In the study of English sentences, we often delve into their structure and meaning using

various frameworks. In the previous chapter, we looked at sentences through the lens of
Phrase Structure (PS) rules, which help us understand how different components come
together to form coherent sentences. For instance, the PS rule ‘S → NP VP’ tells us that a
sentence comprises a Noun Phrase (NP) followed by a Verb Phrase (VP).

Beyond just structural analysis, we can also examine sentences in terms of grammatical
functions such as Subject (SUBJ), Object (OBJ), Modifier (MOD), and Predicate (PRED).
These functions highlight the roles that different elements play within a sentence. Let's break
this down with an example:

Consider the sentence: "The monkey scratched a boy on Monday."

Structurally, we can represent it as:

a. [ [ The monkey] [ scratched [ a boy] [ on Monday]]].

(Where SNP refers to Subject NP, VP to Verb Phrase, NP to Noun Phrase, and PP to
Prepositional Phrase)

But in terms of grammatical functions, it would be:

b. [ [ The monkey] [ scratched [ a boy] [ on Monday]]].

(Where S is Subject, PRED is Predicate, OBJ is Object, and MOD is Modifier)

Here, 'The monkey' serves as the subject (SUBJ) even though it's an NP structurally.
Similarly, 'a boy' functions as the object (OBJ), and 'scratched' acts as the predicate (PRED).

Furthermore, we can delve into the semantic roles of constituents, which describe their
underlying relationships within the sentence's context. For instance, in the sentences: a. John
tagged the monkey in the forest. b. The monkey was tagged in the forest by John.

Both sentences depict John as the agent (agt) and the monkey as the patient (pat) of the
tagging event, irrespective of their grammatical functions. So, John holds the semantic role of
agent (agt), while the monkey holds the role of patient (pat).

Representing this in terms of semantic roles, we get:

a. [[ John] [ tagged [ the monkey] [ in the forest]]].

b. [[ pat The monkey] [ was tagged [ pred loc agt pred pat loc in the wood] [ by John]]].

Here, we introduce additional semantic roles like predicate (pred) and locative (loc) to
describe the roles played by different constituents in the event.

It's crucial to understand that these three levels – syntactic category, grammatical function,
and semantic role – are intertwined. While they may seem equivalent at first, further
exploration reveals their nuanced differences. For instance, an agent is not always just a
subject and an NP; the relationships between these levels are more complex and dynamic, as
we'll discover in our journey through grammar analysis.

3.2 Grammatical Functions

3.2.1 Subjects

Let's start with a pair of examples:

(6) a. [The cat] [devoured [the rat]]. b. [The rat] [devoured [the cat]].

Both sentences share the same words and the same action (devoured), yet their meanings
differ significantly. The distinction lies in what serves as the subject or object concerning the
action. In (6a), the subject is the cat, while in (6b) it's the rat. Similarly, the object is the rat in
(6a) but the cat in (6b).

In many cases, the subject of a sentence performs the action denoted by the verb, assuming
the semantic role of an agent. However, this isn't always the case:

(7) a. My brother wears a green overcoat. b. This car stinks. c. It rains. d. The committee
disliked her proposal.

Wearing a green overcoat, stinking, raining, or disliking one’s proposal aren't necessarily
agentive activities; they often describe states or situations. Hence, relying solely on semantic
roles like agent doesn't reliably determine subjecthood.

Tests for Subjecthood

1. Agreement: In English, the main verb agrees with the subject:

(8) a. She never writes/*write home. b. These books *saddens/sadden me. c. Our
neighbor takes/*take his children to school in his car.

Agreement reflects the subject of the sentence rather than merely the closest noun to
the verb.

2. Tag Questions: These short questions tagged onto the end of an utterance help
identify the subject:

(10) a. The lady singing with a boy is a genius, isn’t she/*isn’t he? b. With their
teacher, the kids have arrived safely, haven’t they/ *hasn’t he?

The pronoun in the tag question agrees with the subject in person, number, and
gender.

