CHAPTER 10 Examples:
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM  Sex hormones
HORMONES
 Are secreted from the glands of the
endocrine system, they are specific
in that each hormone causes a
response in a specific target organ or
group of cells, rather than on the
body as a whole.
 Exocrine hormones are secreted
via a duct into the blood and usually
effect a distant organ or tissue.
 Endocrine hormones are secreted
within the tissue (rather than via a
duct) and enter the blood stream via
capillaries.
CLASSIFICATION OF HORMONES
Hormones can be classified according to
their:
 I. Chemical Nature
 II. Mechanism of Action
 III. Nature of Action
 IV. Effect of Hormones
 V. Stimulation of Endocrine Glands
CHEMICAL NATURE
This category of hormones are divided
to six (6) classes, they are:
 Steroid
 Amine
 Peptide
 Protein
 Glycoprotein
 Eicosanoid
Steroid Hormones
Source:
 Derived from cholesterol which
belong to a chemical compounds
known as steroids.
 Adrenal cortex hormones
Amine Hormones
Source:
 derived from the modification of
amino acids are referred to as amine
hormones. Typically, the original
structure of the amino acid is
modified such that a COOH, or
carboxyl, group is removed, whereas
the NH3 +, or amine group remains.
 Amine hormones are synthesized
from the amino acids tryptophan or
tyrosine.
Examples:
 An example of a hormone derived
from tryptophan is melatonin, while
tyrosine derivatives include thyroid
hormones and catecholamines.
Peptide Hormones
Source:
 These hormones are made up of
only few amino acid residues and
they are usually present themselves
in a form of linear chains.
Examples:
 Oxytocin
 Vasopressin
Protein Hormones
Source:
 These hormones are build up from
large number of amino acid residues.
Examples:
 Insulin
 Glucagon
 Somatotropins
Glycoprotein Hormones
Source:
 These are conjugated protein bound
to carbohydrate which include
galactose, mannose, fructose.
Examples:
 LH - Luteinizing hormones
 FLH - Follicle stimulating hormones
 TSH - Thyroid stimulating hormones
Eicosanoid Hormones
Source:
 Made up of small fatty acid
derivatives with a variety of
arachidonic acid.
Example:
 Prostaglandins
CHEMICAL NATURE
Steroid Hormones are classified
according to the organs that synthesize
them therefore this hormone are
classified as:
 Sex hormones
 Adrenal cortex hormones
 Placenta hormones
Sex Hormones
 These are group of hormone that
produced in the testes in males and
ovaries in the female.
 The male sex hormones are usually
referred to as Androgens and the
principal androgen is known as
testosterone.
 These hormones are produced
primarily by the testes and in discrete
amounts by the adrenal cortex.
Androgens are primarily responsible
for the proper development and
maintenance of male reproductive
function and stimulation of the
secondary sex characteristics.
 Androgens are anabolic, and used in
stimulating the production of skeletal
muscles and bone as well as red
blood cells.
 In order to enhance the anabolic
activity of androgens without
increasing their masculinizing ability,
anabolic steroids were developed to
combat diseases marked by wasting,
these synthetic hormones have been
abused by individuals desiring to
increase their muscle mass, such as
athletes seeking to gain a
competitive advantage.
 Overdosing has been linked to
serious side effects, including
infertility and coronary heart disease.
 On the other hand, there are
basically two female sex hormones
which are Estrogens and Progestins.
 Estrogens are secreted mainly by
the ovaries and in smaller amounts
by the adrenal glands and (in men)
by the testes.
 The most potent estrogen is
Estradiol. This hormone has a similar
function similarly to androgens in
men, the estrogens promote the
development and maintenance of the
primary and secondary female
sexual characteristics; they also
stimulate linear growth and skeletal
maturation.
 In some other mammals these
hormones have been shown to
precipitate estrus (heat). The ovarian
production of estrogen stops
plummets during menopause.
 Progestins, the most important of
which is Progesterone, are the other
type of female sex hormone and are
named for their role in maintaining
pregnancy (pro-gestation)
 Estrogens and progestins are
secreted cyclically during
menstruation.
 During the menstrual cycle, the
ruptured ovarian follicle (the corpus
luteum) of the ovary produces
progesterone, which renders the
uterine lining receptive to the
implantation of a fertilized ovum.
 Should this occur, the placenta
becomes the main source of
progesterone. As pregnancy
progresses, placental production of
progesterone increases, and these
high doses suppress ovulation,
preventing a second conception.
Adrenal Cortex Hormones
 These hormones are produced in the
adrenal cortex. They are mainly
adrenocortical hormones, which
basically divided to two:
glucocorticoids and the
mineralocorticoids.
