FLIUD MECHANICS (Pr)

Topic: OPEN ENDED

Submitted to: Sir NAVEED KUNDHAR

Submitted by: 22PG104

 Topic: Calibration of Pressure Gauge Using a Dead

EXPERIMENT REPORT

ABSTRACT

In this experiment we calibrate a pressure gauge using the apparatus “Dead Weight Calibrator”. This
apparatus works on the principle of Pascal’s Law. A change in pressure at any point in an enclosed fluid at
rest is transmitted undiminished to all points in the fluid. A dead weight calibrator uses the weight
pressure which are predetermined to calibrate the pressure gauge. By comparing readings from pressure
gauge and weights that are placed on the apparatus one can easily determine the accuracy of the pressure
gauge. Calibration defines the accuracy and quality of measurements recorded using a piece of
equipment. Over time there is a tendency for results and accuracy to ‘drift’ particularly when using
particular technologies or measuring particular parameters such as temperature and pressure. To be
confident in the results being measured there is an ongoing need to service and maintain the calibration
of equipment throughout its lifetime for reliable, accurate and repeatable measurements. Dead weight
calibrator is one method to calibrate the pressure gauge. There are numerous ways to accomplish this. It
is one of the old and basic method of calibration.
 INTRODUCTION
Deadweight testers can be calibrated using either the “Fundamental” or “Calibrated” methods to
measure the pressure and effective area. A fundamental calibration involves having the effective
area of the gauge determined
using only measurements of
the SI base units (e.g. mass,
length) plus a suitable model.
A calibrated calibration has the
effective area determined via
calibration against a gauge for
which the effective area or
generated pressure is already
known.
The base formula for
deadweight testers is P = F/A.
Where F equals the force or
amount of weight, A equals
the area over which the
force is
applied and P equals the resulting pressure. Two general types of deadweight testers exist. First,
a closely fit piston and cylinder with weights applied to the piston. Second, a precision ceramic
ball within a tapered nozzle, with weights applied to the ball.
Many different types of deadweight testers are available. In order for a user to select the correct
tester, several aspects of the task to be performed should be considered.
The first item that should be considered is the required accuracy of the tester. Accuracy of most
instruments is expressed as "percent of full scale".
Another important consideration is the test fluid. Since the test fluid will enter the pressure
sensing element of the instrument being tested, the test fluid must be compatible with the process
fluid to which the instrument will be attached. Otherwise, all instruments must be cleaned after
testing, an expensive operation. The most common test fluid is instrument grade oil. Where
usable, oil provides an outstanding combination of corrosion resistance with lubrication of the
close fitting piston and cylinder.
Distilled water provides an excellent test fluid that is inert to most process fluids. Clean dry air
or nitrogen gas; however, eliminates the problem altogether. The user must be particularly
careful that the tester selected is designed for operation with the intended test fluid.
The third consideration is the pressure range. A survey should be made of the pressure range of
all instruments to be tested. The tester should produce pressures in excess of the highest
instrument to be tested.
Deadweight testers are available with accuracy ranging from +/- .015% to +/- 0.1% of indicated
reading. This range of accuracy can be appropriately matched with the various types of process
instrumentation (and their respective performance) which are to be calibrated. Ideally, a
calibration device should be 4x as accurate as the test device. However, the improved
performance in process instrumentation has resulted in a 2:1 ratio as being minimally acceptable.
Piston and cylinder testers are most responsive within the upper 90% of the operating range. If a
broad range of pressures are to be tested, the user should consider dual range testers which
contain piston and cylinders of more than one size. A second consideration is two types of
testers, pneumatic at low pressures and oil or water at higher pressures.
A final consideration should be the task to be performed. If most of the instruments to be tested
are fixed in place, such as recorders, the portability of the tester is important. If many
instruments are to be tested, dual column testers that change test range quickly are helpful. If
many technicians will use the tester, the tester should be rugged and relatively independent of
operator technique. High performance tasks, such as testing of instruments at manufacture,
require custom designed testers.

Types:
In general, there are three different kind of DWT's divided by the medium which is measured
and the lubricant which is used for its measuring element:
1. Gas operated gas lubricated PCU's
2. Gas operated oil lubricated PCU's
3. Oil operated oil lubricated PCU's

Principle:
Dead weight calibration unit works on Pascal’s Law.

