Chapter 35: Image Formation

A photo shows a magnifying glass over a smartphone with the screen open to a news page
 35.1 Images Formed by Flat Mirrors
• Figure: Consider point source of light
placed at O distance p in front of flat mirror
• Distance p = object distance
• Diverging light rays leave source and
are reflected from mirror (obeying law
of reflection)
• Upon reflection→ rays continue to
diverge
• Dashed lines: backward extensions
of diverging rays back to point of
intersection at I
• Diverging rays appear to viewer
to originate at point I behind
mirror
 • Point I (distance q behind mirror) = image of object at O
• Distance q = image distance
• Note: images can always be located by extending
diverging rays back to point at which they intersect
• Images located:
• At point from which rays of light actually diverge
• At point from which they appear to diverge
• Real image: formed when all light rays pass through
and diverge from image point
• Virtual image: formed when most (or all) light rays
do not pass through image point
• Only appear to diverge from that point
• Image formed by mirror in figure: virtual
• No light rays from object exist behind mirror
(location of the image)
• Light rays in front of mirror only seem to be
diverging from I
• Image of object seen in flat mirror always virtual
• Real images can be displayed on a screen (i.e., movie
theater),Virtual images cannot be displayed on a screen
 Images Formed by Flat Mirrors

image height h
Lateral magnification, M = =
of an image object height h
• Red ray starts at P
• Follows path perpendicular to mirror to Q
• Reflects back on itself
• Second ray follows oblique path PR
• Reflects as shown according to law of reflection
• Observer in front of mirror would extend reflected rays back
to point at which they appear to have originated
• Point P behind mirror
• For flat mirror: M = +1 for any image → h = h
• Positive value of magnification signifies image is
upright (if object arrow points upward so does
image arrow)
35.2 Images Formed by Spherical Mirrors
• Spherical mirror: has shape of section of sphere
Convex Mirrors
Concave Mirrors
 Concave Mirrors
• Mirror has radius of curvature R
• Center of curvature point C
• Point V: center of spherical section
• Line through C and V: principal
axis of mirror

• Solid, curved dark blue line is reflecting surface of mirror (concave mirror)
• Consider point source of light placed at point O (figure (b))
• O is any point on principal axis to left of C
• Shown: two diverging light rays that originate at O
• After reflecting from mirror (obeying law of reflection from wave under
reflection analysis model):
• Rays converge and cross at image point I
• Then continue to diverge from I as if object were there.
• Observer to left of O would see light rays diverging from I
• Image at point I: real
 Concave Spherical Mirrors
• By convention: distances measured from point V
• Two rays leaving tip of object
• Red ray passes through center of curvature C of mirror
• Hitting mirror perpendicular to mirror surface and reflecting back on itself
• Blue ray strikes mirror at its center (point V)
• Reflects as shown (obeying law of reflection)
• Image of tip of arrow located at point where two rays intersect

From large, red h

right triangle, tan  =
p
From yellow h
right triangle, tan  = −
q
h q
M = =−
h p
 Concave Spherical Mirrors
− h h
tan  = and tan  =
R−q p−R
h R−q
=−
h p−R

R−q q
=
p−R p

1 1 2
• Mirror equation  + =
p q R
 Concave Mirrors
1 1 2
+ =
p q R
1 2 R
p→ = q=
q R 2

R
f =
2

1 1 1
+ =
p q f
• Fig : results of parallel rays in laboratory • Fig : geometric construction for
• Rays reflect from mirror and pass through parallel rays striking mirror
single point (focal point F)
• Note: focal length of mirror depends only on curvature of mirror
• Not on material from which mirror is made
• Formation of image results from rays reflected from surface of material
• Different for lenses →
• Light actually passes through material
• Focal length depends on type of material from which lens is made
Practical Application: Satellite Dish Antenna

• Parallel microwaves carrying television signals from satellite far

above Earth's surface strike curved surface of antenna
• Focused at receiver placed at focal point of surface
 Convex Spherical Mirrors

• Image:
• Virtual because reflected
rays only appear to
originate at image point as
indicated by dashed lines
• Always upright and
smaller than object