 Glucocorticoids consist of
hormones such as cortisol which
mainly control and influence many
metabolic processes like deposition
of glycogen in the liver and the
formation of glucose from amino
acids and fatty acids. It also helps in
the maintenance of normal blood
pressure, and also possessed anti-
inflammatory and
immunosuppressive actions, which
are useful in treating rheumatoid
arthritis and prevents the rejection of
transplanted organs.
 Mineralocorticoids like aldosterone
help maintain the balance between
salts and water in the body and the
predominantly exerts their effects
within the kidney.
Placenta Hormones
 The placenta is an endocrine gland
that is only present during
pregnancy.
 The placenta produces two steroid
hormones: Estrogen and
Progesterone
 The placenta also releases several
protein hormones:
 Human chorionic gonadotrophin
(hCG)
 Human Placental Lactogen (hPL)
 Placental growth Hormone
 Relaxin
 Kisspeptin
MECHANISM OF ACTION
Group I Hormones
 These are group of lipophilic
hormones that are usually derived
from cholesterol (except T3 and T4).
 These hormones usually bind to
intracellular receptors thereby
forming hormone-receptor complex.
 They are mostly found in general
circulation in association with
transport proteins however they have
relatively longer half-lives in hours or
days.
 Examples of these hormones are:
T3, T4, Estrogen, Progesterone and
Testosterone
Group II Hormones
 These are hormones that bind to cell
surface (plasma membrane) receptor
before they stimulate the release of
certain molecules known as second
messenger which will then perform
the biochemical function of these
hormones.
 These hormones are transported in
free form and they usually possess
short half-lives in minutes.
 Group II are further subdivided into 3
categories based on the chemical
nature of the second messenger:
1. Camp - ACTH, FSH, LH;
2. Phospholipid/inositol/Ca2 + - TRH,
GnRH, Gastrin
3. Unknown - Insulin STH, LTH,
Oxytocin
NATURE OF ACTION
Local Hormones
 These hormones have a specific
local effect through paracrine
secretion.
 Example: Hormone testosterone
General Hormones
 These are hormones transported
through circulation to the distal target
tissue/organ.
 Examples: Thyroid hormones and
Insulin
EFFECT OF HORMONES
Kinetic Hormones
 These hormones may cause muscle
contraction, pigment migration,
glandular secretion and others.
 Example: Epinephrine
Metabolic Hormones
 These are hormones that mainly
caused changes in the rate of
metabolism and balance the
reaction.
 Examples: Insulin, Glucagon,
Parathyroid hormones
Morphogenetic Hormones
 These are hormones that mainly
involved in growth
and differentiation in the body.
 Examples: Follicle stimulating
hormones Luteinizing hormones
Thyroid hormones
STIMULATION OF ENDOCRINE
GLANDS
Tropic Hormones
 These are hormones that stimulate
other endocrine gland for secretion.
 Example: TSH which stimulate
secretion of thyroid gland for the
production of thyroid hormones
Nontropic Hormones
 These are hormones that usually
exert their effect on non-endocrine
target tissues.
 Example: Thyroid hormone which
increases the rate of oxygen
consumption and metabolic activity
of different cells in the body.
Hyposecretion of Hormones
 Is the production of no hormone or
too little of a hormone. It can be
caused by the destruction of
hormone-secreting cells, such as in
Type 1 diabetes, or by a deficiency in
a nutrient that is important for
hormone synthesis.
 Is when an excess of one or more
hormone is secreted from a
gland.
Symptoms:
 Slow or flat rate of growth in children
 Changes in muscle mass,
cholesterol levels, and bone strength
in adults.
Clinical disorders:
 Dwarfism and unattained growth
potential.
Hyposecretion of Hormones
Treatment:
 Hormone-replacement therapies.
 Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune
disease that results in the destruction
of the insulin-producing beta cells of
the pancreas. A person with Type 1
diabetes needs insulin replacement
therapy, usually by injection or an
insulin pump.
Hypersecretion of Hormones
 Happens when the body produces
too much of a hormone. A hormone
can be hypersecreted if the gland
develops a tumor and grows out of
control or if the gland is signaled to
produce too much of a hormone.
 Is when the amount of hormones are
released is too low. There are many
types of disorders that can result
when too much or too little of a
hormone is released.
Symptoms:
 The pituitary gland makes growth
hormone, which stimulates
the growth of bone and other tissues.
Too much growth hormone
can cause gigantism in children,
where their bones and their body
grow too much. In adults, it can
cause acromegaly, which makes the
hands, feet and face larger than
normal.
 Hypersecretion of Hormones
Treatment:
 Focuses on lowering your production
of GH, as well as reducing the
negative effects of the tumor on the
pituitary gland and surrounding
tissues.
 Medication: Injection medications
such as somatostatin analogs
(Sandostatin) can help manage
hormone levels.
 Surgery: In many cases, surgery
greatly improves acromegaly
symptoms or corrects the condition
entirely.