3. Subject-Auxiliary Inversion: English employs subject-auxiliary inversion in

questions and certain sentence types:

(11) a. This teacher is a genius. b. The kids have arrived safely. c. It could be more
detrimental.
 Forming 'Yes/No questions' involves the auxiliary verb moving across the subject,
indicating subject-auxiliary inversion.

These tests provide reliable methods for identifying subjects within sentences, contributing to
a deeper understanding of grammatical structures and functions.

3.2.2 Direct and Indirect Objects

Direct objects (DO) and indirect objects (IO) play crucial roles in understanding the
relationships between verbs and their associated nouns within sentences.

Direct Objects

A direct object (DO) typically refers to the entity undergoing the action denoted by the verb.
While it's usually an NP, this isn't always the case:

(14) a. His girlfriend bought this computer.

b. That silly fool broke the teapot.

However, the DO isn't always the entity directly affected by the action:

(15) a. Thunder frightens [the dog].

b. The dog fears [thunder].

Here, the dog is experiencing fear in (15a), and thunder is causing a feeling in the dog in
(15b). This illustrates that semantic roles alone don't reliably determine the object.

A more concrete criterion for identifying the direct object comes from passivization, where
the notional direct object becomes the subject:

(16) a. His girlfriend bought this computer for him.

b. The child broke the teapot by accident.

Which can be passivized into:

(17) a. This computer was bought for him by his girlfriend. b. The teapot was broken by the
child by accident.

Non-object NPs cannot be promoted to the subject:

(18) a. This item belongs to the student.

b. *The student is belonged to by this item.

(19) a. He remained a good friend to me.

b. *A good friend is remained to me (by him).

Indirect Objects

An indirect object (IO) typically precedes the direct object and often denotes the goal,
recipient, or benefactive of the action:
(20) a. I threw [the puppy] [the ball]. (IO = goal)
b. John gave [the boys] [the CDs]. (IO = recipient)
c. My mother baked [me] [a birthday cake]. (IO = benefactive)

Passivization turns the IO into the subject:

(21) a. The boys were given the CDs (by John).

b. She was sent a review copy of the book (by the publisher).

Sentences with the IO-DO order differ from those where the IO is expressed as an oblique
PP:

(22) a. John gave the CDs to the boys.

b. The publisher sent a review copy of the book to her. c. My mother baked a cake for me.

Here, the DO can be passivized:

(23) a. The CDs were given to the boys by John.

b. A review copy of the book was sent to her by the publisher.
c. This nice cake was baked for me by my mother.

Understanding the distinctions between direct and indirect objects enhances our
comprehension of sentence structures and the roles played by different elements within them.

3.2.3 Predicative Complements

In addition to direct and indirect objects, there exist NPs that follow a verb but don't function
as either direct objects (DOs) or indirect objects (IOs). These elements, traditionally termed
'predicative complements,' serve as the predicate of the subject or the object. However,
despite being NPs, they do not passivize:

(26) a. *Chairman was elected Graham.

b. *The best writer was considered Andrew.

The distinction between objects and predicative complements is evident in the following
contrast:

(27) a. John made Kim a great doll.

b. Michelle became an architect.

(28) a. They elected Graham chairman.

b. I consider Andrew the best writer.

Even though both expressions in italics are NPs, they function differently. In (27a), "a great
doll" is the direct object, as in "John made a great doll for Kim," while in (27b), "a great
doctor" cannot be an object; it serves as the predicate of the object Kim. Informally, only in
the second example would we say that the final NP describes the NP Kim:

(28) a. (27)a: Kim ≠ a great doll b. (27)b: Kim = a great doctor

Additionally, phrases other than NPs can serve as predicative complements:

(29) a. The situation became terrible.

b. This map is what he wants.
c. The message was that you should come on time.

(30) a. I made Kim angry.

b. I consider him immoral.
c. I regard Andrew as the best writer.
d. They spoil their kids rotten.

In these examples, the italicized complements predicate a property of the subject in (29) and
of the object in (30). These predicative complements enrich the meaning of the sentence by
describing qualities or states associated with the subject or object.

3.2.4 Oblique Complements

In addition to subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, and predicative complements, there
exist elements known as oblique complements. These are typically expressed as prepositional
phrases (PPs) and are neither objects nor predicative complements. Instead, they relate
directly to the verb, providing additional information about the action or the relationship
between the verb and other elements in the sentence.

Consider the following examples:

(31) a. John put books in the box.

b. John talked to Bill about the exam.
c. She reminded him of the last time they met.
d. They would inform Mary of any success they have made.

In each of these sentences, the italicized expressions (e.g., "in the box," "to Bill," "of the last
time they met") are oblique complements. They are obligatory for syntactic well-formedness
and serve to specify details about the action or relationship described by the verb.

Furthermore, many ditransitive verbs, which can take both a direct and an indirect object, can
also take oblique complements:

(32) a. John gave a book to the student.

b. John bought a book for the student.

In these sentences, the PPs "to the student" and "for the student" cannot be objects since they
are not NPs, nor do they serve as predicates of the subject or object. Instead, they directly
relate to the verb, functioning as oblique complements.

Overall, oblique complements enrich the meaning of sentences by providing additional

information about the actions or relationships described by the verbs. They are essential for
conveying precise meanings and enhancing the clarity and specificity of sentences.

3.2.5 Modifiers
In addition to complements, which are obligatory elements selected by the verb to form a
legitimate verb phrase (VP), there are modifiers. Modifiers are optional expressions that do
not complement the predicate in the same way as complements do. Instead, modifiers provide
additional information about the action, state, or relationship expressed in the sentence.

Consider the following examples:

(33) a. The bus stopped suddenly.

b. Shakespeare wrote his plays a long time ago.
c. They went to the theater in London.
d. He failed chemistry because he can’t understand it.

In each sentence, the italicized expressions (e.g., "suddenly," "a long time ago," "in London")
are modifiers. They specify the manner, location, time, or reason, among other properties, of
the situations described by the sentences. Informally, they answer questions like "how,"
"when," "where," and "why."

One characteristic of modifiers is their ability to be stacked up, unlike complements:

(34) a. *John gave Tom [a book] [a record].

b. I saw this film [several times] [last year] [during the summer].

Temporal adjuncts like "several times" and "last year" can be repeated, while complements
cannot. However, it's important to note that temporal adjuncts cannot serve as objects, as
demonstrated by the ungrammatical passive construction:

(35) a. My uncle visited today.

b. *Today was visited by my uncle.

Here, "today" functions as a modifier, specifying the time of the action, but it cannot be the
subject of the passive sentence, indicating that it cannot serve as an object.

Modifiers play a crucial role in providing additional details and context to sentences,
enriching their meaning and enhancing clarity and specificity.

Sentence 36:

The little cat devoured a mouse.S (Sentence)

|___ NP: SUBJ (Subject)

| |___ Det: The
| |___ A: little
| |___ N: cat
|
|___ VP: PRED (Predicate)
|___ V: devoured
|___ NP: OBJ (Objective)
|___ Det: a
|___ N: mouse
 In this sentence, "the little cat" functions as the subject (SUBJ) and "a mouse" functions as
the object (OBJ). The verb phrase (VP) "devoured a mouse" serves as the predicate (PRED)
of the sentence.

Sentence 37:

1. John believes that the cat devoured a mouse.

S (Sentence)
|___ NP: SUBJ (Subject)
| |___ N: John
|
|___ VP: PRED (Predicate)
|___ V: believes
|___ CP: OBJ (Object)
|___ C: that
|___ S (Sentence)
|___ NP: SUBJ (Subject)
| |___ N: the cat
|
|___ VP
|___ V: devoured
|___ NP: OBJ (Object)
|___ Det: a

|___ N: mouse

In this sentence, "John" functions as the subject (SUBJ) and "the cat devoured a mouse"
serves as the object (OBJ). The verb phrase (VP) "believes that the cat devoured a mouse"
functions as the predicate (PRED) of the sentence.
Each clause has its own SUBJ and PRED:

oIn a complex sentence, each clause can have its own subject (SUBJ) and
predicate (PRED). The subject of the higher clause refers to the subject of the
main sentence, while the subject of the lower clause pertains to the subject of
the embedded clause.
2. Two OBJs:
o Similarly, there can be multiple objects (OBJs) in a sentence, each associated
with its respective clause. In this case, the complementizer phrase (CP) serves
as the object of the higher clause, while the noun phrase (NP) functions as the
object of the lower clause.
3. No one-to-one mapping between category and grammatical function:
o While every category in a sentence has a grammatical function, there isn't
always a direct correspondence between a specific category (such as NP or
CP) and its possible grammatical functions. Different phrase types can serve
as subjects or objects depending on their role within the sentence.
Example:
Sentence: "John believes that the cat devoured a mouse."