• Figure: shows formation of image by convex mirror (silvered so that light

reflected from outer, convex surface)
• Sometimes called diverging mirror:
• Rays from any point on object diverge after reflection as though they
were coming from some point behind mirror
•Convex mirror: large field of view
Convex Mirrors

A photo shows the virtual image of the road viewed through convex mirror
 Convex Mirrors and Sign Conventions
• No new equations for convex spherical mirrors:
• Our equations can be used for concave or
convex mirrors using sign convention
• Region in which light rays originate and move
toward mirror: front side of mirror
• Other side: back side
• Figure: sign conventions for object and image
distances for any type of mirror
• Table: summarizes sign conventions for all quantities
Ray Diagrams: Concave Mirrors
• Ray diagrams: accurate but do not require
protractor.
• Pictorial representations reveal nature
of image
• Can be used to check results calculated
from mathematical representation
using mirror and magnification
equations
• Must know position of object and locations
of mirror’s focal point and center of
curvature
• Draw three rays from top of object to locate
image (figures)
• Concave mirrors (figures): draw three rays:
• Ray 1 (blue): drawn from top of object parallel to principal axis
• Reflected through focal point F
• Ray 2 (green): drawn from top of object through focal point (or as if coming from focal point if p
< f)
• Reflected parallel to principal axis
• Ray 3 (red): drawn from top of object through center of curvature C (or as if coming from center
C if p < 2f)
• Reflected back on itself
• Intersection of any two rays locates image
• Third ray serves as check of construction
• Image point must always agree with value of q calculated from mirror equation
• Concave mirrors: note what happens as object moved closer to mirror
• When object lies between focal point and mirror surface (figure (b)):
• Image to the right
• Behind object
• Virtual, upright, and enlarged
• Imagine using shaving or makeup mirror (concave mirrors):
• Your face is closer to mirror than focal point
• You see upright, enlarged image of your face
 Ray Diagram: Convex Mirror

• Figure: convex mirror

• Ray 1 (blue): drawn from top of object parallel to principal axis
• Reflected away from focal point F
• Ray 2 (green): drawn from top of object toward focal point on back side of mirror
• Reflected parallel to principal axis
• Ray 3 (red): drawn from top of object toward center of curvature C on back side of mirror
• Reflected back on itself
• Convex mirror → image always: Virtual, Upright, Reduced in size
• As object distance decreases, Virtual image increases in size and moves away from focal point
toward mirror
 Quick Quiz 35.2
You wish to start a fire by reflecting sunlight from a
mirror onto some paper under a pile of wood. Which
would be the best choice for the type of mirror?
(a) flat
(b) concave
(c) convex
 Quick Quiz 35.2
You wish to start a fire by reflecting sunlight from a
mirror onto some paper under a pile of wood. Which
would be the best choice for the type of mirror?
(a) flat
(b) concave
(c) convex

A concave mirror focuses the light from a large area of the mirror
onto a small area of the paper, resulting in a very high power
input to the paper.
 Example 35.3:
The Image Formed by a Concave Mirror
A spherical mirror has a focal length of +10.0 cm.
(A) Locate and describe the image for an object distance of 25.0
cm.
1 1 1 fp
= − q=
q f p p− f
(10.0 cm )( 25.0 cm )
q=
25.0 cm − 10.0 cm
= 16.7 cm
q 16.7 cm
M =− =− = −0.667
p 25.0 cm
The absolute value of M is less than unity, so the image is smaller than the object, and the
negative sign for M tells us that the image is inverted. Because q is positive, the image is
located on the front side of the mirror and is real. Look into the bowl of a shiny spoon or
stand far away from a shaving mirror to see this image.
 Example 35.3:
The Image Formed by a Concave Mirror
(B) Locate and describe the image for an object distance of 5.00 cm.

