(eBook PDF) Math for the Automotive

Trade 6th Edition by John C. Peterson

Go to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-math-for-the-automotive-trade-6th-edition
-by-john-c-peterson/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

(eBook PDF) Math for the Automotive Trade 5th Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-math-for-the-automotive-
trade-5th-edition/

Mathematics for Machine Technology 8th Edition John C.

Peterson - eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/mathematics-for-machine-
technology-ebook-pdf/

(eBook PDF) International Trade 3rd Edition by Robert

C. Feenstra

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-international-trade-3rd-
edition-by-robert-c-feenstra/

(eBook PDF) International Trade 4th Edition by Robert C

Feenstra

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-international-trade-4th-
edition-by-robert-c-feenstra/
(eBook PDF) Ethics for Engineers by Martin Peterson

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-ethics-for-engineers-by-
martin-peterson/

Microsoft Visual C# Step by Step, 9th Edition John

Sharp - eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/microsoft-visual-c-step-by-
step-9th-edition-ebook-pdf/

(eBook PDF) Options Futures and Other Derivatives 9th

by John C. Hull

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-options-futures-and-
other-derivatives-9th-by-john-c-hull/

Options, Futures, and Other Derivatives 9th Edition by

John C. Hull (eBook PDF)

http://ebooksecure.com/product/options-futures-and-other-
derivatives-9th-edition-by-john-c-hull-ebook-pdf/

Options, Futures, and Other Derivatives 10th Edition by

John C. Hull (eBook PDF)

http://ebooksecure.com/product/options-futures-and-other-
derivatives-10th-edition-by-john-c-hull-ebook-pdf/
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 PREFACE

MATH FOR THE AUTOMOTIVE TRADE, 6th Edition, is a text-workbook that provides the automotive t­echnology
student with examples and problems encountered in this occupation. This edition has been revised to reflect changes
in the technological requirements of workers in automotive technology. The text has three parts. The first part,
Chapters 1–7, reviews basic mathematics, measurement, and statistics skills and provides an introduction to small
­business practices. The second part, Chapters 8–14, applies the basic mathematics skills to specific automotive ­situations.
This part begins with a chapter titled “Completing Repair Orders.” Repair orders are used throughout the remaining
chapters of this part. The third part, Chapter 15, examines measurement aspects of both analog and digital measurement
tools used in the auto­motive trade.
Changes specific to this edition include the following:
• Applications and examples have been updated to reflect changes in automotive technology. In particular, some of the
information about analog meters has been eliminated.
• The flat rate pages in Appendix A for the Ford Fusion, Milan, Zephyr, MKZ, and Milan Hybrid were replaced with
the Ford Mustang Labor Guide.
• New repair orders were created.
• A new section was added on using digital micrometers.
• The tax tables in Chapter 7 were updated.
• Many questions have been added to reflect current concerns with hybrid, electric, and other new technologies.
• Gas prices, tax data, and so on have been updated to reflect current prices.

Ancillary Materials
This list of ancillary materials is comparable to material available for Peterson/deKryger’s Math for the Automotive
Trade, 6e. Much of it has been developed by the authors.
• Instructor’s Guide consisting of solutions and answers to all exercises and problems.
• The following resources are available on the Instructors Companion Website:
– Cengage Testing powered by Cognero
– PowerPoint presentation slides
– Image library, including
* All textbook figures
* All automotive spec sheets in the text vii

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
viii | PREFACE |
* All repair orders
* All flat rate pages in the text
The authors wish to thank the following people for their contributions and guidance:
Reviewers for the 6th Edition:
Joseph Bergendorf Gary Forgotson Larry Lichter
Lincoln Tech Lincoln Tech Brookfield, Wisconsin
Mahwah, New Jersey Mahwah, New Jersey
And most of all, we want to thank our wives, Maria P. Peterson and Nancy A. de Kryger, for their understanding and help.

About the Authors

John C. Peterson is a retired professor of mathematics at Chattanooga State Technical Community College (CSTCC).
Peterson received the Teaching Excellence Award from CSTCC. He received a Ph.D. in Mathematics E ­ ducation from The
Ohio State University. His professional affiliations include: American Mathematics Association of Two-Year C ­ olleges
(AMATYC) (Southeast Vice President 1996–2000 and Production Manager of The AMATYC Review, 2004–2008);
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics; Tennessee Mathematics Teachers Association; ­Mathematical Association
of America; and the American Mathematical Society. He was a member of the team that revised the ­two-year college por-
tion of the 2015 College Board of Mathematical Sciences cross-sectional survey of undergraduate ­mathematical science
programs. This survey has been done every five years since 1965. He has over 90 professional publications. His other
Delmar publications are Technical Mathematics, 4e; Technical Mathematics with Calculus, 4e; Introductory ­Technical
Mathematics, 6e (with Robert D. Smith); and Mathematics for Machine ­Technology, 7e (with Robert D. Smith).
William J. deKryger is a retired professor of automotive technology in the Department of Engineering and
Technology at Central Michigan University. He has been a certified ASE Master Technician for over 35 years and is a
member of the Society of Automotive Engineers. During his automotive career working as a professional technician,
he was employed by both automotive dealerships and independent garages in Grand Rapids, Michigan; Hollywood and
Culver City, California; and Honolulu, Hawaii. Other professional services have included acting as an expert witness for
automotive cases; automotive arbiter for the National Center for Dispute Settlement; annual study abroad leader to
­Vladimir State University, Vladimir, Russia; and annual Visiting Professor of Automotive Technology to Instituta
­Technbologico Y de Superiores de Monterrey, Campus Toluca, Mexico.

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 1
WHOLE NUMBERS

Objectives: After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

• Add, subtract, multiply, and divide whole numbers.
• Apply the basic mathematics operations of whole numbers to solve practical problems.
• Determine total costs related to repair and maintenance.
• Calculate trip distance, fuel consumption, and fuel economy.
• Determine costs related to buying, selling, and insuring a car.
• Determine component inventory volume and production requirements.
• Determine weights of automobiles and automotive components.

W
hole numbers are numbers such as 14, 57, and 832.
Each digit has a different value depending on its
location in the whole number. In the whole num-
bers 14, 57, and 832, the 4, 7, and 2 are in the ones’ place of
each number. In a decimal, such as 23.47, the number just to
the left of the decimal point is in the ones’ place. You could
write each whole number with a decimal point. Therefore, you
could have written 14., 57., and 832. for the above ­numbers.
The position just to the left of the ones’ place is the
tens’ place. In the numbers 14, 57, and 832, the 1, 5, and
3 are all in the tens’ place.
The third position to the left of the decimal place is
the hundreds’ place. The 8 in the number 832 is in the
hundreds’ place.
Each digit in a whole number has a place value. The
chart below shows some of the names of the places for a
whole number with seven digits.
hundred thousands
Large numbers may be written either with a space or
with a comma separating every third numeral. Hence, the
number above could have been written as 2 984 365 or as
2,984,365. Large numbers are usually written with
spaces instead of commas when the metric system of
measurement is used.
Adding Whole Numbers
In order to answer a question like the following, you
must be able to add whole numbers.
A new automobile has a basic price of $14,674. For
power sunroof, add $732; for California e­ mission
control, add $93; for a premium sound system, add
$434. Destination charges are $525. What is the
total price of the new car before taxes?

