Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Suicide
Suicide
Bullying, Cyberbullying,
and Suicide
Sameer Hinduja and Justin W. Patchin
Empirical studies and some high-profile anecdotal cases have demonstrated a link
between suicidal ideation and experiences with bullying victimization or offending.
The current study examines the extent to which a nontraditional form of peer
aggression—cyberbullying—is also related to suicidal ideation among adolescents.
In 2007, a random sample of 1,963 middle-schoolers from one of the largest school
districts in the United States completed a survey of Internet use and experiences.
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My friends don’t want me around and I adolescents in 2004. Even though suicide
have invaded their privacy by Bebo and rates have decreased 28.5% between 1990
found out that they hate me but feel sorry and 2004 among young people, upward
for me and bitch about me. Everything I trends were identified in the 10- to
say to them goes around my school. They 19-year-old age group in 2003–2004
have taken over my Bebo account more than (Centers for Disease Control and Preven-
once and sent messages around saying that I tion, 2007). In addition to those who
had a sex change when I went on holidays. successfully end their life, many other
They are the only people in my class that I adolescents strongly think about and even
hang around with and I don’t want to lose attempt suicide. It is therefore essential that
them but I have become depressed and suici- researchers work to identify the causes and
dal and am afraid that if I’m pushed over correlates of these outcomes among this
the edge then it will be too late. vulnerable population. While progress has
—Anonymous been made in this area, there is still much
we do not know about what induces a
Youth suicide continues to be a signifi- young person to contemplate or commit
cant public health concern in the United suicide.
States. The Centers for Disease Control One factor that has been linked to
and Prevention (2007) reported that suicide suicidal ideation is experience with bullying
was the third leading cause of death among in and around school and the neighborhood
206
S. Hinduja and J. W. Patchin
(Carney, 2000; High, 2007; Marr & Field, NATURE AND EXTENT OF BULLYING
2001). That is, youth who are bullied, or
who bully others, are at an elevated risk A considerable body of research has been
for suicidal thoughts, attempts, and com- conducted on traditional bullying, defined as
pleted suicides (Baldry & Winkel, 2003; aggressive behavior or intentional ‘‘harm
Mills, Guerin, Lynch, Daly et al., 2004; doing’’ by one person or a group, generally
Rigby & Slee, 1999; van der Wal, de Wit, carried out repeatedly and over time, and
& Hirasing, 2003). The viability of these which involves a power differential
links has been strengthened through (Nansel, Overpeck, Pilla et al., 2001). Bully-
research showing how experience with peer ing can involve direct or indirect aggression
harassment (most often as a victim but also (Ericson, 2001; Limber & Nation, 1998;
as a perpetrator) contributes to depression, Olweus, 1978; Tattum, 1989), with the for-
decreased self-worth, hopelessness, and mer involving physical violence (hitting,
loneliness—all of which are precursors to kicking, taking items by force) and verbal
suicidal thoughts and behavior (Graham violence (taunting, teasing, threatening)
& Juvonen, 1998; Hawker & Boulton, (Hawker & Boulton, 2000) and the latter
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2000; Joiner & Rudd, 1996; Kaltiala-Heino, typically consisting of more subtle, manipu-
Rimpelä, Marttunen et al., 1999; Kaltiala- lative acts (such as extorting, ostracizing, or
Heino, Rimpela, Rantanen et al., 2000; intimidating another person) (van der Wal,
Langhinrichsen-Rohling & Lamis, 2008; de Wit, & Hirasing, 2003). Another distinc-
Marr & Field, 2001; Roland, 2002). In tion has been made between overt aggres-
addition, some researchers have hypothe- sion and relational aggression, with the
sized that many bullies previously have been former involving name calling, pushing,
victims and therefore suffer psychological or hitting and the latter involving gossip,
and psychosomatic problems that usher rumor-spreading, sabotage, and other
in suicidal risks (van der Wal, deWit, & subtle behaviors destructive to interperso-
Hirasing, 2003). nal relationships (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995;
In recent years, the nature of ado- Prinstein, Boergers, & Vernberg, 2001;
lescent peer aggression has evolved due Wolke, Woods, Bloomfield et al., 2000).
