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Contrastive Linguistics and Other Related Fields

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 Contrastive Linguistics and Other Related Fields

Mohammed Jasim Betti

Dept. of English, College of Education for Humanities, University of

Thi-Qar

1. Definitions

Contrastive linguistics is a practice-oriented linguistic approach that

seeks to describe the differences and similarities between a pair of
languages (hence it is occasionally called "differential linguistics")
(Betti, 2020c: 9). It is the systematic study of a pair of languages with a
view to identifying their structural differences and similarities.
Historically it has been used to establish language genealogies (Betti,
1990: 93; Al-Seady, 1998a: 8; Igaab, 2010a: 11).

Contrastive linguistics compares languages usually with the aim of

assisting language learning by identifying important differences between
the learner's native and target languages (Betti, 2013: 7). Contrastive
linguistics deals solely with present-day languages (Betti and Al-Jubouri,
2009: 1) .

Contrastive linguistics, since its inception by Robert Lado in the

1950s, has often been linked to aspects of applied linguistics, e.g., to
avoid interference errors in foreign-language learning, as advocated by Di
Pietro (1971) and Betti, and Ghadhab (2020: 64) and Betti (2006: 72),
to assist interlingual transfer in the process of translating texts from one
language into another, as demonstrated by Vinay & Darbelnet (1958) and
more recently by Hatim (1997) , and to find lexical equivalents in the
process of compiling bilingual dictionaries, as illustrated by Heltai (1988)
and Hartmann (1991; Betti, and Igaab, 2016:58; Betti, and Mahdi, 2021:
50; Betti, 2007: 16).

Contrastive descriptions can occur at every level of linguistic

structure: speech sounds (phonology), written symbols (orthography),
word-formation (morphology), word meaning (lexicology), collocation
(phraseology), sentence structure (syntax) and complete discourse
(textology) (Betti, 2002e: 93). Various techniques used in corpus
linguistics have been shown to be relevant in intralingual and interlingual
contrastive studies, e.g. by 'parallel-text' analysis (Hartmann 1997; Betti
and Ulaiwi, 2018: 86). They can also be applied to the differential
description of one or more varieties within a language, such as styles
(contrastive rhetoric), dialects, registers or terminologies of technical
genres (Betti, 2020b: 19).

2. Applications

There are multiple fields in the realms of linguistics to which Contrastive

Analysis is applicable:

A. Historical linguistics

A former application of CA, which is subsumed under the name

comparative linguistics, a branch in linguistics not to be confused with
CA (Betti, 2015a: 45; Betti, and Mahdi, 2020: 98).

B. Second language teaching

Despite CA's limitation in the prediction of L2 learners' errors, it provides

insights to at least some of the major mistakes that are frequently made
by L2 learners irrespective of their L1 (Betti and Igaab, 2018: 32; Betti,
2020 a: 4).. Hence, more tailor-made language design can be adopted;
examples include awareness raising, teaching method and hierarchical
learning teaching curriculum (Betti, 2002d: 99; Betti and Hashim, 2018:
287).

C. Second language learning

Awareness raising is the major contribution of CA in second language

learning. This includes CA's abilities to explain observed errors and to
outline the differences between two languages; upon language learners'
realization of these aspects, they can work to adopt a viable way to learn
instead of rote learning, and correct fossilized language errors (Betti,
2003: 3; Al-Sheikh, 2006a: 85)

D. Sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, bilingualism, pragmatics and

others cultural-related Fields:

CA is, in itself, a cross-linguistic/cross-cultural study, and its ability to

apply both linguistic and non-linguistic features is one of its major merits.
This permits a better linguistic-cultural understanding, which is essential
for learning a language in its entirety (Janda and Joseph, 2004: 42; Betti,
and Al-Jubouri, 2015c: 70).

E. Translation

CA provides better understanding of linguistic difference between two

languages and therefore may be applied to the field of
translation (Betti, and Igaab, 2015: 29; Al-Sheikh, 2006b: 69).
Primarily, CA certainly lays a foundation for translation as it is integral
that translators and interpreters have a thorough understanding of not
only the languages they work between, but of the differences between
them as well (Betti, Igaab & Al-Ghizzi, 2018: 269). Also, it might
balance the word-for-word vs. sense-for sense debate by developing
strategies to overcome the linguistic hindrance. Moreover, it may avoid
awkward translations such as translationese and Europeanization (Betti,
2021k: 4).

F. Language therapy

Distinguishing the difference between language disorder patients from

non-standard dialect speakers (Betti, 2021l: 2). This is essential in
identifying speech pathology and their corresponding treatment (Betti,
and AlFartoosy, 2019: 105).

G. Criminal investigation

CA research offers insight to subtle differences among languages.

Language patterns can be used as clues to investigate criminal activities,
for example analyzing phishing texts designed to deceive users into
giving away confidential information (Stern, 1983: 43; Betti, 2002c : 83;
Betti, and Hasan, 2020: 75).

H. Comparative linguistics, or comparative-historical linguistics

(formerly comparative philology

It is a branch of historical linguistics that is concerned with comparing

languages to establish their historical relatedness (Betti, 2021m: 1).
I. Genetic relatedness

Genetic relatedness implies a common origin or proto-language and

comparative linguistics aims to construct language families, to
reconstruct proto-languages and specify the changes that have resulted
in the documented languages (Betti, 2021n: 6; Igaab, 2010: 17).

To maintain a clear distinction between attested and reconstructed

forms, comparative linguists prefix an asterisk to any form that is not
found in surviving texts (Betti, 2021o: 8; Igaab, Zainab Kadim , 2015:
86).

A number of methods for carrying out language classification have

been developed, ranging from simple inspection to computerized
hypothesis testing. Such methods have gone through a long process of
development (Lado, 1957: 51; Betti, and Igaab , 2019: 245).