When adding whole numbers, first write the numbers

ten thousands

so that the digits in the ones’ place are all in the same
thousands
hundreds

column, the digits in the tens’ place are in the same column,
millons

and so on. Then add the numbers in the ones’ column,

ones
tens

then the numbers in the tens’ column, and so on. The

2, 9 8 4, 3 6 5 answer to an addition problem is called the sum.
1

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
2 | CHAPTER 1 | Whole Numbers
■ EXAMPLE 1–1 Step 3  Add the digits in the tens’ column. Thus, the
Find the sum of 214 1 2 1 53. sum of 45 and 28 is 73.

Solution
ones’ place
■ EXAMPLE 1–3
T Add 4568 1 927.
214
2 Solution
1 53 1
4568
Step 1   Write numbers with digits in the ones’ place in 1 927
the same column. 5

214 Step 1  8 1 7 5 15. Carry the 1 to the tens’ column.

2
1
1 53
4568
9
1 927
Step 2   Add the digits in the ones’ place. 95

214 Step 2  1 1 6 1 2 5 9, so no number needs to be

2 c­ arried.
1 53
1 1
69 4568
Step 3   Add the digits in the tens’ place. 1 927
495
214
2 Step 3  5 1 9 5 14. Carry the 1 to the thousands’
1 53 column.
269 1 1

Step 4   Add the digits in the hundreds’ place. The sum 4568
is 269. 1 927
5495

If the sum of the digits in any column is more than 9, Step 4  Add the digits in the thousands’ column.
you will have to carry part of the sum to the next column. Therefore, the sum of 4568 and 927 is 5495.

■ EXAMPLE 1–2 A four-digit number such as 5495 can be written either

Add 45 1 28. with or without a comma or a space. Thus, 5,495, 5 495,
and 5495 are all correct.
Solution
45 ■ EXAMPLE 1–4
1 28
Find the sum of 7805 1 2041 1 926.
Step 1
Solution
1 1

45 7805
1 28 2041
3 1 926
2
Step 2  Since 8 1 5 5 13, carry the 1 to the tens’
­column. Step 1   The sum of the digits in the ones’ column is
12. Carry the 1 to the tens’ column.
1
45
1 28
73
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 Whole Numbers | CHAPTER 1 | 3

1 2 1 2
7805 437
2041 28
1 926 741
72 1 2835
4041
Step 2  1 1 0 1 4 1 2 5 7. No number needs to be
carried. The sum is 4041.

1 1
7805 ■ EXAMPLE 1–6
2041 Find the sum of 25 354 1 48 1 9784 1 129 1 97.
1 926
772 Solution
Step 3  8 1 0 1 9 5 17. Carry the 1 to the thousands’ Remember, 25 354 means the same as 25,354. Here we
column. will write 9784 as 9 784 so we can line up the digits in
the thousands column.
1 1
3
7805
2041 25354
1 926 48
10772 9784
129
Thus, the sum is 10,772. 1 97
2
■ EXAMPLE 1–5 Step 1   The sum of the digits in the ones’ column is
Find the sum of 437 1 28 1 741 1 2835. 32. Carry the 3 to the tens’ column.

3 3
Solution
25354
2
48
437
9784
28
129
741
1 97
1 2835
12
1
Step 2   The sum of the digits in the tens’ column is
Step 1   The sum of the digits in the ones’ column is 21.
31. Carry the 3 to the hundreds’ column.
Carry the 2 to the tens’ column.
1 3 3
1 2
25354
437
48
28
9784
741
129
1 2835
1 97
41
412
Step 2   The sum of the digits in the tens’ column is 14.
Step 3   The sum of the digits in the hundreds’
Carry the 1 to the hundreds’ column.
column is 14. Carry the 1 to the thousands’ column.
2 1 2
1 1 3 3
437
25354
28
48
741
9784
1 2835
129
041
1 97
Step 3   The sum of the digits in the hundreds’ column 5412
is 20. Carry the 2 to the thousands’ column.
Step 4   The sum of the digits in the thousands’ column
is 15. Carry the 1 to the ten-thousands’ column.
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
4 | CHAPTER 1 | Whole Numbers
1 1 3 3 2 1
25354 14674
48 732
9784 93
129 434
1 97 1 525
35412 58
Thus, the sum is 35 412. Step 2   The sum of the digits in the tens’ column is 25.
Carry the 2 to the hundreds’ column.

■ EXAMPLE 1–7 2 2 1

At the beginning of this section on adding whole 14674

­numbers, the following question was asked. Answer the 732
question. 93
434
A new automobile has a basic price of $14,674. For 1 525
power sunroof, add $732; for California emission 458
control, add $93; for a premium sound system, add
Step 3   The sum of the digits in the hundreds’ column
$434. Destination charges are $525. What is the
is 24. Carry the 2 to the thousands’ column.
total price of the new car before taxes?
2 2 1
Solution 14674
To find the total price of this new car before taxes, we 732
need to add 14,674 1 732 1 93 1 434 1 525. 93
1
434
14674
1 525
732
16458
93
434 Step 4  Add the digits in the thousands’ and ten-­
1 525 thousands’ columns. The final sum is 16,458, so the total
8 price of this car with the indicated options is $16,458.
Step 1   The sum of the digits in the ones’ column is 18.
Carry the 1 to the tens’ column.

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 PRACTICE
PROBLEMS 1-1
NAME ________________________________________________ DATE _________ SCORE ________