to the proliferation of information and Traditional bullying has been measured
communications technology. There have in a variety of ways and contexts, and it is
been several high-profile cases involving helpful to focus on two key studies to
teenagers taking their own lives in part illuminate its prevalence. First, the National
because of being harassed and mistreated Institute of Child Health and Human
over the Internet (Apollo, 2007; Halligan, Development found that 17% of students
2006; Jones, 2008), a phenomenon recently reported being bullied, 19% reported bully-
termed cyberbullicide—suicide indirectly or ing others, and 6% reported both being
directly influenced by experiences with bullied and bullying others ‘‘sometimes’’
online aggression (Hinduja & Patchin, or ‘‘weekly’’ (Ericson, 2001). Second, the
2009). While these incidents are isolated Bureau of Justice Statistics’ Indicators of
and do not represent the norm, their School Crime and Safety Report from
gravity demands deeper inquiry and under- 2007 indicated that 28% of youth between
standing. The current study therefore seeks 12 and 18 years of age were bullied at
to expand what is known about the rela- school in the past 6 months, with about
tionship between bullying and suicide by one-fifth of those stating that it happened
also considering and assessing the role of at least once or twice a week (Dinkes,
cyberbullying. Cataldi, Lin-Kelly et al., 2007).
While traditional bullying has been other malicious behaviors online or offline,
studied at length in recent years, less is however, can create a very unfriendly and
currently known about cyberbullying. frustrating environment for the target.
Cyberbullying has been defined as ‘‘willful Among known accounts of cyberbullicide,
and repeated harm inflicted through the Internet-based harm often coincided with
use of computers, cell phones, and other other issues (such as offline mistreatment,
electronic devices’’ (Hinduja & Patchin, emotional and psychological problems, aca-
2009; Patchin & Hinduja, 2006). This defi- demic difficulties, low self-esteem, clinical
nition is useful due to its simplicity and depression, a lack of a support structure,
because it captures the most important etc.) to culminate in a final tragic outcome
elements, which include: ‘‘willful’’ (the (Hinduja & Patchin, 2009).
behavior has to be intentional, not acci- Scholars in recent years have been
dental); ‘‘repeated’’ (bullying reflects a exploring the frequency and prevalence of
pattern of behavior, not just one isolated cyberbullying through numerous research
incident); ‘‘harm’’ (the target must perceive efforts. Collectively, these efforts have
that harm was inflicted); and ‘‘computers, begun to shed light on this emerging prob-
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cell phones, and other electronic devices’’ lem. In one of the earliest studies, Ybarra &
(this is what differentiates cyberbullying Mitchell (2004) found that 19% of a sample
from traditional bullying). In general, of regular Internet users between the ages
cyberbullying involves sending harassing of 10 and 17 had experienced cyberbullying
or threatening messages (via text message either as a victim or offender. Other scho-
or e-mail), posting derogatory comments lars who have since studied the problem
about someone on a Web site or social have returned comparable findings, gener-
networking site (such as Facebook or ally determining that approximately 15–
MySpace), or physically threatening 35% of students have been victims of
or intimidating someone in a variety of cyberbullying while about 10–20% of
online settings (Burgess-Proctor, Patchin, students admit to cyberbullying others
& Hinduja, 2009; Kowalski & Limber, (Hinduja & Patchin, 2007, 2008, 2009;
2007; Lenhart, 2007; Li, 2007b; Patchin Kowalski, Limber, Scheck et al., 2005;
& Hinduja, 2006). Like traditional Kowalski & Limber, 2007; Li, 2007a,
bullying, minor forms of cyberbullying 2007b; Patchin & Hinduja, 2006; Williams
include being ignored, disrespected, & Guerra, 2007).
picked on, or otherwise hassled. The
more debasing forms involve the spread-
ing of rumors about someone, stalking, or BULLYING AND SUICIDAL IDEATION
physically threatening another person
through some medium or method of Much research has been conducted to
electronic communications. ascertain the relationship between tradi-
Since some types of cyberbullying are tional bullying and suicidal ideation (see,
clearly more harmful than others, they e.g., Kaltiala-Heino, Rimpelä, Marttunen
can result in a continuum of effects for et al., 1999; Kim, Koh, & Leventhal,
the target. Furthermore, consideration 2005; Klomek, Marracco, Kleinman et al.,
must be given to the seriousness of the 2007; Mills, Guerin, Lynch et al., 2004;
incident within the context and among Roland, 2002). It is therefore useful to
the circumstances that surround it. That review some of the most important works
is, receiving harassing emails by themselves to inform the current analysis and provide
may not be that significant of a problem. insight into how suicidal ideation also
This type of cyberbullying coupled with may be related to experiences with
cyberbullying. First, the British Medical leading to higher risk of the latter (Klomek,
Journal published a study in which 16,410 Marracco, Kleinman et al., 2007).
