Main Clauses: Think of a main clause as the backbone of a sentence.

It can stand alone and

make sense by itself. A main clause usually contains a subject and a verb, expressing a
complete thought. Here are some examples:

1. Mary ate a sandwich.

2. The sun shines brightly.
3. John reads books.

In each of these sentences, there is a subject (Mary, the sun, John) and a verb (ate, shines,
reads), and each sentence expresses a complete idea.

Subordinate Clauses: Subordinate clauses, on the other hand, cannot stand alone as
complete sentences. They depend on the main clause to give them meaning. Subordinate
clauses add extra information to the main clause. There are different types of subordinate
clauses:

1. Complement Clause: This type of clause provides additional information about the
subject or object of the main clause.

Example:

oShe said [that she was tired]. (Here, "that she was tired" adds information to
what she said.)
2. Relative Clause: A relative clause provides more information about a noun in the
main clause. These clauses often start with relative pronouns like who, whom, whose,
which, or that.

Example:

oThe book [that I bought] is on the table. (Here, "that I bought" gives more
information about the book.)
3. Adverbial Clause: This type of clause functions like an adverb, providing
information about when, where, why, or how something happens in the main clause.

Example:

o She cried [because she was sad]. (Here, "because she was sad" tells us why
she cried.)

Compound Sentences: Compound sentences are formed by joining two or more main
clauses together with coordinating conjunctions like and, but, or, so, yet, etc.

Examples:

1. I like tea, but my brother prefers coffee.

2. The dog barked, and the cat ran away.
3. She danced all night, yet she still felt tired in the morning.

In each of these sentences, there are two main clauses joined together by a coordinating
conjunction.
Complement Clauses: Complement clauses are like special helpers that give extra
information about the actions or feelings expressed in the main clause. They can replace or
work like noun phrases in a sentence. Here are some examples:

1. Elizabeth regretted that she had met Wickham.

o In this sentence, "that she had met Wickham" is the complement clause. It tells
us what Elizabeth regretted.
o It's like saying: Elizabeth regretted her actions of meeting Wickham.
2. Catherine feared that the Abbey was haunted.
o Here, "that the Abbey was haunted" is the complement clause. It explains what
Catherine feared.
o It's like saying: Catherine feared the possibility that the Abbey was haunted.
3. That Anne was in conversation with Mr Elliott dismayed Captain Wentworth.
o In this sentence, "That Anne was in conversation with Mr Elliott" is the
complement clause. It describes what dismayed Captain Wentworth.
o It's like saying: Captain Wentworth was dismayed by the fact that Anne was in
conversation with Mr Elliott.

Modifying Nouns: Complement clauses can also add details to nouns, enhancing their
meaning. For example:

 Fanny was delighted by the idea that she could subscribe to a library.
o Here, "that she could subscribe to a library" is the complement clause. It adds
more meaning to the noun "idea".
o It's like saying: Fanny was delighted by the thought that she could subscribe to
a library.

More Examples:

1. Who thought up the proposal that the committee be abolished?

o Here, "that the committee be abolished" is the complement clause. It's part of
the question about who came up with the proposal.
o It's like saying: Who thought up the proposal for abolishing the committee?
2. There was a plan that we would visit Glasgow today but the weather is terrible.
o In this sentence, "that we would visit Glasgow today" is the complement
clause. It explains the plan.
o It's like saying: There was a plan for us to visit Glasgow today, but the
weather is terrible.

Relative Clauses: Relative clauses are like little side notes in a sentence that provide extra
information about a noun. They follow the noun they modify and help to specify which noun
we're talking about. Here are some examples:

1. The cottage which Mrs Dashwood accepted was rather small.

o In this sentence, "which Mrs Dashwood accepted" is the relative clause. It
describes the noun "cottage."
o It's like saying: The cottage that Mrs Dashwood accepted was rather small.
2. The gentleman who saved Marianne was Willoughby.
o Here, "who saved Marianne" is the relative clause. It adds information about
the noun "gentleman."
 oIt's like saying: The gentleman, who saved Marianne, was Willoughby.
3. The book which Marianne was reading contained poems by Cowper.
o In this sentence, "which Marianne was reading" is the relative clause. It tells
us more about the noun "book."
o It's like saying: The book that Marianne was reading contained poems by
Cowper.
4. The building that we liked is in Thornton Lacey.
o Here, "that we liked" is the relative clause. It provides additional detail about
the noun "building."
o It's like saying: The building, which we liked, is in Thornton Lacey.