1. 34 2. 16 3. 23 4. 19
1 52 141 145 18

5. 135 6. 37 7. 435 8. 7605

1 42 1261 1241 1 231

9. 37 10. 26 11. 236 12. 254

1 49 138 1 47 1 329

13. 246 14. 196 15. 97 16. 486

1365 1328 1386 1 39

17. 2 0 1 4 18. 472 19. 3462 20. 82

1 9 1 581 341 76
1342 1406 2358 245
1 902 2351
1 6 5 0

21. 14 1 8 1 19 5 __________ 22. 27 1 15 1 34 5 ___________

23. 62 1 4 1 915 5 __________ 24. 402 1 63 1 9 1 78 5 ___________

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
6 | CHAPTER 1 | Whole Numbers
25. An engine contains 5 quarts (qt) of oil and 9 qt of coolant. How many quarts of
liquid does the engine contain? 25.
26. An engine contains 21 liters (L) of oil and 37 L of coolant. How many liters of
liquid does the engine contain? 26.
27. A summer vacation began and ended in Fremont, Michigan. The first destination
was Cleveland, Ohio, with a mileage of 331 miles, then another 564 miles to
Hartford, Connecticut, followed by 347 miles to Washington, DC, then 475 miles
to Sevierville, Tennessee, 285 miles to Cincinnati, Ohio, and finally 419 miles
back to Fremont, Michigan. What was the total mileage of the trip? 27.
28. A vehicle was driven 1389 kilometers (km) to Knoxville, Tennessee, 2016 km
to Bangor, Maine, 576 km to Hartford, Connecticut, and 1467 km to Mt. Pleasant,
Michigan. What was the total number of kilometers traveled? 28.
29. An automobile owner paid $68 for a tune-up, $85 for a wheel alignment, and
$105 for one new tire. What was the total cost of the service and parts to the car? 29.
30. An empty automobile weighs 3243 pounds (lb). The driver weighs 173 lb, the
front passenger weighs 140 lb, one child weighs 74 lb, and the other child
weighs 48 lb. What is the total weight of the vehicle and the passengers? 30.
31. An empty automobile weighs 1453 kg. The driver weighs 87 kg and the front
passenger weighs 59 kg. If the two children weigh 35 kg and 27 kg, what is the
total weight of the automobile and passengers? 31.
32. A new basic automobile costs $21,389. For air conditioning add $843, for
tinted glass add $88, for larger tires and custom wheels add $385, and for the
power convenience package add $1382. What is the total cost of the vehicle
before taxes? 32.
33. A new hybrid vehicle has a basic price of $23,367. For air conditioning add
$911. A power package adds $1894, a premium sound system costs $726, and
the destination charge is $543. What is the total cost of this vehicle before
taxes? 33.
34. A new truck is listed for a base price of $29,875. The power package is listed
at $795, the super performance package is listed at $4287, the air deflector and
fog lamps are $115, and the destination charge is $585. What is the total price
of this truck before taxes? 34.

For exercises 35 and 36, use the information in the following table. The “$ List
Price” refers to the original base retail price of the vehicle only. The “Avg. ­Trd-in”
is the average price that you can expect to receive from a dealer if you trade in
your vehicle. The “Avg. Retail” is the average retail price for which your car
would sell. Along the bottom of the table are a list of optional items. This list­
begins “Add: Video/DVD $300/325.” This means that if your car has a Video/DVD,
you should add $300 to the average trade-in price and $325 to the average retail
price for your car. The symbol “w/o” means without.

Model $ List Avg. Avg.

Price Trd-In Retail
Sedan 4 dr. . . . 27,135 17,910 23,605
Add: Video/DVD $300/325; Pwr Windows $150/200; Pwr
Dr Locks $100/125; Pwr Seat $150/200; Cruise Ctrl $150/200;
Tilt Strg Whl $100/125; Custom Whls/Covers $200/250;
Convenience package $350/450; V-6 Eng $450/575.
Deduct: w/o Auto Trans $550/550; w/o Air Cond $600/600.

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 Whole Numbers | CHAPTER 1 | 7

35. Mary is buying another car to replace her four-door sedan, which is like the
one described in the above table. It is equipped with a Video/DVD player,
power windows, air conditioning, and an automatic transmission. How much
can she expect to receive for her old car as a trade-in? 35.
36. Luis wants to sell his used car as described in the above table. It is equipped
with a Video/DVD player, custom wheels, a V-6 engine, a convenience
­package, air conditioning, and a standard transmission. How much can he
expect to receive if he sells his car? 36.
37. A turbocharged engine has a combustion chamber volume of 72 cubic
centimeters (cm3), the dished piston volume is 11 cm3, and the head gasket
thickness volume is 5 cm3. What is the combustion volume of this cylinder? 37.

To balance a crankshaft, the weights of both the rotating and reciprocating

components must be determined.

38. If the piston weighs 416 grams (g), the piston pin weighs 85 g, the two piston
pin retainers each weigh 9 g, the two compression rings each weigh 20 g, the
oil ring weighs 25 g, and the reciprocating small end of the connecting rod
weighs 168 g, what is the total reciprocating weight? 38.
39. If the rotating big end of a rod weighs 418 grams, each of the two connecting
rod bearing inserts weighs 30 grams, and the crankshaft contains 4 grams
of oil, what is the total rotating weight? 39.
40. A trip is being planned from New York City to Los Angeles. Two routes are
being considered: a northern route and a southern route. Listed below are
mileages between selected cities on each route.

Northern Route
New York to Youngstown, OH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Youngstown to Chicago, IL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Chicago to Des Moines, IA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Des Moines to North Platte, NE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
North Platte to Denver, CO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Denver to Grand Junction, CO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Grand Junction to Las Vegas, NV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Las Vegas to Los Angeles, CA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

Southern Route
New York to Washington, DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Washington, DC to Asheville, NC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
Asheville to Memphis, TN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Memphis to Oklahoma City, OK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
Oklahoma City to Tucumcari, NM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Tucumcari to Flagstaff, AZ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
Flagstaff to Barstow, CA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Barstow to Los Angeles, CA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

Determine which route is shorter.

(a) How long (in miles) is the northern route? 40a.
(b) How long (in miles) is the southern route? 40b.
(c) Which route is shorter? 40c.

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
8 | CHAPTER 1 | Whole Numbers
41. The following parts are required for an engine rebuild. The price of each part is
listed.
Camshaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $103
Valve lifters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Pistons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Connecting rod bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Crankshaft main bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Oil pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Overhaul gasket set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Soft plug set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Bronze valve guide liners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Valve springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Reground crankshaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Timing set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Camshaft bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
What is the total cost of the parts needed for this rebuild? 41.
42. An engine dynamometer using a water brake power absorption unit needed the
following amounts of water during one week of engine testing.
Monday . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2173 gallons
Tuesday . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4002
Wednesday . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3749
Thursday . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Friday . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5987
What is the total amount of water usage during this one week of engine testing? 42.
43. Two friends want to travel to the wilderness to spend some time camping
and dirt biking. Their truck has a gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR),
which was determined by the manufacturer, of 7200 lb. That means when
all their gear and their bikes are loaded, the total combined weight of
everything in and on their vehicle must not be above the manufacturer’s
GVWR, in this case, 7200 lb. The unloaded truck weighs 5916 lb, one bike
weighs 375 lb, and the other is 360 lb. The camping gear is 160 lb, food and
drinks are 50 lb, and miscellaneous gear is 75 lb. One rider weighs 175 lb
and the other is 225 lb.
(a) What is the total combined weight of the truck and everything that will be
carried in/on the truck? 43a.
(b) Does it exceed the vehicle’s GVWR? 43b.
(c) If so, what is the least number of pounds that should be left behind? 43c.
44. Two people want to buy a 5th wheel camping trailer but are not sure if the
towing/weight specifications of their truck will accommodate the trailer they
have in mind. The related weights are:
Truck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Trailer
GVWR: 9600 lb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GVWR: 14,015 lb
Tow rating: 16,100 lb . . . . . . . . . . . Dry weight: 12,025 lb
Vehicle curb weight: 6250 lb . . . . . Propane: 105 lb
Passenger weight: 315 lb . . . . . . . Cargo: 700 lb
Hitch weight: 2550 lb . . . . . . . . . Water: 75 lb
Miscellaneous: 175 lb . . . . . . . . . Miscellaneous: 175 lb

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 Whole Numbers | CHAPTER 1 | 9

(a) What is the connected/loaded gross vehicle weight (GVW) of the truck? 44a.
(b) Is the truck GVW at or below the GVWR of the truck? 44b.
(c) What is the loaded GVW of the trailer? 44c.
(d) Is the trailer GVW at or below the trailer GVWR? 44d.
(e) Is the GVW of the trailer at or below the tow rating of the truck? 44e.
(f) Should this truck be capable of safely pulling this 5th wheel trailer? 44f.