Finnish students between the ages of Finally, Klomek, Sourander,
14 and 16 completed a school health Kumpulainen et al. (2008) conducted the
promotion study that concentrated on first longitudinal study of bullying behavior
adolescent health, health behavior and and suicidal ideation, and found that youth
school behavior (Kaltiala-Heino, Rimpelä, who frequently bullied others at age 8 were
Marttunen et al., 1999). Results indicated more likely to have thought about killing
that among boys who were frequently bull- themselves at age 18 compared to non-
ied (at least once per week), 4% had severe bullies—but that this link disappears when
suicidal ideation (compared to 1% for boys controlling for depression. No relationship
who were not bullied). Among girls who was found between bullying victimization
were frequently bullied, 8% exhibited signs and suicidal ideation. However, the scale
of severe suicidal ideation (compared to they used was based on one question with
1% for girls who were not bullied). Of four statements representing a continuum
those who bullied others at least once per of suicide risk, instead of a more complex,
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10 0.4 1.2
Participants 11 11.0 24.4
12 29.5 31.9
The data for the current study come from 13 32.7 31.4
a survey distributed in the spring of 2007 14 20.0 8.8
to approximately 2,000 students in 30 mid- 15 4.8 2.0
dle schools (6th through 8th grades) in 16 1.5 0.3
one of the largest school districts in the
Missing 0.2 0.1
United States. Youth were selected to par-
Race
ticipate in the study if they were enrolled
in a district-wide peer conflict class that White=Caucasian 40.6 41.0
all middle school students are required Black=African 23.4 28.0
to take at some point in their middle American
school tenure. There was a 96% com- Hispanic or Latin 19.6 23.0
pletion rate from students who were not American
absent the day the survey was conducted; Multiracial 7.1 4.7
those who chose not to participate were American Indian or 1.3 0.6
asked to silently read, study, or work on Native
their school materials. The final sample Other 3.5 2.5
size totaled 1,963.1 Table 1 reports Missing 0.4
the demographic characteristics of the
sample and population from which it was
selected. As expected with the random Measures
selection process, the sample matches the
larger population fairly closely on these Respondents were asked a variety of
characteristics. questions pertaining to their school,
friends, and family. Relevant to the purpose
of the current study, they were asked about
experiences with bullying and peer harass-
ment, both online and offline, and
1
More information about the sampling strategy and thoughts about suicide. Specifically, the
data can be found in Hinduja and Patchin (2009). dependent variable utilized in this study
was suicidal ideation, and four items repre- deviation ¼ 4.38) with higher values repre-
senting that construct were adapted from senting more experience as a traditional
the American School Health Association’s bullying offender (Cronbach’s a ¼ .88).
(1989) National Adolescent Student Health Third, cyberbullying victimization repre-
Survey. They included: [have you ever] 1) sents the respondent’s experience in the
felt so sad or hopeless almost every day previous 30 days as a victim of 9 different
for two weeks or more in a row that you forms of online aggression (see Table 3).
stopped doing some usual activities; 2) ser- Like the traditional bullying victimization
iously thought about attempting suicide; 3) measure, our cyberbullying victimization
made a specific plan about how you would measure includes a variety of behaviors
attempt suicide; and 4) attempted suicide. ranging from relatively minor (e.g., ‘‘I
Respondents indicated either ‘‘yes’’ or received an upsetting email from someone
‘‘no’’ to each of these questions, and so I didn’t know’’) to more serious (e.g.,
our resultant summary scale ranges from ‘‘something was posted online about me
0–4 (mean ¼ 0.85; standard deviation ¼ that I didn’t want others to see’’).2 As
1.11) with higher values representing more above, the five-choice response set ranged
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suicidal thoughts (Cronbach’s a ¼ .70). from ‘‘never’’ to ‘‘every day’’ and as a result
The current analysis utilizes four the 9-item summary scale ranges from 0 to
primary independent variables of interest. 36 (mean ¼ 1.59; standard deviation ¼
First, traditional bullying victimization repre- 3.05) with higher values representing more
sents the respondent’s experience in the experience as a cyberbullying victim
previous 30 days as a victim of 10 different (Cronbach’s a ¼ .74).