Omitting the Relative Pronoun: Sometimes, we can omit the relative pronoun (which, who,
that) if it's the object of the clause. For example:

 The building we liked is in Thornton Lacey.

o Here, "we liked" is the relative clause. The relative pronoun "that" is omitted.
o It's like saying: The building that we liked is in Thornton Lacey.
 The book Marianne was reading contained poems by Cowper.
o Here, "Marianne was reading" is the relative clause. The relative pronoun
"which" is omitted.
o It's like saying: The book which Marianne was reading contained poems by
Cowper.

What are Relative Clauses? Relative clauses are parts of sentences that provide extra
information about a noun. They help to specify which noun or nouns we're talking about.
These clauses typically follow the noun they modify and are introduced by relative pronouns
such as "who," "whom," "whose," "which," or "that."

Example of Relative Clauses:

1. The girl who is wearing the red dress is my sister.

o Here, "who is wearing the red dress" is the relative clause. It provides
additional information about the noun "girl."
o The relative pronoun "who" introduces the clause and refers back to the noun
"girl."
2. I like the book that you recommended.
o In this sentence, "that you recommended" is the relative clause. It gives more
information about the noun "book."
o The relative pronoun "that" introduces the clause and refers back to the noun
"book."
3. The car which is parked outside belongs to John.
o Here, "which is parked outside" is the relative clause. It adds detail about the
noun "car."
o The relative pronoun "which" introduces the clause and refers back to the
noun "car."

Identifying Relative Clauses:

 1. Look for a noun in the sentence: Relative clauses usually come after a noun and
provide additional information about it. Identify the noun being described in the
sentence.
2. Find the relative pronoun: Look for words like "who," "whom," "whose," "which,"
or "that" in the sentence. These words often introduce relative clauses.
3. Check for a verb: Relative clauses contain a subject and a verb. Look for the action
or state of being within the clause.
4. See if the clause can stand alone: Relative clauses cannot stand alone as complete
sentences. They depend on the main clause to give them meaning.

General Examples:

1. The woman who lives next door is a doctor.

o The relative clause "who lives next door" gives more information about the
noun "woman."
2. Do you know the person whose car was stolen?
o The relative clause "whose car was stolen" describes the noun "person."
3. This is the restaurant that serves the best pizza in town.
o The relative clause "that serves the best pizza" provides additional detail about
the noun "restaurant."

Remember, relative clauses provide essential details about nouns in a sentence and are
introduced by relative pronouns. By identifying these key elements, you can recognize and
understand relative clauses more easily.

Adverbial Clauses: Adverbial clauses are parts of sentences that function like adverbs. They
provide additional information about the action or event in the main clause. Adverbial clauses
can express various meanings such as reason, time, concession, manner, or condition.

Types of Adverbial Clauses:

1. Reason:
o Adverbial clauses of reason explain why something happened.
o Example: Because Marianne loved Willoughby, she refused to believe that he
had deserted her.
 Here, "Because Marianne loved Willoughby" explains the reason for
Marianne's refusal.
2. Time:
o Adverbial clauses of time indicate when an action or event took place.
o Example: When Fanny returned, she found Tom Bertram very ill.
 "When Fanny returned" tells us the time when she found Tom Bertram
ill.
3. Concession:
o Adverbial clauses of concession express contrast or opposition to the main
clause.
o Example: Although Mr D’Arcy disliked Mrs Bennet, he married Elizabeth.
 "Although Mr D’Arcy disliked Mrs Bennet" presents a contrast to his
decision to marry Elizabeth.
4. Manner:
o Adverbial clauses of manner describe how an action is performed.
 oExample: Henry changed his plans as the mood took him.
 "As the mood took him" explains how Henry changed his plans.
5. Condition:
o Adverbial clauses of condition express circumstances under which something
may happen.
o Example: If Emma had left Hartfield, Mr Woodhouse would have been
unhappy.
 "If Emma had left Hartfield" presents a condition under which Mr
Woodhouse would have been unhappy.