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 Whole Numbers | CHAPTER 1 | 11

Subtracting Whole Numbers It may be necessary to rename, or borrow, more than

once.
In order to answer a question like the following, you need
to be able to subtract whole numbers.
■ EXAMPLE 1–10
At the beginning of a trip, an odometer reads 1539 2 857.
67,397 miles. At the end of the trip, the odometer
reads 71,235 miles. How long (in miles) was the trip? Solution
1539
To subtract two whole numbers, arrange the numbers 2857
in columns with the larger number on top, and subtract the
ones’ digits, the tens’ digits, the hundreds’ digits, and so on. Step 1  Write the smaller number under the larger
The answer to a subtraction problem is called the difference. number.

1539
■ EXAMPLE 1–8 2857
537 2 124. 2

Solution Step 2  There are enough ones. Subtract the ones.

537
4 13
2124
1539
Step 1  Arrange the numbers in columns. 2857
2
537
2124 Step 3  You need more tens. Rename to get 10 more
413 tens and 1 less hundred. There are now 13 tens and
4 hundreds.
Step 2  Subtract the ones, tens, and hundreds.
4 13
1539
Sometimes it is necessary to rename, or borrow, in
order to subtract. 2857
82
■ EXAMPLE 1–9 Step 4  Subtract the tens.
653 2 407.
14
0 4 13
Solution 1539
653
2857
2407
82
Step 1   Write the smaller number under the larger
Step 5  You need more hundreds. Rename to get 10
number.
more hundreds and 1 less thousand. There are now
4 13
14 hundreds and no thousands.
653
14
2407 0 4 13
1539
Step 2   You need more ones. Rename to get 10 more 2857
ones and 1 less ten. There are now 13 ones and 4 tens.
682
4 13
Step 6  Subtract the hundreds and the thousands.
653 Notice that there are no thousands left to subtract. So,
2407 1539 2 857 5 682.
246

Step 3   Subtract the ones, tens, and hundreds.

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
12 | CHAPTER 1 | Whole Numbers
■ EXAMPLE 1–11 Solution
25,246 2 1819 To find the length of the trip in miles, we need to subtract
67,397 from 71,235.
Solution 71235
25246
267397
21819
Step 1  Write the smaller number under the larger
Step 1  Write the smaller number under the larger
number.
­number.
2 15
3 16
71235
25246
267397
21819
8
Step 2  You need more ones. Rename to get 10 more Step 2  You need more ones. Rename to get 10 more
ones and 1 less ten. There are now 16 ones and 3 tens. ones and 1 less ten. There are now 15 ones and 2 tens.
Subtract the ones.
3 16
25246 12
21819 1 2 15

27 71235
267397
Step 3  Subtract the ones and tens.
38
4 12 3 16
Step 3  You need more tens. Rename to get 10 more
25246
tens and 1 less hundred. There are now 12 tens and
21819 1 hundred. Subtract the tens.
27
11 12
Step 4  You need more hundreds. Rename to get 10 0 1 2 15
more hundreds and 1 less thousand. There are now 71235
12 hundreds and 4 thousands. 267397
4 12 3 16
838
25246 Step 4  You need more hundreds. Rename to get 10
21819 more hundreds and 1 less thousand. There are now
23427 11 hundreds and no thousands. Subtract the hundreds.
Step 5  Subtract the hundreds, thousands, and ten 10 11 12
thousands. 6 0 1 2 15
71235
267397
3838
■ EXAMPLE 1–12
At the beginning of this section on subtracting whole Step 5  You need more thousands. Rename to get 10
numbers, the following question was asked. Solve the more thousands and 1 less ten-thousand. There are now
problem. 10 thousands and 6 ten-thousands. Subtract the thousands.
The difference is 3838, so the trip was 3838 miles
At the beginning of a trip, an odometer reads long.
67,397 miles. At the end of the trip, the odometer
reads 71,235 miles. How long (in miles) was the
trip?

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 PRACTICE
PROBLEMS 1-2
NAME ________________________________________________ DATE _________ SCORE ________

1. 47 2. 96 3. 196 4. 467
2 15 234 245 2231

5. 4356 6. 2397 7. 5842 8. 7387

2 214 2184 23214 2 76

9. 53 10. 95 11. 243 12. 482

2 38 267 219 2 68

13. 6 4 3 2 14. 3427 15. 2491 16. 3429

2 251 2262 21537 21562

17. 2 4 7 0 18. 7680 19. 2405 20. 8704

2 346 2263 21376 24915

21. 148 2 37 5 __________ 22. 4835 2 213 5 ___________

23. 263 2 85 5 __________ 24. 2347 2 259 5 ___________

13

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
14 | CHAPTER 1 | Whole Numbers
25. A vehicle has an odometer that reads 13,854 miles. After a trip, it shows
15,965 miles. How long was the trip? 25.
26. An automobile owner has purchased 5 quarts of oil, a can of engine oil supple-
ment, an oil filter, and an air filter for $28. A coupon gives a $5 discount.
(a) How much did the owner have to pay? 26a.
(b) If the customer paid with two $20 bills, how much change did she receive? 26b.
27. Shaft A has a diameter of 84 mm and shaft B has a diameter of 67 mm. What is
the difference in diameter between the two shafts? 27.
28. One vehicle weighs 1088 kg and another weighs 1132 kg. What is the differ-
ence in weight between the two vehicles? 28.
29. It takes 76 minutes to drive 65 miles when you are traveling on the freeway.
When you are using surface streets, it takes 2 hours and 3 minutes to drive the
same distance. How much time can you save by using the freeway? 29.
30. At the beginning of a trip, the odometer reads 14 272 km. When the trip is over
the odometer reads 15 189 km. How many kilometers long was the trip? 30.
31. You have agreed upon a final price of $23,849 for a new car. The dealer will
allow $7371 for the car that you want to trade in. How much will you have to
pay the dealer after the trade-in allowance? 31.
32. A new car will cost you $18,253. You sell your old car for $4726. If you use
this as a down payment on the new car, how much do you still owe on your
new car? 32.