Pascal’s law or the principle of

transmission of fluid-pressure states
that pressure exerted anywhere in a
confined incompressible fluid is
transmitted equally in all directions
throughout the fluid such that the
pressure variations (initial differences)
remain the same.
Or Pascal’s principle is defined as
A change in pressure at any
point in an enclosed fluid at rest is
transmitted undiminished to all points
in the fluid.
∆𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔∆ℎ
∆𝑃 = Is the hydrostatic pressure or the difference in pressure at two points within a fluid
column, due to the weight of the fluid.
∆ℎ = Is the height of fluid above the point of measurement, or the difference in elevation
between the two points within the fluid column.
Pascal’s principle applies to all fluids, whether gases or liquids

Applications:
 Hydraulic Jack.
 Braking system.
 Scuba divers.

Braking system:
The hydraulic brake is an arrangement of braking mechanism which uses brake fluid, typically
ethylene glycol, to transfer pressure from the controlling mechanism to the braking mechanism
The most common arrangement of hydraulic brakes for passenger vehicles consist of the
following:
 Brake pedal or lever
 A pushrod (also called an actuating rod)
 A master cylinder assembly containing a piston assembly.
 Reinforced hydraulic lines
 Brake caliper assembly

Operation:
In a hydraulic brake system, when the brake pedal is pressed, a pushrod exerts force on the
piston in the master cylinder, causing fluid from the brake fluid reservoir to flow into a pressure
chamber through a compensating port. This results in an increase in
the pressure of the entire hydraulic system, forcing fluid
through the hydraulic lines toward one or more calipers
where it acts upon one or two caliper pistons sealed by
one or more seated O-rings (which prevent leakage of the
fluid). The brake caliper pistons then apply force to the
brake pads, pushing them against the spinning rotor, and
the friction between the pads and the rotor causes a
braking torque to be generated, slowing the vehicle. Heat
generated by this friction is either dissipated through
vents and channels in the rotor or is conducted through
the pads, which are made of specialized heat-tolerant
materials such as kevlar or sintered glass.
Subsequent release of the brake pedal/lever allows the spring(s) in the master cylinder assembly
to return the master piston(s) back into position. This action first relieves the hydraulic pressure
on the caliper, then applies suction to the brake piston in the caliper assembly, moving it back
into its housing and allowing the brake pads to release the rotor.
The hydraulic braking system is designed as a closed system: unless there is a leak in the system,
none of the brake fluid enters or leaves it, nor does the fluid get consumed through use.
Hydraulic Fluids:
Hydraulic fluid(s), also called hydraulic liquid(s), are the medium by which power is transferred
in hydraulic machinery. Common hydraulic fluids are based on waste, mineral oil or water.

Examples of Equipment using Hydraulic Fluids:

Excavators and backhoes, hydraulic brakes, power steering systems, transmissions, trucks,
aircraft, lifts, and industrial machinery.

Functions and Properties:

The primary function of a hydraulic fluid is to convey power. In use, however, there are other
important functions of hydraulic fluid such as protection of the hydraulic machine components.

Composition:
Base Stock:
Natural oils such as rapeseed (also called canola oil) are used as base stocks for fluids
where biodegradability and renewable sources are considered important.
Other base stocks are used for specialty applications, such as for fire resistance and extreme
temperature applications. Some examples include: glycol, esters, organophosphate
ester,polyalphaolefin, propylene glycol, and silicone oils.
Other components

Hydraulic fluids can contain a wide range of chemical compounds, including: oils, butanol,
esters (e.g. phthalates, like DEHP, and adipates, like bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate),
polyalkylene glycols (PAG), organophosphate (e.g. tributylphosphate), silicones, alkylated
aromatic hydrocarbons, polyalphaolefins (PAO) (e.g. polyisobutenes), corrosion inhibitors
(including acid scavengers), anti-erosion additives, etc.
Biodegradable Hydraulic Fluids:
Environmentally sensitive applications (e.g. farm tractors and marine dredging) may benefit
from using biodegradable hydraulic fluids based upon rapeseed (Canola) vegetable oil when
there is the risk of an oil spill from a ruptured oil line.
Calibration:
Calibration is process of finding a relationship between two unknown (when the measurable
quantities are not given a particular value for the amount considered or found a standard for the
quantity) quantities. When one of quantity is known, which is made or set with one device,
another measurement is made as similar way as possible with the first device using a second
device.The measurable quantities may differ in two devices which are equivalent. Proper
calibration of an instrument allows people to have a safe working environment and produce valid
data for future reference.