Identifying Adverbial Clauses:

1. Look for a subordinate clause that provides additional information about the action or
event in the main clause.
2. Determine the type of adverbial clause based on its function (reason, time,
concession, manner, condition).
3. Understand the relationship between the adverbial clause and the main clause.
Adverbial clauses usually modify the entire main clause.

In summary, adverbial clauses function like adverbs in sentences, providing additional

information about actions, events, or circumstances. By identifying the type of adverbial
clause and its relationship to the main clause, you can better understand how it contributes to
the overall meaning of the sentence.

Complementisers and Subordinating Conjunctions:

1. Complementisers:
o Complementisers are special words that introduce subordinate clauses. These
clauses provide additional information to the main clause and are often
introduced by words like "that" or relative pronouns like "who," "whom," and
"which."
o Example: "Marianne believed that Willoughby loved her."
 Here, "that" is the complementiser introducing the complement clause
"Willoughby loved her."
2. Subordinating Conjunctions:
o Subordinating conjunctions are words that join subordinate clauses to main
clauses. These conjunctions indicate the relationship between the subordinate
clause and the main clause.
o Example: "He left because he was tired."
 In this sentence, "because" is the subordinating conjunction indicating
the reason for the action in the main clause.

Understanding the Difference:

 Complementisers are a specific type of subordinating conjunctions that introduce

complement clauses.
 They are used to join clauses where one clause (the complement clause) provides
additional information to the other (the main clause).
  Subordinating conjunctions, in general, join subordinate clauses to main clauses,
indicating the relationship between them, which can include reason, time, condition,
etc.

Example:

 Complementiser: "She knows that he is coming."

o In this sentence, "that" is a complementiser, introducing the complement
clause "he is coming."
 Subordinating Conjunction: "She smiled because he made her happy."
o Here, "because" is a subordinating conjunction, indicating the reason (or
cause) for her smile.

Identifying Complementisers and Subordinating Conjunctions:

 Look for words like "that," "who," "whom," "which," "because," "if," etc., which
introduce subordinate clauses.
 These words connect the subordinate clause to the main clause and indicate the
relationship between them.
 Remember that complementisers specifically introduce complement clauses, while
subordinating conjunctions can introduce various types of subordinate clauses.

In summary, complementisers and subordinating conjunctions play a crucial role in joining

subordinate clauses to main clauses and indicating the relationships between them. They help
to create complex sentences by adding additional information and providing clarity about the
connections between different parts of the sentence.

1. Adverbial Clauses:

 Adverbial clauses modify another clause, indicating aspects like time, manner,
condition, reason, or concession.
 Example: "When we sell the house, we'll probably leave most of the furniture."
o The italicized clause "When we sell the house" modifies the entire clause,
indicating time.

2. Verb Complement Clauses:

 Verb complement clauses modify a verb, completing its meaning.

 Example: "A motorist has reported that the road is blocked by snow at Soutra Hill."
o The italicized clause "that the road is blocked by snow at Soutra Hill"
modifies the verb "reported."

3. Relative Clauses:

 Relative clauses modify a noun and are introduced by relative pronouns (who, whom,
which, where) or the word "that."
 Example: "The Labrador ate all the food which we left on the kitchen table."
o The italicized clause "which we left on the kitchen table" modifies the noun
"food."
4. Noun Complement Clauses:

 Noun complement clauses also modify a noun and are introduced by the word "that."
 Example: "We like the idea that the city centre will be pedestrianised."
o The italicized clause "that the city centre will be pedestrianised" modifies the
noun "idea."

Differentiating Relative and Noun Complement Clauses:

 If removing the complementiser leaves a complete clause, it's a noun complement

clause. If it leaves an incomplete clause, it's a relative clause.
 Example:
o Noun Complement Clause: "That she could subscribe to a library." (Removing
"that" leaves "she could subscribe to a library.")
o Relative Clause: "Which Mrs Dashwood accepted." (Removing "which"
leaves "Mrs Dashwood accepted," which is incomplete.)

In summary, by examining how a clause modifies the sentence and what happens when you
remove the complementiser, you can distinguish between adverbial, verb complement,
relative, and noun complement clauses. These rules help in accurately identifying and
understanding the different types of clauses in sentences.