When fibroin
liquid mores to anterior region still it is in non-crystallized form and further
dehydration occurs. The two proteins move forward together without mixing into
each other, into anterior portion of the gland which gets narrower as it reaches the
spinneret. Just before the spinneret, both silk glands join together. The protein
consists of twin cross of fibroin surrounded by a single cementing layer of sericin.
When it reaches spinneret, irregularly arranged molecules gradually turn into
regular orderly β type. Through dehydration, the side chains between fibroin
molecules mutually dependent and starts crystallization. Circulation of air at this
time helps it to become fibre by atmospheric coagulation in turn into cocoon
filament. This chemical process is due to gradual increase in density and
polymerization of molecules (ie) bigger molecules orderly becomes a fibre.
Fibroin which covered with sericin gradually changes from globular crystals to
fibrous crystals.
The wall of the silk gland is composed of 3 layers, the tunica propria, the
gland cells and the tunica intima enclosing the lumen of the gland. The tunica
intima is made up of thickly laid chitin throughout but the anterior portions are
renewed at each ecdysis or moult.
Extrusion of silk filament from silk glands for forming cocoon is referred as
spinning. Silkworm ingests about 50 g of mulberry leaf per larva and above 60 %
of the nitrogen contained in the mulberry leaves are used for silk protein synthesis.
One larva can produce about 0.60 gm of silk protein. It consists of 80% fibroin
and about 20% sericin.

Hormonal control
The synthesis of silk protein in the silk gland is apparently under the direct
or indirect control of two major hormones, ecdysone and juvenile hormones.
Ecdysteroid is important for the promotion and maintenance of fibroin synthesis.
JH acts a potent inhibitor of protein synthesis at the transcriptional level. It
suppresses the synthesis of RNA.
Some physical and chemical properties of cocoon filament
Moisture absorption
Silk is porous and absorbs water molecules from the atmosphere and also
when immersed in water. The diameter of the fabric swell upto 16-18%, while the
weight goes up by 30-35%. The silk filament absorbs up to 30% water of its
weight when immersed in water. And in normal condition in atmosphere it absorbs
11 % of moisture. Therefore the standard rate of water content has been fixed at
11 %.
2) Action of chemicals
i) Nitric acid : When the silk filament was kept in nitric acid for few minutes the
filament disintegrates and dissolves slowly. When the filament kept in dilute nitric
acid and boiled at 70ºC for few minutes, then the filament develops yellow colour.
ii) Sulphuric acid : In sulphuric acid also, the silk gets disintegrates and dissolves
slowly.
iii) HCl : In HCl the filament dissolves quickly compared to other acids.
Sodium hydroxide : Silk dissolves slowly
Phenol : No change in silk filament, does not dissolves.
Acetic acid : No change and silk does not dissolves.
S.No Test Observation Inferences
1. Flame test Burns slowly leaving a grace of residue which Silk
crumples easily with fingers; hair burning smell
can be felt
2. Action of nitric acid Disintegrates and dissolves Silk
3. Dilute nitric acid heated Fiber stains yellow Silk
upto 70ºC
4. Concentration HCl Dissolves Silk
5. NaOH (5%) Dissolves slowly Silk
6. Glacial acetic acid No change Silk
If dissolves Acetate silk
7. Phenol (90%) No change Silk Rayon
If dissolves
8. 2.5%NaOH; immerse Then the filament and squeeze with fingers, and
filament for 5 minutes observe under microscope the filament observed
as fibrils protruded out from filament.
 Lecture – 11
Silkworm rearing facilities and appliances

Silkworm larvae are highly sensitive to environmental conditions.

Temperature, humidity, light, chemicals, noise pollution etc. will influence the
growth and development of larvae as well as spinning by the grown up larvae.

Rearing facilities / house

• Should have aeration, suitable temperature and RH.
• Protection against climatic changes.
• Free from pollution and allow easy disinfection.
• Away from industries like brick or lime, crops like tobacco.
• Good ventilation and shade.
• Mounting area 20-30% of rearing area and leaf storage should be separated.
• Separate young age rearing rooms.

Ideal rearing house

Rat proof building to prevent rats from entering the building. The building
has a verandah all around and glass windows and doors to provide good
ventilation and light. The roof should be of non-conducting materials. False
ceiling may be constructed. Width of room should not exceed 5 m. Verandahs may
be 1.2 to 1.8 m broad. The size of rearing house depends on the number of DFL’s
reared at a time. To rear 400 to 500 DFL’s at a time a house with a spacing of 5.4
x 9 m is required.
In temperate and sub-tropical regions the house should be constructed in a
north-south and in tropical, east-west.
Rearing appliances
1. Rearing stands (wood, bamboo or steel)
Rearing stands are used to keep rearing traps containing silkworms. Normally
designed for 10 trays per stand. Dimensions : 225 cm height x 150 cm length x 60
cm width. There should be a space of 15 cm between two tiers.

2. Rearing trays (bamboo)

Circular bamboo trays are used which will be light in weight and easy to handle
for rearing grown up larvae. They have a diameter of 130 cm with a depth of 10
cm.
3. Chawki rearing stand (wood)
Used for keeping Chawki trays (boxes) with young age silkworm larvae.
Dimensions : 120 cm length x 90 cm breadth x 30 cm height)

4. Chawki trays (wood)

For rearing young age worm larvae upto second instar. Dimensions 120 cm length
x 90 cm breadth x 10 cm depth). Two such trays are required to rear 10 DFLs.
These trays are kept one over the other on Chawki rearing stand.

5. Paraffin paper
This is a thick craft paper coated with paraffin wax with a melting point of 55°C.
This is used to cover young age worm both below and above in order to avoid
withering of leaves and to maintain the required humidity (dimensions : 120 cm x
90 cm).

6. Blue polythene sheet

In the place of paraffin paper, blue polythene sheet may be used. It is durable, easy
to sterile Maintains temperature

7. Foam rubber strips

Foam rubber strips (2.5 cm x 2.5 cm) are dipped in water and kept all round the
Chawki rearing beds for maintaining optimum humidity.
8. Chopsticks (bamboo)
To spread out young silkworms on rearing beds with hygiene and minimum
damage to the delicate larvae. This may be about 20 cm long, thin in girth and
tapering at one end

9. Feathers
Feather is used for brushing newly hatched worms and also while changing beds
in the earlier stages Use of feathers avoid injury to larvae.

10. Chopping boards (wood)

It is a -platform for cutting mulberry leaves for feeding. Dimensions : 90 cm
length x 90 cm width >: 7.5 cm height.

11. Chopping knives

Knife is required for cutting mulberry leaves. Blade size is 5 cm width x 60 cm
length with a wooden handle of 15 cm length. Blade is curved and the cutting edge
will be at the convex line 12. Chopping mat Chopping mat is spread below
chopping board to collect cut leaves at the time of chopping. Dimensions : 180 cm
x 120 cm.

13. Leaf chamber (wood)

A leaf chamber is used to preserve leaves before feeding which is made up of a
frame work of wooden strips of 7.5 cm wide, spaced 7.5 cm on the sides and
bottom. Dimension of chamber : 150 cm length x 75 cm width x 75 cm height.
This is covered on all sides with gunny cloth which is kept we.

14. Leaf baskets (bamboo)

Leaf basket is used to collect and carry leaves from field to rearing house.

15. Cleaning nets

The litter and a portion of leaves which are left by the larvae have to be
periodically removed. Net made of cotton thread or nylon and of different meshes
are used for cleaning the beds. Mesh size 8 mm, 120 cm x 90 cm size for young
larvae and mesh size 16 mm, 120 cm x 90 cm for grown up larvae.

16. Litter basket

This is used for collecting waste leaves, litter etc. while cleaning the beds.

17. Feeding stands (wood)

Feeding stand is used for keeping rearing trays during feeding or cleaning. It is of
folding type with frame of 5 cm x 2.5 cm in a criss-cross position with hooks. The
width is 60 cm and height 90 cm.

18. Feeding basins (plastic)

It is used to keep cut leaves for feeding covered with wet cloth. Dimension : 30-
45 cm diameter and 15-20 cm depth.

19. Food cleaning tray

This is kept at the entrance of the rearing house. A pad made of gunny cloth is
soaked in 2 per cent formaldehyde solution and is kept inside the tray. Dimensions
of the tray : 110 cm length x 50 cm width x 10 cm height with a tin bottom. This is
used to disinfect feet or slippers.

20. Basin stand (iron)

Basin stand is used to keep disinfection solution to wash hands before handling
worms. It is a tripod design with a height of 90 cm and top ring of 30 cm diameter
with a side hook for towel.

21. Shoot rearing racks (steel or wood)

A three tier wood or steel frame is used for shoot rearing. Tiers are made up of
rope, steel wire or mat to keep worms and mulberry branches. Dimensions : 210
cm height x 120 cm width x 300 cm length.
22. Mountanges or cocoonages

i) Chandrike : It comprises of a rectangular bamboo mat on which a spiral

of bamboo tape is fixed. The size is 180 cm x 120 cm. The tape is 4 to 5 cm broad
and the space between the spirals should be 4 to 5 cm. It provides for free passage
of air so that the excreta of spinning silkworms dry up quickly and not remain wet
to stain the cocoons.

ii) Plastic mountages : These are to be used in rearing trays. Dimensions 120 cm
x 90 cm when open with folds 5 cm apart which is strongly attacked to the frame.

iii) Bottle brush type mountage : This is made with a twisted rope of 120
cm to 150 cm long. Bamboo ring strips of 15 cm to 20 cm long are provided in
the form of a bottle brush. 2C2

iv) Rotary mountage

v) Centipede mountage
vi) Paddy straw mountage
vii) Coconut leaf mountage
23. Ant wells (cement)
Used to protect rearing stands to prevent ant attacks. Dimensions: 21 cm length x
21 cm breadth x 8 cm height with 4 cm width x 4 cm deep well all round.

24. Balance
It is used to weigh leaves for feeding young silkworm larvae
25. Black boxing tray
Black boxes of 90 cm length and 90 cm depth are required to keep eggs.

26. Table lamp

To provide light stimulus for uniform egg hatching.

27. Disinfection mask

The workers engaged in disinfection should use a disinfection mask to avoid the
effects of chemicals

28. Disinfection tank

A tank is necessary to disinfect different rearing appliances.
29. Air cooler
To maintain humidity and bring down temperature, air coolers may be used in the
rearing rooms.

30. Room heater

It is used to increase temperature if needed in the rearing room.

31. Rocker sprayer

A rocker sprayer is used for disinfection as well as for spraying of water on leaves
in the leaf chamber

32. Hand sprayer

To spray uzicide on silkworms

33. Wet and dry thermometer

Digital thermo hygrometer may be used for recording temperature and humidity in
the rearing room.
Disinfection
It is the destruction or inactivation of disease causing germs.

Specification of disinfectants
Universal in its germicidal action
Non-toxic to human
Cannot be inactivated by organic matter
Do not cause burning
Easily miscible
Colourless, non staining
Application methods be simple and easy to adopt

Frequency
Should be done soon after harvest and despatch of cocoons and second one
week before brushing.
Disinfectants
Formaldehyde, chlorine compounds, Para formaldehyde, iodine
compounds, slacked lime powder etc. either individually or in combinations, are
commonly used.

Formalin
Formalin is used as wash, spray and fumigant. Commercial formalin is an
aqueous transparent and pungent smelling, containing 35-38% (W/V)
formaldehyde with sp. gr. of 1.081-1.085.

Mode of action
Reduction process wherein, oxygen molecule is removed from pathogens
resulting in killing them. It is effective under 70% RH and above, and temperature
not below 18ºC. It is a strong irritant.

Paraformaldehyde
It is a polymer of formaldehyde which gets deposited at the bottom of
containers during long storage. When heated it sublimates readily and resolves
back to formaldehyde fumes used a fumigant in formulation of bed disinfectants.

Chlorine compounds
Bleaching powder, sodium hypochlorite, chlorine dioxide and sodium
dichloro isocyamurates.

Bleaching power
It is manufactured by repeated passing of chlorine gas through slacked lime
powder. It is also called as chlorinated lime. White amorphous powder with 25-
30% chlorine with pungent smell.
Mode of action
Oxidizing property caused by the release of nascent oxygen.
Sodium hypochlorite
It is a bleaching and strong oxidizing agent widely used as a deodorant and
powerful broad spectrum germicide.
Chlorine dioxide
General disinfection containing chlorine dioxide is effective in the pH
range of 6-9.
Slacked lime powder
Lime contains 90-95% free calcium oxide and readily absorbs CO2 and
H2O from air thus becoming air slacked.
Formaline, lime and detergent mixture
• Doors, winds should be sealed; temperature >24ºC ;Noon time.
• Lime powder 0.5% + detergent 0.5%
• After spraying room should to closed for a period of 24 hours.
Chlorine compounds
Open type rearing houses
Bed disinfectant
RKO
Vijetha

Formalin chaff
Formalin + burnt paddy husk
0.4% - I and II
0.5% - III
0.6% - IV
0.8% - V
Silkworm egg transportation
Eggs should be packed in wooden boxes. The boxes must carry a twin layer
of foam pad, which is made wet before closing the boxes. Provide holes for
aeration.
Egg incubation
Egg incubation is defined as preservation of silkworm eggs under
controlled environmental conditions, so as to suit the silkworm eggs to develop
normally and hatch as healthy larvae, with maximum hatchability on the expected
day
25-28ºC and 70-75%
CO2 level 0.1%

Methods of incubation
Farmers method
Tray method
Incubation in isolation chamber
Buried pot method

Black boxing
Complete darkness for 48 hrs, prior to hatching. Helps uniform hatching
within 2 hours when exposed to light.

Cold preservation
It is employed to postpone hatching. Released at an intermediate
temperature of 15ºC for not less than 6 hours as it prevents sudden thermal shock
to the eggs.
 Lecture 12
Environmental requirements for different stags of silkworm

Silkworm are poikilotherm (cold blooded) and their activities fluctuate with
the environmental fluctuations. The factors such as temperature, humidity, air and
light from hatching to cocooning have an intrinsic relationship on the growth of
silkworm larvae and on quality of coons. Variations on these factors have
different effects on the larval physiology and heatherness of the larvae. The ideal
temperature and the humidity conditions under which the silkworms thrive best
are 24-28oC and 70-85 % RH respectively. The young age worms require high
temperature (26-28 oC) and high humidity (80-85 %) while the late age larvae
require comparatively low temperature (24-25 oC) and low humidity (70-75 %)
within the above range.
The tiny worm coming out of the egg increases its body weight by 400
times during young age compared to just 85 times in later stages and thus the
growth in the first few days is to be reflected in the later developmental period.
For young age worms rearing, it is important to provide.
i) Provision of good quality leaves by maintaining chawki plot.
ii) Creation of pathogen free hygienic condition by proper disinfection
iii) Maintenance of higher temperature and RH.

Chawki rearing gardens/plots

Variety : S 36, V 1, S 54
Spacing : 60 x 60 cm
FYM : 40 MT/ha/yr in 2 split doses
NPK : 225:150:150 Kg/ha/yr in 8 split doses
Irrigation : once in 4-7 days.
Method of rearing:
i) Tray with paraffin was paper (120 x 90 cm x 20 dfls upto second
instar)
ii) Box rearing – 60 x60 or 90 x 120 cm (wooden boxes)
Black boxing:
Leaf preservation
Cleaning: It is the process of removing the silkworm excreta and leftover leaves
in the rearing bed.
Moulting:
Among the various steps involved in the rearing of silkworms the handling of
silkworms during moult is particular importance. Silkworms under proper rearing
conditions would al settle uniformly for moult and also come out of moult
uniformly.
Approach of moult:
Silkworm attains its maximum body growth for that particular instar and as such
body becomes stout ad strong.
♦ In relation to the size of the body, the head of the worm about the moult
appears quite small and also darker.
♦ At this time, a bed cleaning should be carried out, wider spacing is provided.
♦ After cleaning, the worms about the settle for moult are given one or two final
feeds of the instar with leaves cut to a comparatively smaller size, wider
spacing and finely chopped leaves help to reduce the humidity in the bed
which facilitates uniform moulting. If however, the humidity is high, a very
thin layer of lime powder may be dusted over the bed after the last feeding to
keep it dry. When all the larvae have settled for mould, feeding should be
stopped.

Moulting period : 15 – 30 hours

At moulting : The larvae will not feed. Don’ disturb. Rearing bed should be dry,
enable to crawl out of the old moult skin easily. Since the newly formed skin is
thin and delicate, under more humid conditions the worms become susceptible to
fungal attack.
After moult: After moulting, the new instar larvae come out their old skin. The
head is comparatively bigger in relation to the body and it is always bigger than
the head of the previous instar. The body of the worm is comparatively less shiny
and become loose skinned of the new instar larvae. Irregularity in moult.
Chawki rearing centers:
Young age larvae are reared by skilled labour in a centralized organization with
facilities for maintaining temperature and relative humidity and special mulberry
gardens grown exclusively for young age worm rearing. The farmers are given
worms for rearing after II or III moult.
Merits:
Plan simultaneous rearing so that a time gap is left is left between two crops.
Disinfection of entire village can be taken up. A particular hybrid combination
can be given in a particular season to get uniform type of cocoon.
Anomaly of varying prices for cocoons can be avoided.
Rs. 40/100 dfls upto III age
 Lecture 13
LATE AGE SILKWORM REARING

Late age silkworm rearing

The third, fourth and fifth instar larvae are considered as late age worms
They are reared in bamboo trays. Newspapers are spread over the trays to absorb
excess moisture in leaves and faecal pellets. The temperature and humidity
requirement gradually comes down as the stage advances. Leaves of medium
maturity (6th leaf onwards) are fed in the third and fourth age, and coarse leaves
are fed in the fifth age. Over matured and yellow leaves should be rejected, since
they may induce disease outbreak.

Bed disinfectants
Stage Vijetha
(before feeding) (Qty/100 DFLs) (g)
After 1st moult 50
After 2nd moult 150
After 3rd moult 800
After 4th moult 1000
On fourth day of final instar 2000
Total 4000

Moulting
After removing the paraffin papers spread the larvae evenly on the rearing
bed 6-8 h before settling for moult. Provide air circulation to avoid excess
humidity inside the room. Provide charcoal stove/heaters to raise the room
temperature during winter. Apply lime powder at 60 minutes before resumption
of feeding daily during rainy/winter seasons to reduce the dampness in bamboo
trays.
Mounting
After attaining full growth, the final instar worms cease to feed and are
ready to spin. Such worms are slightly translucent and raise their heads to find a
place for spinning. These worms have to be picked up and transferred to a
mountage for spinning cocoons. Mounting of worms should not be delayed as the
ripened worms will waste silk. About 800-900 worms (per m2 ) are to be kept on
a mountage. For 100 dfls, about 30 to 40 chandrikas are required. Mountages
should be kept in shade and in a well ventilated place during spinning.

Types of mountages
i) Chandrike : It comprises of a rectangular bamboo mat on which a
spiral of bamboo tape is fixed. The size is 180 cm x 120 cm. The tape is 4 to 5
cm broad and the space between the spirals should be 4 to 5 cm. It provides for
free passage of air so that the excreta of spinning silkworms dry up quickly and
not remain wet to stain the cocoons.
ii) Plastic mountages : These are to be used in rearing trays. Dimensions
120 cm x 90 cm when open with folds 5 cm apart which is strongly attacked to the
frame.
iii) Bottle brush type mountage : This is made with a twisted rope
of 120 cm to 150 cm long. Bamboo ring strips of 15 cm to 20 cm long are
provided in the form of a bottle brush. 2C2
iv) Rotary mountage

v) Centipede mountage

vi) Paddy straw mountage

vii) Coconut leaf mountage

Care during spinning
Quality of silk depends on the care taken at the time of spinning. Mature
worms are sensitive to temperature, humidity, light, etc., at the time of spinning.
The ripe worm requires space equal in area to square of the length of its body for
spinning. Proper spacing avoids wastage of silk for forming preliminary web and
avoids double cocoons. To prevent staining of cocoons, keep mountage in an
inclined position so that the urine may drop to the ground.

Maintenance of humidity
Fluctuation of humidity causes abrupt thinning and thickening of silk
filament. A relative humidity of 60-70% is ideal for spinning. Proper ventilation
should be provided by spreading straw mats below the mountage to absorb the
liquid excreta. Lighting should be moderate and even. Improper lighting (bright
light or dark shadow) causes crowding of larvae to shaded area leading to double
cocoons. Dead worms and non-spinners should be removed on the 2nd day of
spinning. Apply malathion 5% dust at the base of mountage stand to protect the
silkworm from predatory ants.

Harvesting
The silkworms complete spinning in 2 to 3 days but the cocoons should not
be harvested at this time as the worms inside are still in the prepupal stage.
Harvesting should be done on the fifth day (7th day for bivoltine hybrids) when
pupae are fully formed and hard. Harvesting should not be done when the pupa is
in amber colour. Dead and diseased worms on the mountages should be removed
before harvest. Marketing of cocoons should be done on the sixth day (8th day for
bivoltine hybrids).
Shoot rearing for late age worms
Silkworm larvae consume 85% of their food requirement during fifth instar.
Fifty per cent of the labour input is utilized during the last seven days of rearing.
Separate rearing house may be established for shoot rearing in shady areas.
Separate room should be provided for young age worm rearing, leaf storing and
hall for late age worm rearing.
Shoot rearing rack of 1.2m x 11m size will be sufficient to rear 50 dfls. On
all the sides of the shelf provide 15 cm space to prevent the migration of the
larvae. The shelves may be arranged in three tier system with 50 cm space
between the tiers. The rack stand may be fabricated with wood or steel whereas
the rearing seat can be of wire mesh or bamboo mat.
Shoot harvesting is done by cutting the shoots, when they are at 1 m and
shoots can be harvested 60-70 days after pruning. The shoots can be stored by
placing the shoots vertically upwards in dark cooler room and by providing a thin
layer of water (3 cm) in the storage room, and place the cut ends in the water for
moisture retention.