For exercises 33–36, use the information in the following table. The “$ List Price”
refers to the original base retail price of the vehicle only. The “Avg. Trd-In” is the
average price that you can expect to receive from a dealer if you trade in your
­vehicle. The “Avg. Retail” is the average retail price for which your car would
sell. Along the bottom of the table are a list of optional items. This list begins “Add:
Sunroof $250/325.” This means that if your car has a sunroof, you should add $250 to
the average trade-in price and $325 to the average retail price for your car. An entry in
the list at the bottom of the table such as “Pwr Windows (Std Conv)” means that pow-
er windows are standard on a convertible. Do not add this value if a convertible has
power windows. Subtract this amount if it does not. The notation “w/o” means without.

Model $ List Avg. Avg.

Price Trd-In Retail
Sedan 2 dr. . . . . . . . . . 13422   7750   9550
HB 2 dr. . . . . . . . . . . . 14207   7875   9700
Conv 2 dr. . . . . . . . . . 16899   9950 12550
Add: Sunroof $250/325; premium sound system $265/315;
Pwr Windows (Std Conv) $150/200; Pwr Dr Locks (Std
Conv) $100/125; Pwr Seat $150/200; Cruise Ctrl $150/200;
Leather Seats $250/325; Custom Whls/Covers $200/250;
2-Tone Paint $75/100.
Deduct: w/o Auto Trans $550/550; w/o Air Cond $650/650.

33. George wants to trade in his used car. His car is a two-door convertible like the
one described in the table above. It has a premium sound system, power windows,
power door locks, leather seats, standard transmission, and air conditioning.
How much can he expect to receive from a dealer if he trades in his car? 33.

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 Whole Numbers | CHAPTER 1 | 15

34. George’s used car was described in exercise 33. He decides to sell his car
himself rather than trade it in.
(a) How much should he try to sell his car for? 34a. ____________________
(b) How much more than the trade-in allowance can he expect to get if he
sells the car himself? 34b. ____________________
35. Elaine wants to sell her used car. Her car is a two-door hatchback like the one
described in the table above. It has an automatic transmission, cruise control,
power door locks, leather seats, and two-tone paint. How much can she expect
to sell her car for? 35. ______________________
36. Elaine’s used car was described in exercise 35. She decides to trade in her car
for a new car that will cost her $19,732 for the options she wants.
(a) How much can she expect to get on the trade-in? 36a. _____________________
(b) How much will she owe on her new car after the trade-in? 36b. _____________________
(c) If she can sell her car for what she expected to get in exercise 35 and she
uses that money as a down payment on the new car, how much will she
still owe on her new car? 36c. _____________________
37. What is the difference in miles between a northern route of 2938 miles from
New York, New York to Los Angeles, California, and a southern route of
3189 miles? 37. _______________________
38. One year 1,022,759 hybrid vehicles were sold in the United States. The next
year 1,711,164 were sold. How many more were sold the second year? 38. ______________________
39. One engine is rated at 425 horsepower and 337 pound-feet (lb-ft) of torque.
Another engine has a rated output of 385 horsepower and 297 lb-ft of torque.
39. (HP) _________________
What are the differences in both horsepower and torque between the two
engines? 39. (T) __________________
40. Some racing vehicles use high-performance engines with aluminum components
in an effort to save weight and thereby improve handling and acceleration perfor-
mance. Listed below are the weights of several iron and aluminum engine parts.

Cast Iron Aluminum

Cylinder block. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 lb 83 lb
Cylinder head. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 21
Intake manifold. . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 16
Coolant pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 9

(a) How much is the weight of the cast-iron engine parts? 40a. _____________________
(b) How much is the weight of the aluminum engine parts? 40b. _____________________
(c) How much weight can be saved on a V-8 engine by using aluminum parts
rather than cast-iron parts? 40c. _____________________
41. A tax credit is a specific dollar amount that is deducted directly off the amount
of federal income tax that you owe at the end of the year, lessening your tax
obligation. Dan has a tax liability of $13,857 at the end of the year; however,
during the year, he purchased a clean diesel–powered car that had a $1375
tax credit. What is the final amount of tax that Dan must pay for that year? 41. ______________________
42. Fred wants to purchase a new car that will provide excellent fuel economy and
hold its value over the years. He went online and checked the used-car value
for a popular hybrid and a popular clean diesel. He found two cars that were
each four years old and had been driven 185,000 miles. The hybrid was valued
at $4650 and the clean diesel had an estimated value of $6275. What is the
difference in value between the two cars? 42. ______________________
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Fig. 9.

Remoras27 clinging by their sucking-disk to the under part

of a shark.—(Adapted from Brehm.)

And now, as we rise again from the dark still depths up to warm
layers of the tropical seas into which the sun is pouring his
penetrating rays, it may happen that a large dark body moves
between us and the surface, as the Great Blue Shark, or one of his
smaller relations, ploughs his way through the water. But what are
these little dark brown fish, with round gaping mouths, which are
hanging by the top of their head and back from under the shark’s
belly? (see Fig. 9). Where he goes they go with him, and, as they are
borne along, they feed upon the tiny sea-animals among which they
are carried so easily. These cunning passengers, of whose very
existence the shark seems unconscious, are the Remoras, or
sucking-fish. You would scarcely think that they belong by descent to
the mackerel tribe, a strong-swimming, active, and almost warm-
blooded group of fish, with a large supply of nerves and blood-
vessels to their muscles, so that they swim boldly out to sea, and
make more use of the open ocean than almost any other group. But
among all tribes there will be some weak members, and these must
live by stratagem. The little remora is a feeble swimmer, and, having
to live out at sea, has acquired a curious sucker by which he clings
to sharks, and whales, and even ships, so that he is carried along
without exertion. Yet this sucker, again, is only a special adaptation
of the back-fin, which, instead of being single, as in other mackerel,
has its spines divided and bent, one set to the left, the other to the
right, and joined by a double set of plates, surrounded by a fringe of
skin. This forms an oval disk, and, as the remora glides along under
the shark’s belly, he presses the damp membrane against the fish,
and, drawing together the muscles of the plates, clings as firmly as a
limpet to a rock.
Nor is the remora the only companion of the shark—

“Bold in the front the little Pilot glides,

Averts each danger, every movement guides;”

28
for the little steel-blue striped Pilot-fish, another distant connection
29
of the mackerel tribe, is hovering around, feeding upon the scraps
of the shark’s food, and finding protection in his neighbourhood,
though in olden times he was supposed to protect the shark. A brave
little fish this, which has succeeded in making the shark his friend:
while near him he is safe from other fishes.
And now, as we continue our way in the open sea, it is nearly
always forms more or less related to the mackerel tribe which cross
30 31
our path. The slender Bonito and the heavier Tunny sometimes
ten feet long, are hunting below or on the surface, and the beautiful
32
Dorados, or gold-mackerel, as the Germans call them, with their
silvery blue backs tinged with a sheen of gold, their dull-coloured
fins, and their golden eyes, are driving by in large shoals in pursuit of
the flying-fish. All these are powerful swimmers, and they have no
air-bladder, which is an advantage to such active hunters which wish
to turn rapidly, to go down deep or rise to the top, and change their
position at every moment; for in all these movements a natural float
inside is a hindrance to be overcome. And so we find that in fish,
even of the same family, some have lost the air-bladder, while others
have it enlarged to meet their wants, as in the case of the lovely blue
33
and silver sun-fish for example, which, though quite near relations
of the dorado, have very large air-bladders, enabling them to float
quietly on the top of the water, waving their deep scarlet fins.