3. Methods

The fundamental technique of comparative linguistics is to compare

phonological systems, morphological systems, syntax and the lexicon of
two or more languages using techniques such as the comparative
method (Igaab, 2015a: 144).

In principle, every difference between two related languages should

be explicable to a high degree of plausibility; systematic changes, for
example in phonological or morphological systems are expected to be
highly regular (consistent) (Lass, 1997: 53; Betti, 2020d: 14; Igaab,
2015b: 27).
 In practice, the comparison may be more restricted, e.g. just to the
lexicon. In some methods it may be possible to reconstruct an earlier
proto-language. Although the proto-languages reconstructed by the
comparative method are hypothetical, a reconstruction may have
predictive power (Igaab and Al-Bdeary, 2016: 18). The most notable
example of this is Ferdinand de Saussure's proposal that the Indo-
European consonant system contained laryngeals, a type of consonant
attested in no Indo-European language known at the time. The hypothesis
was vindicated with the discovery of Hittite, which proved to have
exactly the consonants Saussure had hypothesized in the environments he
had predicted (Connor, 1996: 11; Betti, and Yaseen, 2020: 63).

Where languages are derived from a very distant ancestor, and are
thus more distantly related, the comparative method becomes less
practicable. In particular, attempting to relate two reconstructed proto-
languages by the comparative method has not generally produced
results that have met with wide acceptance (Betti, 1990: 93). The
method has also not been very good at unambiguously identifying sub-
families; thus, different scholars[who?] have produced conflicting
results, for example in Indo-European. A number of methods based on
statistical analysis of vocabulary have been developed to try and
overcome this limitation, such as lexicostatistics and mass comparison.
The former uses lexical cognates like the comparative method, while the
latter uses only lexical similarity (Betti, 2002b: 39).

The theoretical basis of such methods is that vocabulary items can be

matched without a detailed language reconstruction and that comparing
enough vocabulary items will negate individual inaccuracies; thus, they
can be used to determine relatedness but not to determine the proto-
language (Ellis, 1994: 34; Betti, 2002a: 19).

In this regard, there are three steps for making a contrastive study
Betti, 2021j: 46):

1. describing the chosen language component in Language (1)

2. describing the chosen language component in Language (2)

3. Making a confrontation stage in which the language component chosen

is compared in both languages to show the similarities and differences.

4. Related fields

There are other branches of linguistics that involve comparing

languages, which are not, however, part of comparative linguistics (Betti,
1998: 5; Igaab, 2010b: 154)

A. Linguistic typology

Linguistic typology compares languages to classify them by their

features. Its ultimate aim is to understand the universals that govern
language, and the range of types found in the world's languages in
respect of any particular feature (word order or vowel system, for
example) (Igaab, and Al-Manhalawey, 2010c: 37)

Typological similarity does not imply a historical relationship.

However, typological arguments can be used in comparative linguistics:
one reconstruction may be preferred to another as typologically more
plausible (Lehmann, 1962: 66).
B. Contact linguistics

Contact linguistics examines the linguistic results of contact between the

speakers of different languages, particularly as evidenced in loan words
(Betti, 2021i: 19; Al-Seady, 2002b: 76).

An empirical study of loans is by definition historical in focus and

therefore forms part of the subject matter of historical linguistics. One of
the goals of etymology is to establish which items in a language's
vocabulary result from linguistic contact. This is also an important issue
both for the comparative method and for the lexical comparison
methods, since failure to recognize a loan may distort the findings (Betti,
2021h: 9).

5. Comparative linguistics

Comparative linguistics includes the study of the historical relationships

of languages using the comparative method to search for regular (i.e.
recurring) correspondences between the languages' phonology,
grammar and core vocabulary, and through hypothesis testing; some
persons with little or no specialization in the field sometimes attempt to
establish historical associations between languages by noting similarities
between them, in a way that is considered pseudoscientific by specialists
(e.g. African/Egyptian comparisons) (Salmons, 2011: 59; Betti, 2021a:
89).

The most common method applied in pseudoscientific language

comparisons is to search two or more languages for words that seem
similar in their sound and meaning (Betti, 2021f: 74).
While similarities of this kind often seem convincing to laypersons,
linguistic scientists consider this kind of comparison to be unreliable for
two primary reasons (Al-Seady, 2002a: 15 ; Betti, 1996: 40; Igaab,
2010b: 159).

First, the method applied is not well-defined: the criterion of

similarity is subjective and thus not subject to verification or falsification,
which is contrary to the principles of the scientific method (Betti, 2021e:
90). Second, the large size of all languages' vocabulary and a relatively
limited inventory of articulated sounds used by most languages makes it
easy to find coincidentally similar words between languages (Betti,
2021b: 8; Betti, 2021g: 54)

There are sometimes political or religious reasons for associating

languages in ways that some linguists would dispute. (Trask, 2001: 21;
(Betti, 2021d: 17; Bynon, 1977: 33).

The Bantu language is also claimed to be related to Ancient Egyptian

by Mubabinge Bilolo. Ancient Egyptian is, according to Cheikh Anta Diop,
is related to the Wolof language. And, according to Gilbert Ngom,
Ancient Egyptian is similar to the Duala language. Just as Egyptian is
related to Brabantic, following Becanus in his Hieroglyphica, still using
Comparative methods (Betti, 1990: 89).

The first practicians of Comparative linguistics are not universally

acclaimed: upon reading Becanus' book, Scaliger wrote never did I read
greater nonsense, and Leibniz coined the term goropism (from
Goropius) to designate a far-sought, ridiculous etymology (Anttila, 1989:
13; (Al-Seady, 1995: 78 ; Igaab, 2010b: 152; Betti, 2021c: 5)..
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