Why Do We Need to Calibrate?

 To ensure readings from an instrument are consistent with other measurements.

 To determine the accuracy of the instrument readings.
 To establish the reliability of the instrument i.e. that it can be trusted.

Methods of Calibration:

Different calibration methods are used for calibrating different instruments. Methods for
calibration of pressure and temperature measuring instruments are discussed below:

Pressure Balances:
The reference standards used for the calibration of pressure measuring instruments are pressure
balances which are also referred to as deadweight testers. They measure the physical quantity
pressure with respect to its definition as force per unit area. From that point of view, pressure
balances are considered as primary standards. Pressure balances are the most accurate
instruments for the calibration of electronic or mechanical pressure measuring instruments

Pressure Cylinder Systems:

To allow calibration in different pressure ranges, different piston/cylinder systems can be
selected such as pneumatic systems for pressures from 1 bar up to typically 100 bar. For higher
pressures of up to typically 1000 bar or in special cases up to 5000 bar, hydraulic systems are
used. In this case, the oil used serves simultaneously as a lubricant for the piston/cylinder unit
and optimizes the running characteristics.

Similarly, for calibration of temperature measuring instruments some methods used are:

Fixed Point Cells:

Cells in which fixed points of high-purity substances can be set are more suitable for the
calibration of temperature measuring instruments. As a function of temperature and pressure,
substances exist in the three classical physical states − solid, liquid and gas. Phase transitions, for
example from solid to liquid, can be used for calibration since at constant pressure, the
temperature of a substance remains constant until the phase transition is complete, i.e. until all
the ice of a water/ice mixture has become liquid.
Triple Point Cells:
Apart from the phase transitions between two states of matter, for some substances triple points
are also used as fixed points for calibration. At the triple point, the three conventional phases
(solid, liquid and gas) of a high-purity substance are present in a thermal equilibrium. Triple
points can be set very accurately and reproduced at any time. Moreover, they can be maintained
over a longer period of time.

Significance of Calibration:
Calibration defines the accuracy and quality of measurements recorded using a piece of
equipment. Over time there is a tendency for results and accuracy to ‘drift’ particularly when
using particular technologies or measuring particular parameters such as temperature and
humidity. To be confident in the results being measured there is an ongoing need to service and
maintain the calibration of equipment throughout its lifetime for reliable, accurate and repeatable
measurements.
The goal of calibration is to minimize any measurement uncertainty by ensuring the accuracy of
test equipment. Calibration quantifies and controls errors or uncertainties within measurement
processes to an acceptable level.
In summary, calibration is vitally important wherever measurements are important, it enables
users and businesses to have confidence in the results that they monitor record and subsequently
control.

Remarks:

 Calibration checks the accuracy of the instrument and it determines the

traceability of the measurement. In practice, calibration also includes repair of
the device.
 Depending on the type of the instrument and the environment in which it is
being used, it may degrade very quickly or over a long period of time. The
bottom line is that, calibration improves the accuracy of the measuring device.
Accurate measuring devices improve product quality.

Difference between Precision & Accuracy:

Accuracy and precision are used in context of measurement.

Accuracy
Accuracy refers to the closeness of a
measured value to a standard or known
value. For example, if in lab you obtain a
weight measurement of 3.2 kg for a given
substance, but the actual or known weight is
10 kg, then your measurement is not
accurate. In this case, your measurement is
not close to the known value.
Precision
Precision refers to the closeness of two or
more measurements to each other. Using the
example above, if you weigh a given
substance five times, and get 3.2 kg each
time, then your measurement is very
precise. Precision is independent of
accuracy.
Remarks:
Accuracy is the degree of correctness, while precision is how strict that correctness is (or is not).
Accuracy can be improved by taking repeat measurements and taking an average. Conversely,
precision cannot be improved by taking repeated measurements but it is impossible to quantify
precision without experimental repeats.
atm to Kg/cm2 Conversion:

In 1954 the 10th Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures (CGPM) adopted standard
atmosphere for general use and affirmed its definition of being precisely equal to
1,013,250 dynes per square centimeter (101325 Pa). This value was intended to represent the
mean atmospheric pressure at mean sea level at the latitude of Paris, France, and does reflect the
mean sea level pressure for many industrialized nations that are at broadly similar latitudes.
A kilogram-force per square centimeter (Kgf/cm2), often just kilogram per square
centimeter (kg/cm2), or kilo-pound per square centimeter is a unit of pressure using metric units.
Its use is now deprecated; it is not a part of the International System of Units (SI), the modern
metric system. Still, kg/cm2 remains active as a measurement of force primarily due to older
torque measurement devices still in use.
The kilogram-force (Kgf or KgF),), is a gravitational metric unit of force. It is equal to the
magnitude of the force exerted by one kilogram of mass in a 9.80665 m/s2 gravitational field.
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

Here,
m= mass = 1 Kg
a= acceleration= 9.8 m/s2

𝐹 = 1 ∗ 9.8 (𝑘𝑔 ∗ 2)
𝑠
𝑚

𝐾𝑔 ∗ =1𝑁
𝑠2
𝐾𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ( 𝐾𝑔𝑓) = 9.8 𝑁
𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴
𝑁

𝑃 (𝑃𝑎) = 2
𝑚
1 𝑁 = 0.102 𝐾𝑔𝑓
 𝐾𝑔𝑓
1 = 98.06 ∗ 103(𝑃𝑎)
𝑐𝑚 2

1𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 101325 𝑃𝑎
101325 𝐾𝑔𝑓
1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = ( )
98.06 ∗ 103 𝑐𝑚2
𝐾𝑔𝑓
1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 1.033
𝑐𝑚2
Apparatus:
1) The dead weight tester
2) Standard weights
3) Precision gauge if possible

Procedure:
1) Close the needle valve 5, 6, 6’ while the valve 2 is kept open. Pour the hydraulic oil
through the cup 3 into the tester to fill it.
2) Rotate the piston outwards to suck oil in it.
3) Close the valve 2 and open valve 5 and 6 after mounting the gauge to be
tested on nipple provided for pressure gauge. In case a precision gauge is
available mount it on the other position and open valve 6’ as well.
4) Put the standard weights on the pan.
5) While rotating slowly the weight pan turn the handle of the cylinder piston to
transmit the pressure towards the weight and pressure gauges.
6) When the fluid pressure is equal to the pan, it is lifted as well as the gauge
indicates the corresponding pressure. Note that the weight should be lifted
only to the red line. Beyond white line it would be ineffective.
7) Mark the point on the gauge, release the pressure, put the next weight and
repeat the same procedure for the next calibration.

Precautions:
1) The relevant valves should be promptly closed and opened as
mentioned above, otherwise the hydraulic oil might spill outside or on
the face of the user.
2) The standard weights should be placed with ease not to damage the apparatus.

Conclusion:
Calibration is the set of operations that establish the relationship between the values of quantities
indicated by a measuring instrument and the corresponding values realized by standards. The
result of a calibration allows for the determination of corrections to be made with regards to the
indicated values.
Based on the experimental results obtained a deviation in the calibrated reading was compared to
the theoretical values. Therefore the pressure gauge on the downwards pressure was observed to
be not appropriate for very low pressure levels; Especially when the supplied pressure is low &
incapable of lifting the applied load.

Results and Discussion:

TABLE 1: Calibration of Pressure Gauge in Ascending Order

Run Dead Weight Pressure (atm) Gauge Pressure (atm)

1 1 0
2 2 0.5
3 3 1
4 4 2
5 5 3
6 6 4
7 7 5
8 12 10
9 17 16
10 22 22
11 27 27
12 37 37
13 47 47
14 57 57

TABLE 2: Calibration of Pressure Gauge in Descending Order

Run Dead Weight Pressure (atm) Gauge Pressure (atm)

1 57 57
2 47 47
3 37 37
4 27 27
5 22 22
6 17 16
7 12 10
8 7 5
9 6 4
10 5 3
11 4 2
12 3 1
13 2 0.5
14 1 0

The results show that Pressure Gauge is well calibrated. The results were not accurate at the
smaller values of pressure because of the least count of the gauge is somewhat on the higher side.
So it is difficult to measure the smaller values. But at the higher values of pressure we have
pretty accurate results. Readings are taken in two different ways:
 1. Ascending
2. Descending
Both times results were same as indicated in the above table.

Conclusion and Recommendations:

Dead weight calibrator method is one of the most accurate but old method of calibrating a
pressure gauge. Now there are many new methods which can be used for calibration of
pressure gauges in the industries. This apparatus should be handled very carefully. Valves
should be opened and closed very carefully otherwise there are many chances of leakage of
oil.