Fig. 10.

Flying-Fish34 pursued by the Dorado.35

But while we are watching all these large and strong swimmers
an active and bloodthirsty struggle is going on, for the bonitos and
the dorados are looking to make their meal upon the little Flying-fish,
which are straining every nerve to escape them, while here and
there one drops down into their very mouths. Lovely little creatures
these are, of the Pike family, which have taken to the open sea,
where they rise with a stroke of the tail many feet out of the water,
their bright purple backs and silvery sides gleaming in the sun, as,
with their long transparent arm-fins outspread, they float for as much
as two hundred yards before they fall back, to spring up again with
another stroke. Their air-bladder, which is half as long as their body,
and contains in a six-inch fish as much as three and a half cubic
inches of gas, stands them in good stead, and they rise and fall with
quick rapid flights out of the reach of their foe, so that in the open
sea they do fairly well on the whole, though, if they venture near
land, the sea-birds persecute them in the air. Nor do they stand
alone in this curious habit of flying, or rather floating, in the air, for a
36
larger fish of quite another family, the “Flying Gurnards,” with a
smaller but still ample air-bladder, and long arm-fins, may also be
seen rising in the Mediterranean and tropical seas, out of reach of
the fish-hunters of the water.
And now we must leave the open sea and steer for the shore. It
is true that many other fish are wandering in the broad watery main,
but many of them, such as the globe-fish, feeding on the small
37
crustaceans and the sea-horses, whom we shall meet nearer
shore, are feeble forms carried hither and thither by currents or on
floating banks of seaweed, while others have no special interest. The
sharks, the mackerel, and the flying-fish, are the most remarkable
colonisers of the ocean-surface, for even the enormous Sword-
38
fish, which attacks the bonitos and whales with its long wedge-
shaped bony jaw, and is said to sail by raising his back-fin, is a
distant off-shoot of the mackerel tribe.
So we cannot do better than follow our own common Mackerel,
as they migrate in shoals out of the deep sea to feed on the fry of the
herring or the pilchard in shallower water, or to leave their eggs
floating not many miles from land, so that the tiny mackerel, when
hatched, may live in the quiet bays till their strength comes.
 But stop! Long before we have come so far as this, and while we
are still a hundred miles or more from the shore, let us peep down
into the sea-valleys, where forests of seaweed and marine plants are
growing, and myriads of tiny sea-lice and crustaceans throng the
water. What is that army of thin spindle-shaped forms rising and
falling in such numbers? It is a shoal of herring, which have come
there to feed upon the sea-animals, keeping out of sight of the sea-
birds above, and the cod and sharks and ravenous fish which hunt
them without mercy, so that they only venture to come to the surface
on calm dark nights. It was in valleys such as these that the herrings
were living when the older naturalists thought they were gone away
to the Polar Seas, because they only saw them in spring and
autumn, when they come into shallower water to drop their myriads
39
of eggs, which sink down, and stick to the seaweed and stones
below.
But now they are revelling in the deep ocean, rising and falling
with ease, for their air-bladder has two openings, one to the stomach
and one to the outside of the body, so that the gas can adjust itself to
their movements; and surely if the shark is the type of the old,
lumbering, powerful, slow-breeding fish, the herring, with its narrow
lissome body, light playful movements, and myriads of young, is the
type of the new and active race. They are as truly social animals as
any herds on land, for they travel in shoals of many hundreds of
millions; and as they can squeak, and have a very good apparatus
for hearing, it is more than likely that they call to each other. They
make both the salt and fresh water their own; for when the eggs are
hatched at the mouths of rivers the tiny fish take refuge there from
the violent persecutions of the cod and mullet and haddock, flat-fish
and whiting, and, together with the small fry of other fish, stroll up the
rivers, where we call them “white-bait.”
And now, as we come nearer to the shore, where countless
numbers of small fry are filling the water, and all creatures are
struggling together to accomplish three objects, namely, to get food,
to avoid being turned into food, and to lay their eggs, we find many
strange weapons and devices adopted by the different fish for
protection and attack.
 ... “Each bay
With fry innumerable swarms, and shoals
Of fish, that with their fins and shining scales
Glide under the green waves, in sculls that oft
Bank the mid sea.”

40
There are the Mullets, with tender feelers under their chin, with
which they brush the ground lightly as they swim, feeding on the tiny
41
creatures. There are the walking fish, the Gurnards, which have
three of the spines of their arm-fins separate, and moved by strong
muscles and nerves, so that they can walk on the sea-bottom,
feeling their way, while the stiff, spiny rays of their back-fin stand up
to wound any enemy attacking them from above. There are the tiny
Blennies which walk too, but by means of the few rays which alone
remain of their leg-fins growing close under the head. Then there are
42
the clinging-fish, the Gobies, living on the rocky shores, where the
waves beat and roar, and they have their leg-fins joined together, so
as to form a kind of funnel under their throat, with which they cling to
the rocks and then dart across the waves to feed, coming to anchor
again out of the dash of the water; some of these little fellows make
nests and guard their eggs after the mother has left them, till the
43
young can shift for themselves. More curious still, the Lumpsucker
has its arm-fins and leg-fins all joined together into a round disk
under the throat, and so holds on bravely against the dashing tide,
defending the eggs which have been laid in the seaweed near the
shore, and even remaining to take up the young ones when hatched,
and carry them safely back into deep water as they cling to his sides.
Meanwhile, close down upon the sand are the hiding-fish, the
Weevers, the Anglers, and the Flat-fish.
44
The weevers are the most dangerous. Their shaded yellow
colour hides them from view, while the sharp spines of their back-
fins, which they keep raised, will inflict very severe, if not poisonous,
wounds on any creature striking against them. Nor is this all, for
behind the cheeks, fastened on to the horny gill cover, are daggers
with which they can strike, deliberately jerking them back so as to
give a sharp blow. These are fighting aggressive fish, waging the war
that goes on so sharply all round our coasts.

Fig. 11.

The Fishing Frog.45

But there is one even more cunning than they, lying hidden in the
seaweed or the sand—a large, flat, soft fish, about three feet in
length, and quite half as broad as he is long, with a soft stumpy tail,
stretching out behind, and a kind of wrist-joint to arm and leg fins, by
which he can creep noiselessly along. His wide mouth is gaping
open, so that a two-foot rule could be passed crossways into it, and
his pointed teeth are bent back to allow his prey to enter. But how is
this prey to be caught, for he is not going to move to fetch it? Notice
all round his head and his body, the skin is fringed like blades of
seaweed and plays about in the water; while above his head and
back the spines of his fin stand up quite separate, and the front one
is tapering and long like a fishing-rod, with a lappet at the end like a
bait. And now, as the shallow water ripples over his head, the lappet
plays to and fro, and the unwary fish come up to nibble at it, lower
and lower he waves it, and the nibblers follow, till, opening his wide
gape, he gulps them down, even if they are as large as himself, and
lies passive with his swollen stomach till they are digested. This is
46
our own Fishing-frog, of which one was once found with seventy
herrings in his stomach. He has relations all over the world—in the
open sea and down in its depths, and all of them more or less follow
his fishing habits. Yet there is no creation of special parts for these
strange weapons; the altered back-fin and the jagged skin do all the
work, just as in some curious fish of the weever family in the tropics,
47
called the Stargazers, the feelers on their lips, longer than those of
other fishes, and a lengthened thread from below the tongue, play in
the watery currents and attract the small animals, while the fish with
upturned eyes watches them as they are lured to destruction.
Lastly, among all these curious forms upon our shores there is
an abundance of flat-fish—soles and turbot, brill and plaice—flapping
along at the bottom, covering themselves with sand, or rising up with
that strange wavy movement of the whole body in which they use
what look like long side-fins, but which are really the back-fin and the
belly-fin.
 Fig. 12.

The Common Sole.48

Above are two small soles as they swim when young. At

that time they are not larger than a grain of rice.—(Adapted
from Figuier and Malm.)

If we wanted to pick out the strangest and strongest proof of how

the shape of fish is altered to suit their wants, we need seek no
further than the flat-fish.
When we were speaking of the shark order we saw that the rays
and skates are flattened forms suited to hide in the sand, and these
fish are truly spread out as if they had been squeezed under a heavy
weight, their broad arm-fins edging the sides of their body. But the
bony flat-fish, the Soles and Turbot, have a far stranger history. The
young sole, when it comes out of the egg, is not flat like the young
skate, but a very thin spindle-shaped fish, something like a minnow.
He is then about the size of a grain of rice, very transparent, and
lives at the top of the sea. He has one eye on each side, like other
fish, only one eye is higher up than the other, and the single fin on its
back and the one under its body reach almost from head to tail. In
this way he swims for about a week, but he is so thin and deep, and
his fins are so small, that swimming edgeways is an effort, and soon
he falls down on one side, generally the left, to the bottom of the sea.
Many times he rises up again, especially at first, till he has got used
to breathing at the muddy bottom, and meanwhile the eye that lies
underneath is gradually working its way round to the upper side, his
forehead wrinkles so as to draw the under eye up, while his whole
head and mouth receive a twist which he never afterwards loses. His
skeleton, it must be remembered, is still very soft, and the bones of
his face are easily bent; and at last this eye is screwed round, and as
he lies at the bottom he can look upwards with both eyes and save
the under one from getting scratched by the sand, as it must have
done if it had remained below.
Nor is this all, for while his under side, shaded from the sunlight,
remains white and colourless, his upper side gradually becomes
coloured like the sand in which he lies, and he is safely hidden from
attack as he flaps along, feeding on worms and other animals. And
now when he swims he no longer uses his arm and leg fins, which
are quite small and insignificant, but bends his whole body, using the
back and belly fins to help him. What we then call the top of the sole
is really his side, where you may see the dark line of scales running
along the middle, and one arm-fin lying close to his head. Yet he can
swim strongly and to far distances, for in the winter the soles, too,
migrate into the open sea, where they may be found in the deep
water of the Silver Pit, between the Dogger Bank and the Well Bank.
And now, before we leave the shore, we must glance at a
curious weakly little fellow clinging by his curly tail to the seaweed,
whom you will certainly not take for a fish, even if you can find him
out, so entangled is he generally in weeds of the same colour as
49
himself. Yet the Sea-horse is a true fish, covered not with scales
but with plates, with which he makes a clicking noise by scraping
them together. What look like large ears are really his arm-fins, while
at the end of his long snout is a mouth shaped like an ordinary fish’s
mouth, but toothless, and he breathes with fish’s gills arranged in
round tufts instead of folds. What the use of his strange shape is to
him we cannot tell, but at any rate his fleshless bony body must
protect him from other fish, while
his power of clinging causes him Fig. 13.
to be often carried by floating
weed even into the open ocean,
and make up for his feeble
powers. In one thing he
surpasses most other fishes, for
he is a most careful father,
carrying the mother’s eggs in a
little pouch under his body till the
young ones escape. There is
one form of these sea-horses in
tropical seas which has long red
fringes floating from its body, so
that it cannot be distinguished
from the seaweed in which it
hides.
So we see that the deep
sea, the open sea, and the
shore, are filled so full of
different forms that there are
enough not only to make use of
every part, but also to provide Hippocampus, a fish commonly
food for each other, and we also called the Sea-Horse.
see that by far the larger number
even of widely-spread fish come near to the shore to leave their
spawn, while the young ones often make their way into the brackish
water at the mouths of rivers, and spend their youth in the shelter of
the still fresh water.
Now it is very natural that many such fish should learn to remain
in this quiet refuge, and in time to live there altogether. And because
fish-life in the rivers is comparatively uneventful and little varied, we
find much fewer peculiarities in river-fish. Many of them are very
near relations of sea forms. There is the salmon, a true sea-fish,
which wanders up the river to spawn in the pebbly shallows; and
there are the trout, his near relations, which have learned to live
entirely in the rivers. There are the sea-perches, large strong fish,
and the smaller river perch, which have made their homes very
successfully in the rivers, for their spines are so sharp that even the
greedy pike hesitates to swallow them. There are the sea-
50
sticklebacks, and the little river-stickleback. This last is a very
clever little fish, which hollows out the foundation of his nest very
carefully in the bed of the river, and then builds it up for several
inches with blades of grass and weeds (Fig. 14), gumming them
together with the slime of his body. Then, when all is ready, he swims
about to drive and coax the mother to the nest, sending her in to lay
her eggs, and then driving her right through and out at the other side,
so that a stream of water flows constantly over the eggs till they are
hatched. Nay, his care does not end here, for when the young fish
come out of the egg with a bag of yelk hanging under the body, as all
young fish have at first, and so cannot swim easily and escape their
enemies, the courageous little father will defend them and fight
fiercely with any fish which thinks to make a meal upon them, not
leaving them till all the yelk is absorbed, and they are able to swim
and feed themselves.
Fig. 14.
 sticklebacks and their nest. (Gasterosteus
aculeatus.)