Feeding
* Provide a layer of newspaper in rearing shelf.
* Disinfect the bed, spread the shoot in perpendicular to width of the bed.
* Place top and bottom ends of the shoots alternatively to ensure equal
mixing of different qualities of leaves.
* Transfer the fourth instar larvae after moulting.
* Watch for feeding rate from 4th day of fourth instar. If 90% of larvae have
not settled for moulting, provide one or two extra feedings.
* Provide 3 feedings during rainy/winter months and 4 feedings during
summer rearing.

Spacing : 18-36 m2/100 dfls.

Bed cleaning
* Bed cleaning is done once during 2nd day of fifth instar following rope (or)
net method.
* In rope method, spread 2 m length of rope (two numbers) at parallel row
leaving 0.5m on other side.
* After 2 to 3 feedings, ends of the ropes are pulled to the centre to make it
into a bundle.
* In net cleaning method, spread 1.5 cm2 size net across the bed.
* After 2 or 3 feedings, the nets are lifted and the old bed is cleaned and
disinfected.
* Transfer the net to newer shelf, spread the net over the shoots; larvae will
migrate to lower layer.
Advantages
1. Labour saving upto 70% when compared on hour to hour basis with leaf
feeding method.
2. Leaf saving upto 15-20%. Hence, leaf cocoon ratio is less by 2-3 kg and
extra cocoon production.
3. Better cocoon characters and effective rate of rearing (ERR).
4. Better preservation of leaf quality both during storing and on the bed.
5. More organic matter production (upto 18 tonnes per ha per year).
6. Better hygienic conditions can be maintained.
7. Handling of silkworms minimised. Hence, contamination and spreading of
disease reduced.
8. Bed cleaning only once after IV moult.
9. Worms and leaves are kept away from the litter. Hence, chances of
secondary contamination are minimised.
10. Labour dependent risk is reduced.
Disadvantages
1. Required rearing room floor area is more (by 30%)
2. Bed refusals will not be available as a cattle feed.
3. Planting materials (cuttings) will not be available.
 SILKWORM REARING (2 BOXES OR 40,000 EGGS OR 100 DFLs (Multivoltine x Bivoltine)

Space Size of Tempera

No. of Qty. of Leaf size No. of
Instar Colour Leaf reauired net ture RH%
days leaf (kg) (cm2) cleanings
(m2) (mm2) (OC)
Once a
I 4 Black 3rd - 4th 2-4 0.5 - 2.0 04 - 1.0 2 26 - 28 80 - 85
day
2 times a
II 2 Ash 4th - 5th 4-6 2.0- 4.0 1.0 - 3.0 2 26 - 28 80 - 85
day
Alternativ
III 4-5 Ash 5th - 6th 30 - 40 4.0 - 6.0 3.0 - 6.0 10 25 - 26 75 - 80
e day
18
Alternate
IV 4-5 Ash 6th - 7th 70 - 100 Full leaf bamboo 20 24 - 26 70 - 75
day
trays
18 - 36
Yellowish 6th, 7th, Alternate
V 6-8 600 - 650 Full leaf bamboo 20 24 -25 65 - 70
brown 8th, 9th day
trays
 Lecture 14
PESTS OF MULBERRY SILKWORM AND THEIR MANAGEMENT

1. Uzi fly, Exorista bombycis Wiedemann, (Tachinidae: Diptera)

Morphology of Uzi fly adults

Adults are blackish grey in colour. The head is triangular in shape. On the
dorsal side of thorax, there are four longitudinal black bands. The abdomen is
conical. The first abdominal segment is black and the rest, greyish yellow.

Morphological differences between male and female Uzi fly adults

Character Male Female
1. Body length Longer (12 mm) Relatively shorter (10 mm)
2. External genitalia Covered with brownish Not so.
orange hairs on the ventral
side of the abdominal tip
3. Lateral regions of Covered with bristles which Bristles not dense, restricted
abdomen are more dense mostly to last two segments
4. Longitudinal lines on the More vivid Less vivid
dorsum of the thorax
5. Pulvilli Larger Smaller
6. Life span 10 - 18 days 2 -3 days longer than males

Type of damage: Mature maggot causes reduction in yield of cocoons and

cocoon quality. Causes death of silkworm larva.

Symptoms
* Presence of creamy white oval eggs on the skin of larvae in the initial stage.
* Presence of black scar on the larval skin
* Silkworm larvae die before they reach the spinning stage (if they are
attacked in the early stage).
* If attacked during later instars, pierced cocoon is noticed.
Period of occurrence: Throughout the year, severity is more in winter months
Management
a) Maintain sanitary and hygienic conditions in the rearing room.
b) Provide physical barriers like wire mesh in the doors and windows of the
rearing rooms.
c) Spray 1 per cent benzoic acid over the larvae to kill the eggs of uzi fly.
d) Dissolve the uzicide tablets in the water (2 tablets/l) to attract the adults.
e) Release the gregarious, ectopupal hyperparasitoid, Nesolynx thymus
(Eulophidae: Hymenoptera) @ 1 lakh adults/100 dfls during night hours.
Release the hyperparasitoid in three split doses @ 8000, 16,000 and
76,000/100 DFLs during fourth, fifth instars and after cocoon harvest
respectively.

Mass culturing of Nesolynx thymus

Collect Uzi maggots from cocoon market

Allow them to pupate in a sterile dry sand bed

Collect 2 days old puparia for parasitism

Place 30 puparia in 500 ml sterilised empty saline bottle

Release the hyperparasitoids @ 5:1 (Host : Parasite) ratio

Provide 1 drop of vitamin E for 10 ml of dilute honey (50%) in a wax strip as adult food

Place it in a cool place for parasitoid development

On an average, 110 parasitoids develop from a puparium

2. Dermestid beetles, Dermestes ater (Dermestidae: Coleoptera)
Type of damage: Grubs and adults reduce the quality of cocoons and damage the
pupae kept for pairing in grainage.
Symptoms: Grubs and adults bore into the cocoons and eat the dried pupae,
attack pierced and melted cocoons stored within the grainage. Presence of small
holes (pierced cocoons) in the pupae and abdominal parts are damaged in the adult
moths.

Period of occurrence: Throughout the year in tropics.

Management
a) Store the pierced cocoons in a separate room.
b) Avoid long storage of pierced cocoons.
c) Maintain hygienic conditions in the rearing house and cocoon storage
rooms.
d) Sun dry the pierced cocoons once in a week. Dip the wooden utensils in
0.2 per cent malathion for 2-3 minutes. After 10 days, wash the trays in
water and sun dry and reuse them.

Besides the above pests, the silkworm and stored cocoons are attacked by
earwig itch mite, nematode and rat.
 Lecture 15
DISEASE OF MULBERRY SILKWORM AND THEIR MANAGEMENT

DISEASES OF MULBERRY SILKWORM

I. VIRAL DISEASES
1. Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus (NPV)
2. Cytoplasmic Polyhedrosis Virus (CPV)
3. Infectious Flacherie Virus (IFV)
4. Densonucleosis Virus (DNV)
II. BACTERIAL DISEASES
1. Septicaemia
2. Sotto Bacterial toxicosis
III. FUNGAL DISEASES
1. White muscardine
2. Green muscardine
3. Aspergillosis
IV. PROTOZOAN DISEASE
1. Pebrine
Causal agent : Nosema bombycis, Nosematidae
Site of infection : Gut and cytoplasmic tissues
Characters of spores : Mature spore is oval with three layered membrane and
appears light blue under microscope
Symptoms : Observed in eggs, larvae, pupae and adults
Egg stage : Poor egg number
Lack of adequate adherence to the substratum
Lack of egg uniformity, more of unfertilized and dead
eggs
Poor and irregular hatching.
Larval stage : Poor appetite, retarded growth, irregular size, irregular
moulting and sluggishness. Transovarially infected
larvae die before third moult. Body wrinkled with rustic
brown colour. Irregular pepper like spots on the larval
skin.
Pupal stage : Pupae are flabby and swollen with lustless and softened
abdomen. Pupae fail to metamorphose into adults
Adult stage : Moth emergence is delayed, clubbed wings, distorted
antennae, mating improper, scales easily come off. Moth
lays eggs with gluey substance.
Course of the disease : Chronic
Pathological changes : Larval body shows wrinkled skin with rustic brown
colour, irregular pepper like spots on larval skin, pupae
are flabby and swollen. In adults, presence of clubbed
wings and distorted antennae.
Source of infection : Rearing of transovarially and surface contaminated
layings, diseased and dead larvae, faeces of larvae,
moths, diseased egg shells, larval and pupal exuviae and
contaminated mulberry leaf.
Diagnosis : Examination of spores under microscope

V. MANAGEMENT OF DISEASES
1. Management of Viral Diseases
a) Sun drying of rearing appliances for one/two days
b) Disinfection of rearing room and appliances with 5% bleaching
powder
c) Disinfection of worms, trays and discarding of diseased worms
d) Ensure proper ventilation and air circulation
e) Provide proper bed spacing
f) Feed the larvae with nutritious mulberry leaves
 g) Collect and burn infected larvae, faecal matter and bed refuses
h) Early diagnosis and rejection of infected lots
i) Dust the bed disinfectant, Vijetha (or) Resham Keet Oushadh on the
larvae, after each moult and ½ hr. before resumption of feeding (3
kg/100 dfl).

j) Spray 1% of extract of Psoralea coryleifolia on mulberry leaves,

shade dry and feed worms once during third instars.

2. Management of Bacterial Diseases

a) Maintenance of hygienic condition
b) Disinfection of rearing room and appliances
c) Disinfection of worms, trace and discarding of sick worms
d) Avoid injury to the worms, overcrowding of trays and accumulation
of faeces in the rearing bed
e) Sound management, improving the rearing environment and feed
stuff
f) Feeding the larvae with healthy nutritious leaves.
g) Early diagnosis and rejection of infected lots
h) Avoid spraying commercial B. t. insecticides in nearby mulberry
field.
i) Apply antibiotics like Streptomycin/Tetracyclin/Ampicillin
3. Management of Fungal Diseases
a) Sundry the rearing appliances.
b) Disinfect the rearing room and utensils with 5 per cent bleaching powder
c) Avoid low temperature and high humidity in the rearing room
d) Keep the rearing bed thin and dry
e) Early diagnosis and rejection of infected lots
f) Apply Dithane M45 (3 kg/100 dfls) / Vijetha supplement as disinfectant on the
larvae
g) Disinfect rearing rooms and trays with 4 per cent pentachlorophenol to
control Aspergillosis.
4. Management of Pebrine
a) Produce healthy eggs
b) Disinfection of rearing room and utensils
c) Maintain strict hygienic conditions during rearing
d) Surface disinfect the layings in 2 per cent formalin for 10 minutes before
incubation.
c) Collect and burn the diseased eggs, larvae, pupae and moths, bed refuses,
faecal pellets, etc.
 I. VIRAL DISEASES
Particulars NPV CPV IFB
Causal organism BmNPV (Borrelina bombycis Smitha virus, Reoviridae Morator virus, Picornavirid
virus) Baculoviridae
Site of infection Nuclei of tracheae, fat bodies, Cytoplasm of cylindrical cells Cytoplasm of goblet cell
epidermis and haemolymphs of midgut midgut
Shape of Hexahedron, DNA Irregular hexahedron/tetragon No polyhedra formed
polyhedra
Symptoms Swollen segments, milkywhite Empty headed, diarrhoea, Diarrhoea, head and th
body colour, movements of the motionless, faeces irregular upheld, motionless, fa
larvae along the periphery of shaped, milky white stingein irregular shaped, brownish
the trays and hang down advanced stages in the gut
symptoms

Pathological Bodywall : Burst easily on Milky-white in the posterior Burst uneasily, transparent.
changes slight disturbance part of midgut, annular wrinkles polyhedra yellowish green
Haemolymph : Milky-white formed transparent, no milky w
with numerous polyhedral tinge.
bodies
Source of Diseased worms contaminating Faeces of diseased worms Faeces of diseased w
infection environment and leaves, per os contaminating environment and contaminating environment
or wound infection leaves, per os infection leaves. Per os infection
Diagnosis Polyhedra in the haemolymph Polyhedra in the posterior part Biological and serological t
under microscopic examination of midgut under microscopic
examination
 II. BACTERIAL DISEASES
Particulars Septicaemia Sotto
Casual agent Black thorax septicaemia by Bacillus sp., Bacillaceae Strains of Bacillus thur
Red septicaemia by Serratia marcescens
Site of infection Haemolymph Gut and nervous system
Characters of spores Spores subterminal, gram positive in Bacillus sp. The spore produces delt
S.marcescens is non-sporulating and gram negative
Symptoms Common disease symptoms are sluggish movement, Loss of appetite, convu
decreased appetite, straightened body, swollen thorax, paralysis, distress, sudd
shrinkage of abdominal segments. Vomitting and bead like death, the corpse is out
faeces, loss of clasping power of prolegs. Body becomes soft appears hook shaped.
and discoloured. Body wall easily ruptures and emits foul and black and rot exudi
smelling fluid.
Pathological changes Body wall ruptures easily emitting foul smelling fluid Body is outstretched, h
shaped. Exudes foul sm

Source of infection Injury or wounds and rarely per orally Usually per oral and wo

Diagnosis By differential staining technique By differential staining

 III. FUNGAL DISEASES
Particulars White muscardine Green muscardine
Causal agent Beauveria bassiana, Moniliaceae Nomuraea rileyi, Moniliaceae Asp
Site of infection Body wall, spiracles Body wall and haemolymph Bod
Characters of Colourless, globular or oval shape and Conidium oval shaped and slightly Con
conidium porcelain white pointed at one end. Light green and single
celled
Symptoms Appearance of moist specks on the skin, Appearance of dark brown irregular Infe
loss of appetite and inactive. Body lesions on the ventral, dorsal and lateral Lar
becomes limp, loss of skin elasticity, stops sides of diseased larvae, diarrhoea, sho
movement, diarrhoea vomiting and finally vomiting and death, whole body is die
dies. covered with mycelia with fresh green ext
conidia. Bod
Course of the disease Subacute Subacute Sub
Pathological changes Body becomes stiff and hard, body colour Body wall becomes hardened and covered Har
changes to pink colour, wooly aerial with mycelial mat with green conidia site
hyphae grow out between intersegmental bec
membrane. Body is covered with white
powdery conida, cocoon sound like dried
cocoons when shaken. Body of moth is
hardened and the wings fall off easily.
Source of infection Mummified larvae, infected seat paper, Dead mummified larvae and infected wild Mo
tray and dead wild lepidopterous larvae lepidopterous insects from field
from the mulberry field.
Diagnosis Conidial examination under microscope. Conidial examination under microscope Con
 Lecture 16
Post Cocoon technology
Colour and shape of the cocoon
Colour of the cocoon is racial character and it depends on the pigment
present in the sericin layer of the silk filament. The colour will be removed along
with the sericin layer at the time of degumming.

Shape of cocoon
It is a racial character. Shape of the cocoon helps to determine the variety
and reelability of cocoon.

Selection of the cocoon

Good cocoons for reeling are selected based on the compactness, grain,
weight of individual cocoon, weight of cocoon shell and shell ratio.

Compactness : When pressed between fingers, it should be firm,

compact and slightly elastic.
Grain : Remove the outer layer of cocoon (Deflossing) and
observe for the granules in the cocoon. Coarse granular
cocoons make poor reeling.
Weight of the cocoon : Important commercial character and it indicates
approximate quantity of raw silk that can be reeled from
it (Renditta - quantity of cocoons used to produce one
unit of raw silk).
Weight of shell : More important character than the weight of the cocoon.
Larger the weight of the shell, greater is the silk yield.
Shell ratio (SR) : This is calculated by using the following formula.

Weight of the cocoon shell (g)

SR (%) = ------------------------------------------------------- x 100
Weight of the whole cocoon (g)
 This value gives a fair indication of the quantity of raw silk that can be
reeled from the lot of fresh cocoons. It varies from 12 to 24 per cent.

Identification of defective cocoons

For good reeling and to get high raw silk percentage, cocoons should be
healthy and free from defectiveness. There are 14 types of defective cocoons.
The common types of defective cocoons noticed in Tamil Nadu are

a) Immature cocoons : This is due to harvesting of immature cocoons (5

days for cross breeds and 7 days for bivoltines are
ideal periods for harvesting)
b) Urinated cocoons : Cocoons will be dotted with black stains.
Squeezing of cocoons emanates a bad smell.
c) Loose knit/fragile : The shell is loosely woven with open spaces.
Poor in /thin cocoons silk content, gets water
logged while reeling and
become unreelable.
d) Mould cocoon : Improper storage of stifled cocoon leads to mould
attack
e) Double cocoons : Large, course and irregular cocoons of abnormal
shape which have been spun by two or
occasionally more than two silkworms. Shells are
made up of entangled silk thread and unfit for
reeling.

Stifling of cocoon
Stifling is a process of killing the pupae without, in any way, interfering
with the structure of silk shell around it. Steam stifling is the common method
adopted. In this method, green cocoons are exposed to the direct action of the
very hot wet steam for the required period.
Reeling water
For cooking and reeling, water plays an important role. It should be
colourless, limpid and odourless with pH of 6.8 - 7.4 in cold condition with a total
hardness of 35 - 90 ppm. Reeling unit should be established where there is
availability of good quality water. To certain extent, the hardness can be corrected
by adding water softening agent (EDTA).

Reeling
The unwinding of silk filament from the cocoons as raw silk. It requires
assembling together of the filaments from five or more cocoons depending on the
thickness of the raw silk required in the weaving industry.

Cooking
The filaments are held fast by the natural gum, sericin. It is necessary to
soften the gum by putting the cocoon in hot water before unwinding in the reeling
machine. Softening is called as cooking or boiling.

There are two systems of cooking viz., floating system (top reeling) and
sunken system. In the floating system, the cocoons are cooked only to the extent
the shell becomes wet and they float in water when cocoons are put into the
reeling basin. Cocoons are treated in an open pan and they are hand brushed in the
same basins and after getting true ends, the cooked cocoons will be transferred to
reeling basins where the temperature is lower.
Brushing
The next step in reeling is brushing. This is done to remove the entangled
mass of filament.

Reeling
For reeling of silk filament from cocoons, different reeling devices are used
1. Country charkha, improved CSRTI Charka - hand driven
2. Cottage basin - hand driven or power driven
3. Filature reeling basin - power driven with more mechanism.

Charkha
Cooking and reeling take place at high temperature and high speed.
Inferior and defective cocoons can be reeled more economically and charkha can
be fabricated by village carpenter and blacksmith. Cost of charkha silk is lower
and more suitable for handlooms both for Warp and Weft. It is also used for Weft
in power loom.

Description of Charkha reeling device

The cocoons are cooked in the basin, the filaments are collected after
brushing and passed through a hole (Tharapatti) in ordinary thread guide device.
One thread is crossed with another thread to form chambon type of croissure in
order to eliminate water from the thread and agglutination of the filament.

The thread is passed through a distributor and reeled on a larger wooden

reel. Usually four ends are maintained in this device.

Croissure
Intertwining or crossing of threads by twisting in a series of spirals. It
makes the filament compact, round and smooth and firmly cements the filament
and squeezes out excess water.

Cottage basin
It consists of a cooking unit and a reel bench to which the reeling basins are
attached. Hot water to the reeling basin is supplied through taps drawn from the
drum fitted on the cooking unit. Each basin is designed to reel six to ten ends.
The filament collected in the basin are passed through a porcelain button to clean
the slugs and waste and through an independent croissure (Tavellette type) which
is more efficient. Finally the thread is passed through a traverse guide to a small
reel.
 Filature (multiend reeling machine) and automatic reeling machine are
under public sector. Visit Assistant Director of Sericulture Office to see the
multiend reeling machine and compare the different systems in respect of reeling
end, cooking and reeling, basin, temperature at reeling, casting of filament, use of
button hole, type of croissure, wheel circumference, re-reeling, yield and quality
of silk among country charka, cottage basin, multiend reeling machine and
automatic reeling machine.

Re-reeling
The raw silk obtained from cottage basin, multiend and automatic reeling
machine are re-wound on to a large reel to have uniform width, and length and to
remove excess moisture. It facilitates diamond crossing to form a skein or a hank
after lacing.

Lacing
It consists of passing a thread across the skein in such a way as to divide
into 5 equal parts with the purpose of keeping the threads in place to ensure the
thread lacing unwound easily.

Skeining
Twisting of raw silk several times. Skeining is done by a skeining machine
or a turner.

Book making
Twisted skeins are packed in bundles of 2 kgs and they are known as
books. Books are packed in bales. Indian Silk bale is 20 kgs.

Silk throwing (Anglo-Saxon word; means twist)

A process of actual twisting, winding with or without soaking and doubling
without drawing of the continuous raw silk fibre to make it into a yarn suitable for
knitting, weaving, etc. The sequence of operation involved in the production of
silk fabrics are
 a. Winding (raw silk on to bobbin)
b. Doubling
c. Twisting setting
d. Rewinding (warpers bobbin or pirn winding, hank making)
f. Warping
g. Weaving

Degumming
Removal of sericin layer from the silkyarn
Examine the degumming process and note down as how they remove the
sericin layer. Will this process dissolve the fibroin layer? Discuss with reeler and
write down the reason.