forms of bullying. As noted in Table 2, the Finally, cyberbullying offending represents
measure includes a variety of behaviors the respondent’s participation in the pre-
representing relatively minor and common vious 30 days with 5 different forms of
forms of bullying (e.g., ‘‘people told lies online aggression (see Table 3). Once again,
about me;’’ ‘‘I was called mean names’’) the same response set was utilized so our
to more serious and less common forms 5-item summary scale ranges from 0 to 20
of bullying (e.g., ‘‘I was threatened or (mean ¼ 1.18; standard deviation ¼ 2.59)
forced to do things I didn’t want to do’’). with higher values representing more
The response set for these questions was
‘‘never,’’ ‘‘once or twice,’’ ‘‘a few times,’’
2
‘‘many times,’’ and ‘‘every day.’’ As such, Readers should note from the behaviors selected for
our 10-item summary scale ranges from 0 our cyberbullying measure that we intended to cap-
to 40 (mean ¼ 3.20; standard deviation ¼ ture a relatively broad measure of cyberbullying that
might better be characterized as ‘‘online harass-
5.24) with higher values representing more ment.’’ That said, given our restriction to repeated
experience as a victim of traditional bully- incidents, we feel it is appropriate to label these
ing (Cronbach’s a ¼ .88). experiences as bullying. Moreover, some may ques-
Second, traditional bullying offending tion our decision to include relatively minor beha-
represents the respondent’s experience in viors that may not necessarily be considered
bullying (such as receiving upsetting emails or having
the previous 30 days as an offender of 10 something posted on MySpace that was upsetting).
different forms of bullying. The varieties While we can think of examples of such experiences
of these bullying behaviors—also ranging that would fall outside the realm of cyberbullying,
from mild to severe in their harm—are we once again sought to explore these issues from
reported in Table 2 and included the same a macro-level perspective. This issue is further
confounded by the fact that cyberbullying research-
response set as the victimization questions. ers have not settled on an agreed-upon measure.
Again, our 10-item summary scale ranges Our results should be interpreted with these
from 0 to 40 (mean ¼ 2.27; standard considerations in mind.
TABLE 4. Ordinary Least Squares Regression: The Effect of Bullying Victimization and Offending on Suicidal Ideation (N ¼ 1963)
Constant 0.41 (0.32) 0.24 (0.31) 0.54 (0.32) 0.56 (0.31) 0.60 (0.32)
Male 0.01 (0.05) 0.00 0.00 (0.05) 0.00 0.01 (0.05) 0.00 0.02 (0.05) 0.01 0.01 (0.05) 0.00
White 0.23 (0.05) 0.10 0.24 (0.05) 0.11 0.19 (0.05) 0.09 0.22 (0.05) 0.10 0.21 (0.05) 0.09
Age 0.04 (0.03) 0.04 0.04 (0.02) 0.04 0.02 (0.03) 0.02 0.03 (0.02) 0.02 0.02 (0.03) 0.019
Traditional Bullying 0.05 (0.00) 0.23
Victimization
Traditional Bullying 0.04 (0.01) 0.16
Offending
Cyberbullying 0.09 (0.01) 0.25
215
Bullying, Cyberbullying, and Suicide
TABLE 5. Logistic Regression: The Effect of Traditional Bullying Victimization and Offending on
Suicide Attempts (N ¼ 1963)
peer aggression being associated with a coefficients were similar and the pattern
significant increase in the likelihood that of victimization and offending remained
the respondent attempted suicide (see consistent across type of victimization.