Besides these active river-fish there are the little stupid Miller’s
51
Thumbs, hiding under the stones to feed on tiny animals; they are
feeble relations of the gurnards which we saw walking on the bottom
of the sea. Then there are the purely freshwater fish, the Pike and
the large Carp family, with its many branches, the Roach, and Dace,
and Gudgeon, and Minnow; and the enormous family of Cat-fish and
52
Sheat-fish, of which we have none in England, but plenty in
America and other parts of the world, a family in which the fathers
sometimes carry the eggs in their mouths till hatched. And last but
not least among the freshwater forms is that irrepressible family of
the Eels which we saw wandering in the deep sea, and which are
also to be found near the shores all over the world. These fish will
even travel through pipes and into cisterns; and will climb up trees so
as to drop into neighbouring streams and continue their wanderings;
they sleep in the mud in winter; and even after being frozen come to
life again; and in the spring they go to the sea to spawn, giving rise
to those shoals of young ones from three to five inches long which
come in incredible numbers up the rivers in summer, making the
53
eel-fairs, —
“The silver eel, in shining volumes rolled,”
so much spoken of in old books, when the eels will often climb high
banks, nay, even pass over miles of dry land, closing down their
narrow gill-openings, and so shutting in water to serve them as they
go.
All these, and many other freshwater families, show us how the
fish have wandered into every possible nook of the waters, so that
even in those inland salt lakes of North America and Asia into which
no rivers flow fish-life is abundant; and we can only suppose that the
eggs must have been carried by water-birds in their flight, or by
gusts of wind, or have arrived there in ages long ago, before these
lakes were cut off from the rest of the watery world.
 Yet some few fish besides the eels have been known to travel
54
over land to find watery “pastures new;” the Climbing Perch of
India and the Doras of Tropical America will both travel many miles
when their own ponds are dried, the perch breathing by the help of a
special apparatus, and the doras probably shutting water into its
gills; for necessity, even in fishes, proves the “mother of invention,”
and in special works on fish you will find accounts of numberless
strange devices and adaptations by which they manage to survive in
the struggle for life.
And now, collecting together all we have learned, let us in
conclusion form a rough picture of the history of the fish-world. All
over our globe, from pole to pole, and from the Indian Ocean round
to the east, back to the Indian Ocean again, is one vast world of
waters, with inlets and land-locked seas bordering its margins, and
rivers pouring into its depths. In the past ages of the world these
rivers and coasts and inlets have varied innumerable times, but the
great ocean-mother has always been there to bear the increasingly-
varied forms in her bosom, and to enable them to wander where best
they could preserve life.
And so from their beginning, when they were probably as feeble
as the lancelet, these earliest and simplest backboned animals with
their two pair of limbs as yet very variable both in their position and
shape, have been spreading far and wide over the watery three-
quarters of the globe. We have seen how the enamel-scaled fish had
their time of glory, but were not able to hold their ground, because
they were not agile and fish-like enough to escape their foes; and
how the sharks by their strength and boldness remain monarchs of
the sea to the present day. Then we have seen that in old chalk seas
the new and active race of bony fish appear in force; some like the
herring and the carp, with air-bladders, which had openings like the
enamel-scaled fish, and these can dart from heights to depths; while
others had closed air-bladders, and these remain with most ease at
one level, and can sometimes, if necessary, use the gas in their
bladder for breathing, if they are oppressed with muddy water; and
lastly, some, such as the dorado, have lost their air-bladder
altogether, and gain in freedom of action what they lose in lightness
and buoyancy. And during the ages that have passed since this bony
race began, different branches each in their own way have thrown
out curious weapons and developed strange organs to help them in
the battle of life, so that now we have deep-sea fish carrying their
own light; fish with distensible stomachs swallowing prey larger than
themselves; fish with large air-bladders and long arm-fins springing
out of their own element and floating in air; angling-fish, walking-fish,
clinging-fish, and hiding-fish; and even those whose shape is
distorted, like the sole, to enable them to hide and hunt in safety;
while, when the sea is full, we find new varieties pressing their way
into every river and tiny stream, and even overland into enclosed
waters. Nay! when we descend into the recesses of the earth and
visit the underground pools of the dark caverns of Kentucky, there
we come upon fish which have found a refuge in eternal darkness,
and have lost not only the power of sight but actually the eyes
themselves.
And here we must leave them to go to higher vertebrate animals.
Although but little is known of fish-life, a very small part even of that
little has been given here, and yet we take leave of it with the feeling
that its changes and chances are greater than we can ever
thoroughly learn. How much pleasure these creatures have in their
water-world it would be difficult for us to say; but since we find them
playing together, hunting together, sporting in the warm sunshine,
and diving and gambolling in the open sea, and sometimes even
calling to one another, we cannot but think that life has great charms
for them in spite of the many dangers surrounding them. And when,
low though they are in the scale of life, we find them (though
curiously enough always the fathers) carrying the eggs, building
nests for them, and defending the young, we see that even here, in
the very beginning of backboned life, we touch the root of true
sympathy, the love of parent for child.
THE HOME OF THE EARLY AIR BREATHERS
 CHAPTER IV.
HOW THE BACKBONED ANIMALS PASS FROM
WATER-BREATHING TO AIR-BREATHING, AND
FIND THEIR WAY OUT UPON THE LAND.

So the backboned animals, as fish, have peopled the seas and rivers,
and, as the ages have past on, have become more and more fitted to
their watery life, little dreaming of another and different life in the world
of air above them. And yet in the same pond with the little stickleback,
so busy building his nest, there is a creature which could tell him that it
is possible to live in both worlds, if only you have the proper machinery
to do it with.
It is clear that if the backboned animals were ever to live upon
land, after they had begun their career in the water, there must have
been some among them which learned gradually to give up water-
breathing, and to make use of free air; and we shall not have far to
seek for creatures which will help us to guess how they managed it.
From almost every country pond, or ditch, or swamp, a chorus of
voices rises up in the springtime of the year, calling to us to come and
learn how Life has taught her children to pass from the water to the air;
for it is then that the frogs lay their eggs, and every tadpole which
grows up into a frog carries us through the wonderful history of an
animal beginning life as a fish with water-breathing gills, and ending it
as a four-legged animal with air-breathing lungs.
Come with me, then, to some stagnant pool in a country lane,
towards the end of March, and there we shall no doubt find a whole
company of frogs, croaking to their hearts’ content after their long
winter sleep in the mud at the bottom of the pond. They are wide
awake now, and are actively employed laying their eggs. Look carefully
around the edges of the pond, especially in that part where the wind
has driven the scum to the side, and you will doubtless find in some
still corner a gluey mass (e, Fig. 15), which looks like a lump of jelly
with dark specks in it. Take this up carefully, for it is frog spawn; carry it
home together with some weeds from the pond; put it in a glass bowl
with water; and then from day to day you may study the history of a
frog’s life.
 Fig. 15.

Metamorphosis of the Frog.

e. Eggs. 1. Tadpoles just out of the egg. 2. With outside

gills. 3. With gills hidden, and beak-like mouth. 4. Hind legs
appearing. 5. All legs grown, but fish-tail remaining. 6.
Putting on Frog appearance; tail being absorbed. 7. Young
perfect Frog.

That jelly-like mass is a collection of frog’s eggs. When they were

laid, each egg was a small round dark body in a gluey covering, and
they all fell to the bottom of the pond, where, by degrees, the water