 Higher Clause:
o Subject (SUBJ): John
o Predicate (PRED): believes
o Object (OBJ): CP ("that the cat devoured a mouse")
 Lower Clause:
o Subject (SUBJ): the cat
o Predicate (PRED): devoured
o Object (OBJ): NP ("a mouse")

In this example, "John" is the subject of the higher clause (main sentence), while "the cat" is
the subject of the lower clause (embedded clause). The complementizer phrase "that the cat
devoured a mouse" serves as the object of the higher clause, and the noun phrase "a mouse"
functions as the object of the lower clause. Thus, we can see how different phrase types fulfill
various grammatical functions within the sentence structure.

I sent a surprise present to John.

S (Sentence)
|___ NP (Subject)
| |___ N: I
|
|___ VP: PRED (Predicate)
|___ V: sent
|___ NP: OBJ (Object)
|___ Det: a
|___ A: surprise
|___ N: present
|___ PP: OBJ (Object)
|___ P: to
|___ NP: John

In this sentence, "I" functions as the subject (SUBJ), "a surprise present" and
"to John" together serve as the object (OBJ), and the verb phrase (VP) "sent
a surprise present to John" functions as the predicate (PRED) of the sentence.

Examples in (38) and (39):

The examples in (38) and (39) demonstrate that not only noun phrases (NPs) but also
infinitival verb phrases (VPs) and complementizer phrases (CPs) can function as subjects
(SUBJ) and objects (OBJ) in sentences.

Tag-question, Subject-Verb Agreement, and Subjecthood Tests:

Tag-question, subject-verb agreement, and subjecthood tests reveal that infinitival VPs and
CPs can indeed function as subjects:

 Tag-Question Test: "That John passed surprised her, didn’t it?"

 Subject-Verb Agreement: "[That the march should go ahead] and [that it should be
cancelled] have/*has been argued by different people..."
 Subjecthood Test: "[To finish it on time] made quite a statement, didn’t it?"

Infinitival VP and CP as Modifiers:

Infinitival VPs, CPs, and even prepositional phrases (PPs) can function as modifiers:

 Example (42a): "The little cat devoured a mouse [for four years]."

S (Sentence)
|___ NP: SUBJ (Subject)
| |___ N: The little cat
|
|___ VP: PRED (Predicate)
|___ V: devoured
|___ NP: OBJ (Object)
|___ Det: a
|___ N: mouse
|___ PP: MOD (Modifier)
|___ P: for

|___ NP: last night

In this sentence, "The little cat" serves as the subject (SUBJ), "devoured a mouse" as the
predicate (PRED), and "for four years" as a modifier (MOD) providing temporal information.

Importance of Distinction:

Understanding the distinction between grammatical functions and categorical types (like NPs,
VPs, CPs, etc.) is crucial for comprehending English syntax. This distinction helps in
accurately analyzing the structure and meaning of sentences.

An infinitival verb phrase (VP) is a type of verb phrase that contains an infinitive form of the
verb. Infinitives are non-finite verb forms that typically consist of the base form of the verb
preceded by the word "to." In English, infinitives can function as verbs in various
constructions, such as:

1. To express purpose: "She went to the store to buy some groceries."

2. As complements: "He wants to learn Spanish."
3. As modifiers: "She has enough time to finish the project."

In these examples, "to buy some groceries," "to learn Spanish," and "to finish the project" are
all infinitival verb phrases. They consist of the infinitive form of the verb ("buy," "learn,"
"finish") preceded by the word "to." Infinitival verb phrases can serve various syntactic
functions within a sentence, including acting as subjects, objects, complements, or modifiers.