Bleaching
Removal of colour from the raw silk. Now you will be knowing that colour
of the cocoon has no value in reeling unit. Bleaching helps to add desired colour
to the silk.

Dyeing
Adding desired colour to filament. Five types of dyes are used (i) direct
dyes (ii) acid dyes (iii) metal complex dyes (iv) milling dyes and (v) selected
reactive dyes.

Weaving
Finishing
Conventional method of finishing includes calendering, weighing,
scrapping, starch and glue finish, etc. to impart/improve certain characteristics like
drape, fall, handle, feel, stiffness, weight, etc. Recently special finishes like
anticrease and flame retardant finishes are attempted on silk.
Denier
A unit expressed to denote the thickness of silk filament. It is the weight of
9000 m of silk filament expressed as gram. Filament denier decreases from outside
to inside gradually.

Layers of shell
1. Outer layer/Floss/Blaze : Non reelable waste
2. Middle compact shell : Reelable
3. Inner layer/Pelade layer : Reeling waste

Composition of cocoon shell

Fibroin : 70 - 81%
Sericin : 19 - 20%
Fat and wax : 0.5 - 1%
Ash and colouring matter : 1.0 - 1.4%
 Lecture 17
NON-MULBERRY SILKWORMS

ERICULTURE
The rearing of eri silkworms is known as ericulture. It is the only
domesticated non-mulberry variety. Eri fabric is commonly known as poorman's
silk.

Taxonomic position and racial character

Samia cynthia ricini, Saturniidae, Lepidoptera.

The wild form of eri silkworm, Philosamia cynthia (n = 13) is also known
as Attacus cynthia. It is either bi or trivoltine in nature. The cocoon is brick red
in colour. P.ricini (n = 14) was evolved from P.cynthia by the breakage of a
chromosome during course of evolution. P.ricini cocoon is white in colour and it
fetches higher price. It is a multivoltine domesticiated species. Interbreeding of
Ricini with Cynthia often occurs and the mixed culture is referred as Samia
cynthia ricini.

Morphology and biology of Eri silkworm

Adult
Brown and black with pink border, abdomen wooly white, crescent like
marks on all wings.

Egg
Medium sized and oval in shape with very tough smooth shell. Eggs are
deposited in 400 to 500 in clusters. Eggs laid by the first two days are more
healthy and used for rearing. Eggs are white but the gum gives them an yellow
look.
 The primary host plants are Castor (Recinus communis) and kesseru
(Heteropanax fragrans) and the secondary host plants are tapioca (Manihot
utilissima) papaya (Carica papaya), barkesseru (Ailanthus glandulosa) and
payam (Evodia flaxinifoliai).

Food plants
Among the food plants, castor is much preferred due to higher water
content, ash, nitrogen percentage, acidity and crude protein.
Larval stage
Eri silkworm undergoes four moults with five instars. The domestic
S.ricini exhibits several larval strains viz., plain, spotted, semizebra and zebra
white. Blue and green based larval body colour also occurs. These strains cross
breed naturally. There are several special pigments on prothorax and clasper. The
body is with many tubercles and spots. Instars can be fixed based on the markings
in prothorax and anal clasper.
First instar
Length about 5 mm. The head is black and shiny. Rear the first instar from
brushing and note down the larval duration.
Second stage
Length about 12-15 mm, head black and shiny.
Third stage:
18-21 mm long. The head is black.
Fourth stage
It is about 40 mm. The colour of the larvae tends to change in this instar.
The body is covered with a white powdery substance or bloom.

Fifth stage
Larvae eat enormously and grow quickly and can attain 95 to 100 mm long
and 15 mm thickness. The general colour of the larvae remains white. Some
become green.
Cocoon
Eri silk cocoons exhibits colour dimorphism as brick red or white in colour.
White cocoons are preferred. Matured larvae leave an exit hole at one end which
facilitates easy emergence of the moth. Eri larvae spin discontinuous filament and
moths can be allowed to emerge before reeling. The eri pupae are not killed as
done in mulberry silkworm and hence it is known as 'ahimsa silk'. Buddhist
monks use only silk fabric made out of eri silkworm.

Rearing of Eri worms

Incubation
_ne disease free laying contains about 300 eggs. Eggs laid by the female
on the first two days are selected for rearing. The eggs are treated with formalin
2% on fourth day. Keep the eggs in bamboo trays covered with wax paper.
Incubation at 22oC with high humidity favours percentage of hatching.
Brushing
Tiny worms tend to remain together and do not easily move out. Provide
tender leaves. The worms cling on to the under surface. Transfer the leaves to
bamboo trays.

Feeding
Provide older leaves to the grown up worms. The leaves should be dry and
dust free. Avoid yellow leaves. For the first instar, give five feedings per day
(including night). From fourth stage onwards, give three day feedings and one
night feeding.

Moulting care
Follow all the care recommended for mulberry silkworm rearing. A slight
lowering of temperature in the beginning and little increase in humidity towards
and end of moulting is recommended.
Spacing
Proper spacing helps in better growth and avoids disease epizootic. In the
first stage, development of the worm is most rapid. provide spacing second day
after hatching. Adjust the operation along with bed cleaning. Worms require
three times the space occupied by its body.

Spacing required for 10 layings

Space covered by (300 worms) in sq.ft
Age
the worms
Beginning End of the stage

First 4.5 times ¼ 3.5

Second 3.5 times 3.5 7

Third 3 times 7 16

Fourth 3 times 6 40

Fifth 2.5 times 40 80

Bed cleaning
During first instar, one cleaning is sufficient because of smaller size of the
larvae and tender leaves. In the second stage, first cleaning is done after four
feedings and second cleaning is done when the worms loose their appetite and
prepare to go to moult.
In third and fourth stages, first cleaning is done after three feedings in the
first day. Second cleaning should be given at maximum appetite period. Third
cleaning is given when larvae are preparing to go to moult.
In the fifth instar, bed cleaning is carried out once in the morning.
Three methods of cleaning are carried out.
1. Cleaning with half burnt paddy husk or only husk.
2. Net cleaning
3. Husk and net method
Paddy husk method
A thin layer of husk is sprinkled over the bed. The worms rise above
through the husk. It is used when the bed is damp in moist season.

Net cleaning
This method is similar to that of mulberry silkworm net cleaning.
Husk and net method
Combination of both. Worms are lifted after two feedings and transferred to
another tray.
Mounting
Transfer the mature worms to bamboo baskets loosely filled with dry paddy
straw. Worms spin cocoons in between the folds. Provide proper ventilation.

Harvesting
Worms complete spinning on third day, and so collect the cocoons in fifth
day.

Spinning
Eri cocoons are open mouthed and not composed of continuous filament.
They are not reelable. Cocoons are boiled in soda of potash for degumming. After
degumming, cocoons are put in bags and boiled in water. Later cocoons are
washed in cold water for several times and shade dried. Cocoons thus prepared can
be spun in wet condition with takli and in semidry condition with hand charkha
(spinning wheel).

TASAR CULTURE
Tasar silkworm is wild and reared outdoor. Tropical and temperate tasar
silkworm are reared in India. Tropical tasar is produced in humid areas like Bihar,
Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and to a less extent in Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh,
Maharashtra and Karnataka while temperate tasar in Jammu & Kashmir,
Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram. Antheraea mylitta is tropical tasar whereas A.
pernyi, A. proylei and A. yamamai are temperate tasar species. A. mylitta and A.
proylei species are native to India. Tasar worms are uni/bi/trivoltine. It undergoes
pupal diapause.