fp
q=
p− f
(10.0 cm )( 5.0 cm )
q=
5.0 cm − 10.0 cm
= −10.0 cm
q  −10.0 cm 
M = − = −  = +2.00
p  5.00 cm 
The image is twice as large as the object, and the positive sign for M indicates
that the image is upright. The negative value of the image distance tells us that the
image is virtual, as expected. Put your face close to a shaving mirror to see this
type of image.
 Example 35.4:
The Image Formed by a Convex Mirror
An automobile sideview mirror on the passenger side as shown
in the photo shows an image of a truck located 50.0 m from the
mirror. The focal length of the mirror is −0.60 m.
(A) Find the position of the image of the truck.
Because the mirror is convex, we expect it to form an upright,
reduced, virtual image for any object position.
 Example 35.4:
The Image Formed by a Convex Mirror

fp ( −0.60 m )( 50.0 m )
q= = = −0.59 m
p − f 50.0 m − ( −0.60 m )
 Example 35.4:
The Image Formed by a Convex Mirror
(B) Find the magnification of the image.

q  −0.59 m 
M = − = −  = +0.012
p  50.0 m 
Exercise, page 956
 35.3 Images Formed by Refraction
• Figure: two transparent media
(indices of refraction n1 and n2)
• Boundary between media →
spherical surface of radius R
• Object at O: index for medium = n1
• Consider paraxial rays leaving O
• Figure: refraction analog to
reflections from a mirror
 Images Formed by Refraction
n1 sin 1 = n2 sin  2 → n11 = n2 2
1 and 2 assumed to be small → use small-angle approximation sin   (with angles in radians):

1 =  +  and  =  2 +  n1 + n2 = ( n2 − n1 ) 

d d d
tan     tan    tan   
p R q
n1 n2 n2 − n1
+ =
p q R

n1q
M =−
n2 p
Question 20, page 958
 Sign Conventions for
Refracting Surfaces
• As with mirrors → must use sign convention for equation
• Define side of surface in which light rays originate as front side
• Other side: back side

n1 n2 n2 − n1
+ =
p q R
• Equation: assumed n1 < n2 →
assumption not necessary
• Valid regardless of
which index of
refraction is greater
 Images Formed by Refraction
• Figure: shows possibilities for refracting surface surrounded
by medium of index n1
• Real and virtual images: created by placing object at
different positions relative to surface
n1 n2 n2 − n1 n1
+ =  p= R
p q R q → n2 − n1
• Let q → ∞ and solve for p:
• When object is at this distance from surface: image
infinitely far away
• If object moved farther from surface than this
position → real image (figure (a))
• If object moved closer to surface than this
distance → virtual image (figure (b))
• Consider placing object inside material of index n1 and
looking at image from material of index n2 where n1 > n2
pR
We get: q = , for n1 > n2, q always negative
 n1  n1
1 −  p − R (Image always virtual)
 n2  n2
• Analogous to all images being virtual for convex mirror
 Conceptual Example 35.5:
Let’s Go Scuba Diving!
Objects viewed under water with the naked eye appear blurred
and out of focus. A scuba diver using a mask, however, has a
clear view of underwater objects. Explain how that works, using
the information that the indices of refraction of the cornea, water,
and air are 1.376, 1.333, and 1.000 29, respectively.

Because the cornea and water have almost identical indices of

refraction, very little refraction occurs when a person under
water views objects with the naked eye. In this case, light rays
from an object focus behind the retina, resulting in a blurred
image. When a mask is used, however, the air space between
the eye and the mask surface provides the normal amount of
refraction at the eye–air interface; consequently, the light from
the object focuses on the retina.
 Conceptual Example 35.6:
Gaze into the Crystal Ball
A set of coins is embedded in a spherical plastic paperweight
having a radius of 3.0 cm. The index of refraction of the plastic is
n1 = 1.50. One coin is located 2.0 cm from the edge of the
sphere. Find the position of the image of the coin.

n2 n2 − n1 n1
= −
q R p
1 1.00 − 1.50 1.50
= −
q −3.0 cm 2.0 cm
q = −1.7 cm
The negative sign for q indicates that the image
is in front of the surface; in other words, it is in
the same medium as the object as shown in the
figure. Therefore, the image must be virtual.
The coin appears to be closer to the paperweight surface than it actually is.
 35.4 Images Formed by Thin Lenses
• Lenses commonly used to form images by refraction in optical
instruments (i.e, cameras, telescopes, and microscopes)
• Light passing through lens experiences refraction at two
surfaces
• Image formed by one refracting surface serves as object
for second surface
• Figure: lens with index of refraction n and two spherical
surfaces with radii of curvature R1 and R2 separated by distance t
• Note:
• R1 = radius of curvature of lens surface light from object
reaches first
• R2 = radius of curvature of other surface of lens
• Figure shows: real and virtual images formed by first surface
 Thin-Lens Equations