Table 5). For example, traditional bullying In addition, logistic regression analyses
victims were 1.7 times more likely and tra- revealed that bullying and cyberbullying
ditional bullying offenders were 2.1 times victims and offenders were almost twice
more likely to have attempted suicide than as likely to have reported that they
those who were not traditional victims or attempted suicide as youth who were not
offenders. Similarly, cyberbullying victims victims or bullies (odds ratios ranged from
were 1.9 times more likely and cyberbully- 1.5 to 2.1).
ing offenders were 1.5 times more likely With respect to demographic charac-
to have attempted suicide than those who teristics, the only factor that was signifi-
were not cyberbullying victims or offenders. cantly related to suicidal ideation was
race. In our sample, White respondents
scored significantly lower on our suicidal
DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS ideation scale than non-Whites.5 This result
5
Results indicated that experience with While a thorough analysis of the race=suicide
traditional bullying and cyberbullying is relationship is beyond the scope of the current study,
associated with an increase in suicidal when breaking our sample down by several different
racial categories we found that White youth reported
ideation among our sample, and that both the lowest suicidal ideation scores (.71), followed by
seem to be related to the outcome measure Hispanic (.90), Asian (.94), Black (.96), multiracial
in similar ways. That is, the standardized (.96), and Native American (1.05) youth.
persisted across all forms of bullying— stark reality can vividly portray the extent
offline and online victimization and of harm that these forms of harassment
offending. This is noteworthy because can exact.
while there are inconsistent findings To be sure, educators must be careful
reported in the literature with respect to not to plant ideas in the minds of youth
race and suicidal ideation (Joe, Baser, related to suicide being a viable option to
Breeden et al., 2006; Kessler, Berglund, their interpersonal problems. As evidenced
Borges et al., 2005; Kung, Hoyert, Xu, by the increasing number of self-inflicted
et al., 2008), most estimates suggest that deaths among youth, though, it is essential
Whites commit suicide at a higher rate than to boldly (but delicately) broach the topic
non-Whites (see e.g., Bingham, Bennion, to dissuade this form of harm and to
Openshaw et al., 1994). However, those remind youth that help is available. Parents
findings are representative of all ages rather should likewise discuss the link between
than only youth. When considering those offline and online peer harassment and sui-
between the ages of 11 and 14 (the age cidal thoughts, and ought to consider utiliz-
range of 93.2% of our sample), it has been ing stories in the news to underscore the
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reported that Whites have a lower crude seriousness of the matter. It may not be a
rate of suicides per 100,000 youth than comfortable conversation, but it seems
non-Whites (1.26 compared to 1.36, quite necessary given the frequency with
respectively) (CDC, 2006). This largely which youth are harassed and the manner
mirrors results from our analysis, as White in which they sometimes suffer.
middle-schoolers had significantly lower It should also be acknowledged that
levels of suicidal ideation than non-Whites. many of the teenagers who committed
Future research must attempt to shed suicide after experiencing bullying or cyber-
further light on the race=suicide relation- bullying had other emotional and social
ship among youth in their early teens, as issues going on in their lives. For example,
it seems inconsistent with findings from one cyberbullicide victim attended special
research based on adult samples. education classes in elementary school
With regard to clinical implications, the and struggled socially and academically
small but significant variation found in (Flowers, 2006). Another suffered from
suicidal thoughts and actions based on low self-esteem and depression and was
bullying and cyberbullying suggests that on medication when she took her life
all forms of adolescent peer aggression (Zetter, 2008). As mentioned earlier, it is
must be taken seriously both at school and unlikely that experience with cyberbullying
at home. As such, psychologists, counse- by itself leads to youth suicide. Rather, it
lors, and parents must continually monitor tends to exacerbate instability and hope-
their online and offline behaviors to rein- lessness in the minds of adolescents already
force the good and regulate the bad. More- struggling with stressful life circumstances
over, the findings suggest that a suicide (Hinduja & Patchin, 2009). Future research
prevention and intervention component is should identify and specifically assess the
essential within comprehensive bullying contributive nature of these stress-inducing
response programs implemented in schools. experiences.
Without question, the topic is sensitive and Subsequent studies should also seek to
its presentation should be age-appropriate, ascertain the role of conditioning variables
as students in all grade levels must under- that moderate the relationship between
stand the serious consequences associated bullying (or cyberbullying) and suicidal risk.
with peer aggression. While suicide is an That is, it would be useful to identify the
extreme response, proper discussion of its factors that differentiate those youth who
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