Food plants
Tropical tasar silkworm is polyphagous in nature and feeds on Terminalia
tomentosa, (asan), T. arjuna (arjun), Shorea robusta (soal) and Zizyphus jujuba
(ber.)

Taxonomy
Tropical tasar, Anthereae mylitta, (n=31), Saturniidae : Lepidoptera.
Morphology
Egg : Egg is oval and exhibits bilateral symmetry along the anteroposterior
axis.

Observation
Observe for the presence of colour, line marking etc., and note down.
Larva
The larva is tetramoulter with five instars.

The larvae exhibit different markings in different stages. These spots are
well differentiated in prothoracic region and clasper. Closely observe the markings
in the prothoracic region and anal flap and make sketches.

* First instar larvae have a black mid dorsal line extending from first to
seventh abdominal segments and dumb bell shaped black mark on the
eighth segment.

Third instar
Third instar larvae have a yellow lateral line from second to the tenth of
abdominal segments.
Tubercles
The larva has five types of tubercles viz., dorsal, upper lateral, lateral, lower
lateral and caudal. They are black in first instar, orange red in second, violet in the
third and fourth instars. Number of tubercles present in the larval body differs with
first thoracic, second and third thoracic segments and 1 to 7th abdominal
segments.
Shining spots
Silvery white lateral shining spots (oval/triangular) appear on the lateral
side from third instar onwards. Some species are without spots. They may have
symmetrical or asymmetrical pattern.

Cocoon
The cocoon is single-shelled, pendant, oval, closed and reelable with non-
flossy shell with fine grain. At the anterior end, there is well formed dark brown
peduncle with a ring. Cocoons are brown, yellow or grey and each cocoon weighs
10 to 12 g and measures 6 cm x 4 cm. Larvae spin continuous filament like
mulberry silkworm. Silk filament is permanent brown. The length of the filament
ranges from 600 - 1200 metres.

Pupa
Obtect pupa. On 8th and 9th abdominal segments, sexual markings are seen
- female with linear marking and male with round genital aperture.
Adult
Moths exhibit sexual dimorphism. Female moths are bigger with a
distended abdomen and narrow bipectinate antennae. The females are polymorphic
in colour, grey and yellow. Males are small and brick red or brown coloured. It is
a non-feeding stage with vestigeal mouth parts. The antennae of the male are
bushy (branched) and abdomen narrower compared to that of the female.
[
Rearing
T. arjuna plantation planted at 1.2 x 1.2 m spacing becomes suitable for
rearing within three years. Keep the plantation at 2 - 3 m tall by pruning.
Terminalia plantation should be kept clean and base of the each tree trunk covered
with any insecticidal dust to prevent the dispersal of the ants from soil to tree.
Remove red ant colonies (Oecophylla) in the tree to avoid predation on young
larvae. The above spacing is effective with a leaf yield of about 18,000 kg of
leaf/ha after 4 years from plantation, capable of sustaining about 450 dfls. This
type of plantation is termed as economic plantation.

Brushing
Newly hatched larvae can be directly transferred to tree branches. A small
twig should be placed over each newly hatched larva and then tied on the tree for
uniform distribution.
The first instar can be reared under controlled condition on cut twigs, kept
in a cage. The bottom of the twigs should be immersed in water kept in a bottle or
earthern vessel to prevent quick drying of leaves. The rearing of larvae can be
taken upto 3rd instars under nylon netting. Fourth instar can be transferred to
forest plantation. Moult of I to IV instars occur in 3-4, 5-7, 7-8 and 8-10 days
respectively while the V instar takes 15 days of voracious feeding to become full
grown when it measures 12-15 cm and weighs 45 to 50 g. The cocoons are
collected by tribals and stifled.

Stifling and reeling of cocoons

(1) Tasar silkworm cocoons are rather hard and hence they are first soaked
in 5% Na2CO3 (soda) solution for 18 hours and (2) then subjected to
steam cooking in pressure chamber for 2 ½ hours. (3) After 24 hours,
the cocoons are washed in 0.5% formalin for 15-20 minutes. These
steps give silk fibres a greater tensile strength. (4) Cocoons are than
 squeezed to expel water and reeled on a reeling machine. Threads from
4 cocoons are used for reeling.

ECONOMICS OF SERICULTURE

The quantity of equipments required for rearing 100 DFLs are as follows:

Sl.No. Item No. required

1. Chawaki stand 1
2. Rearing stand 5 singles or 3 doubles
3. Chawki trays 10
4. Rearing trays 50
5. Ant wells 25
6. Mountages 50
7. Paraffin paper 20 m2
8. Foam rubber strips 50 m2
9. Leaf collection baskets 6
10. Leaf preservation chamber 1
11. Leaf chopping board 1
12. Leaf chopping knives 2
13. Leaf chopping mats 2
14. Feeding stands 2
15. Feathers 2
16. Thermohygrometers 2
17. Disiinfection pads 2
18. Sprayer (high volume) 1
 D. Cost of silkworm Unit cost Utility period Depreciation
rearing years value/year
1. Rearing room 40,000 25 4000
2. Shoot rearing rack 3 tire 6,000 10 600
unit of 5' x 35' (4 nos.)
3. Chawki rearing stand (2) 500 10 50
4. Wooden trays (20) 2,000 10 200
5. Leaf chopping board (1) 500 50 50
6. Knives (2) 100 10 10
7. Bamboo mountages (100) 10,000 3 300
8. Foam pads (40) 250 5 --
9. Knapsack sprayer (1) 2,000 10 10
10. Thermometer (1) 100 10 --
11. Hygrometer (1) 500 10 5
12. Gunny cloth (50 M) 750 3 20
5245
E. Rearing expenses
1. Disease free laying (DFLs) purchase 5000 @ 2.50 / DFL 12500
2. Labour for feeding silkworm 450 man days 36000
3. Cost of paraffin paper - bleaching powder, old newspaper 1000
4. Non recurring depreciation value 5245
54745
F. Economics of Sericulture
1. Mulberry leaf yield 60000
2. Cost of leaf production A+B+C 75950
3. Cost of leaf production per kg of leaves Rs.1.27
4. Sale of cocoon 3000 kg 60 kg/100 DFLs @ Rs.120 / kg 360000
5. Cost of cocoon production (E) 54745
6. Bye-product value 4000
7. Total expenditure of silkworm rearing 130695
8. Net income 229305
9. Cost of production 1 kg of cocoon 43.57
 From: "P&H Sericulture" <sericulture@tnau.ac.in>
To: venkat@tnau.ac.in
Cc: deanagri@tnau.ac.in
Date: 17 Dec 2003, 04:24:58 PM
Subject: Hosting of UG notes- SER 401- lectures 7-17

I submit to enclose the lecture schedules from 7 to 17 for the UG

course SER 401 Sericulture Technology
(1+1) as attachment. The lecture schedules from 1 to 6 has already
been sent through mail.

Professor and Head

Department of Sericulture
TNAU, Coimbatore.

Copy submitted to Dean (Agri), TNAU, Coimbatore

TNAU, Coimbatore.

Attachment: SER 401 lect 7 to 17.doc (509K)