1 1 1
• Thin-lens equation: + = • Used to relate image distance and object distance for thin lens
p q f
• Light can travel in either direction through lens: • Each lens has two focal points

• Figure: focal points for plano-convex lens (converging lens) and plano-concave lens (diverging lens)
Sign Conventions for Thin Lenses

• Figure: useful for obtaining signs of p and q

Converging and Diverging Lens Shapes
• Converging lens thicker at center than at edge

• Diverging lens thinner at center than at edge

 Magnification of Images
h q
Lateral magnification of image: M = =−
h p
• When M positive → image upright and on same side of lens as object
• When M negative → image inverted and on side of lens opposite object
 Ray Diagrams: Converging Lens

• Locate image of converging lens (figures):

• Ray 1 (blue): drawn parallel to principal axis
• After refraction → ray passes through focal point on back side of lens
• Ray 2 (green): drawn through focal point on front side of lens (or as if coming from
focal point if p < f )
• Emerges from lens parallel to principal axis
• Ray 3 (red): drawn through center of lens
• Continues in straight line
Ray Diagram: Diverging Lens
 Ray Diagrams for Thin Lenses

• Converging lens (figure (a)): object to left of focal point (p > f ) →

• Image real and inverted
• Lens acts like video projector
• Converging lens (figure (b)): object between focal point and lens (p < f ) →
• Image virtual and upright
• Lens acts as magnifying glass
• Diverging lens (figure (c)):
• Image always virtual and upright regardless of where object is placed
• These geometric constructions reasonably accurate only if distance between rays and
principal axis << radii of lens surfaces
 Conceptual Example 35.8:
Images Formed by a Converging Lens
A converging lens has a focal length of 10.0 cm.
(A) An object is placed 30.0 cm from the lens.
Construct a ray diagram, find the image distance, and
describe the image.

fp (10.0 cm )( 30.0 cm )
q= =
p− f 30.0 cm − 10.0 cm
= +15.0 cm

q 15.0 cm
M =− =− = −0.500
p 30.0 cm
 Conceptual Example 35.8:
Images Formed by a Converging Lens
(B) An object is placed 5.00 cm from the
lens. Construct a ray diagram, find the
image distance, and describe the image.
fp (10.0 cm )( 5.00 cm )
q= =
p− f 5.00 cm − 10.0 cm
= −10.0 cm

q  −10.0 cm 
M = − = −  = +2.00
p  5.00 cm 
The negative image distance tells us that the image is virtual and formed on the side of the
lens from which the light is incident, the front side. The image is enlarged, and the positive
sign for M tells us that the image is upright.
 Conceptual Example 35.9:
Images Formed by a Diverging Lens
A diverging lens has a focal length of 10.0 cm.
(A) An object is placed 15.0 cm from the lens.
Construct a ray diagram, find the image distance, and
describe the image.

fp ( −10.0 cm )(15.0 cm )
q= =
p− f 15.0 cm − 10.0 cm
= −6.00 cm

q  −6.00 cm 
M = − = −  = +0.400
p  15.0 cm 
This result confirms that the image is virtual, smaller than the object, and upright.
 Conceptual Example 35.9:
Images Formed by a Diverging Lens
(B) An object is placed 5.00 cm from the lens.
Construct a ray diagram, find the image distance, and
describe the image.

fp ( −10.0 cm )( 5.00 cm )
q= =
p − f 5.00 cm − ( −10.0 cm )
= −3.33 cm

q  −3.33 cm 
M = − = −  = +0.667
p  5.00 cm 
For both object positions, the image position is negative and the magnification is a positive number
smaller than 1, which confirms that the image is virtual, smaller than the object, and upright.
Exercise Question 45, page 960
Exercise 1:
Exercise 2:
Exercise 2: