TSLB3303 EXAM NOTES

TOPIC 7: TEACHING LANGUAGE SKILLS

1) Listening Skills: Teaching language skills, especially listening, is crucial for

language learners as it forms the foundation for effective communication. Listening
skill involves understanding its meaning, and processing the information accurately. 2
Listening skill consisits of:
I. Comprehension: Understanding the spoken language.
II. Discrimination: Distinguishing between sounds, words, and intonation patterns.
III. Interpretation: Grasping the meaning conveyed by the speaker.
IV. Evaluation: Assessing the relevance and reliability of the information received.

• Strategies for Effective Listening: 4-2

o Top-Down Processing: In this approach, listeners use their
existing knowledge to comprehend the spoken language.
They rely on expectations, and context clues to understand
the message. For example, predicting the content based on the
introduction of a lecture.
o Bottom-Up Processing: This strategy involves focusing on
the individual components of the spoken language, such as
words to build comprehension. Listeners pay close attention to
details like vocabulary to acquire the meaning. For instance,
identifying unfamiliar words through their sentence structure
to understand the syntax.
o Extensive Listening: This method involves exposing learners
to a large volume of spoken language over an extended period. It
aims to develop overall listening fluency without focusing on
specific details. Learners engage with authentic audio materials like
podcasts and lectures to improve their general understanding of the
language.
o Intensive Listening: This approach emphasizes detailed
comprehension of specific audio passages. Learners listen to
short segments repeatedly, focusing on understanding every
word. Activities may include answering comprehension questions to
help improve vocabulary acquisition and grammatical understanding.

• Ways to Implement Strategies for Effective Listening

3-4/3
o Top-Down Processing:
▪ Storytelling Sessions: Conduct storytelling sessions where children
listen to narratives. Before starting, engage them in a brief discussion
about the story's title, characters, or setting to activate their prior
knowledge and build anticipation.
▪ Picture Books: Use picture books with simple stories. Encourage children
to predict what might happen next based on the illustrations or the story's
context.
 ▪ Role-Playing: Organize role-playing activities where children act out
familiar scenarios, such as going to the grocery store or visiting the
doctor. This helps them connect language to real-life situations and
enhances their comprehension. o Bottom-Up Processing:
▪ Phonics Games: Introduce phonics games and activities that focus on
sound-letter correspondence. Use rhymes, chants, or songs to reinforce
phonemic awareness.
▪ Word Building: Provide opportunities for children to build words using
letter cards or magnetic letters. Encourage them to segment and blend
sounds to form words.
▪ Sentence Puzzle: Create sentence puzzles by cutting sentences into
words or phrases. Children listen to a spoken sentence and then arrange
the words in the correct order, focusing on sentence structure and
grammar.
o Extensive Listening:
▪ Audio Stories: Play audio stories or audiobooks in the background
during quiet activities or rest time. Choose age-appropriate stories with
engaging narration and sound effects to captivate children's interest.
▪ Music and Songs: Integrate music and songs into daily routines. Use
catchy tunes and repetitive lyrics to help children internalize vocabulary
and language patterns.
▪ Language Games: Incorporate language learning games like "I Spy" or
"Simon Says" that involve listening to and following instructions. These
games promote active listening skills in a playful manner.
o Intensive Listening:
▪ Listening Centers: Set up listening centers with headphones where
children can listen to short audio clips or stories individually. Provide
accompanying visuals or text for support, allowing children to focus on
understanding the content.
▪ Dictation Exercises: Conduct dictation exercises where children listen to
short sentences or phrases and write down what they hear. Start with
simple sentences and gradually increase the complexity as their listening
skills improve.
▪ Retelling Stories: After listening to a story or audio passage, encourage
children to retell the main events or summarize the content in their own
words. This promotes comprehension and reinforces listening accuracy.

2) Reading Skills: Teaching reading skills is fundamental in language education as it

empowers learners to comprehend written texts and expand their language proficiency.

• Strategies for Effective Reading:

o Top-Down Processing: In this approach, readers use their prior knowledge,
context clues, and expectations to understand the overall meaning of the text.
They start with a general understanding of the topic and then use this knowledge
to interpret specific details. Strategies include:
▪ Previewing: Skimming the text to get an overview of its structure,
headings, and key ideas before reading in detail.
 ▪ Activating Background Knowledge: Relating the text to personal
experiences, previous readings, or existing knowledge to make
predictions and connections.
▪ Making Inferences: Drawing conclusions based on implicit information
and context clues within the text.
o Bottom-Up Processing: This strategy involves focusing on the individual components of
the text, such as letters, words, and grammar, to build comprehension. Readers pay
attention to details like word meanings, sentence structures, and language conventions.
Strategies include:
▪ Decoding Words: Applying phonics knowledge to sound out unfamiliar
words and recognize common spelling patterns.
▪ Understanding Vocabulary: Using context clues, word roots, prefixes, and
suffixes to determine the meanings of unfamiliar words.
▪ Analyzing Sentence Structure: Identifying grammatical structures and
understanding how sentences are constructed to extract meaning from
the text.
o Early Reading Literacy: refers to the foundational skills and competencies children
develop during their initial stages of learning to read, typically from birth to around eight
years old. It encompasses a range of abilities and understandings that lay the groundwork
for successful reading acquisition and comprehension. Early reading literacy is critical for
children's academic success and lifelong learning, as reading is a fundamental skill that
underpins nearly all aspects of education and everyday life.
▪ Accuracy: Accuracy in early reading literacy refers to the ability to
recognize and decode printed words correctly. Key components of
accuracy include:
• Decoding Skills: Recognizing and associating letters with their
corresponding sounds (phonemic awareness) and blending these
sounds together to read words.
• Sight Word Recognition: Memorizing and quickly recognizing
highfrequency or irregular words that do not conform to typical
phonetic patterns.
• Word Analysis: Applying knowledge of phonics rules and word
patterns to decode unfamiliar words by breaking them down into
smaller, recognizable units.
▪ Fluency: Fluency involves reading with accuracy, appropriate speed,
expression, and comprehension. It comprises:
• Automaticity: Reading words effortlessly and quickly without
having to stop and decode each individual word.
• Pacing and Prosody: Reading with appropriate speed and rhythm,
as well as using intonation, stress, and phrasing to convey
meaning and expression.
• Comprehension Integration: Reading smoothly and fluently
while simultaneously understanding the text's meaning and
making connections between words, phrases, and sentences.
▪ Whole Language Approach:
• Focus: Emphasizes meaning-making and comprehension skills
over decoding and phonics.
 • Strategies: Encourages students to learn to read through
exposure to authentic texts, language-rich environments, and
meaningful literacy experiences.
• Instruction: Prioritizes reading for context and understanding,
using strategies like predicting, inferring, and connecting to prior
knowledge.
• Criticism: Critics argue that the whole language approach may
neglect explicit instruction in phonics, leading to difficulties in
decoding and word recognition for some learners.
▪ Phonics Approach:
• Focus: Prioritizes teaching phonetic principles and systematic
decoding strategies to help students recognize and sound out
words.
• Strategies: Teaches letter-sound correspondence, phonemic
awareness, and decoding rules systematically and explicitly.
• Instruction: Emphasizes the importance of phonics instruction as
foundational to reading development, often starting with basic
phonics skills and progressing to more complex patterns.
• Criticism: Critics argue that an overemphasis on phonics may
lead to mechanical reading and a lack of focus on comprehension
and higher-level reading skills.

Ways to Implement Early Reading Literacy: By nurturing early reading

literacy skills through supportive environments, effective instruction,
and engaging literacy experiences, educators and caregivers can help
children develop the essential skills and confidence they need to
become proficient readers and lifelong learners.

o Read Aloud: Reading aloud to children from an early age exposes

them to language, vocabulary, and narrative structures, fostering a
love of reading and promoting early literacy skills.
o Phonics Instruction: Systematic and explicit phonics instruction
helps children learn to decode words and develop foundational
reading skills. o Vocabulary Building: Providing opportunities for
children to encounter and use new words in meaningful contexts
helps expand their vocabulary and comprehension skills.
o Comprehension Strategies: Teaching comprehension strategies
such as predicting, questioning, visualizing, and summarizing
helps children understand and make meaning from text.
o Fluency Practice: Encouraging regular reading practice and
providing opportunities for repeated reading helps children
develop fluency and automaticity in reading.
3) Speaking Skills: Speaking skill refers to the ability to communicate orally with clarity,
coherence, and effectiveness in a given language.1 It involves the production of spoken
language through the articulation of sounds, words, phrases, and sentences to convey ideas,
express thoughts and emotions, and interact with others in various social and communicative
contexts. Speaking skill is an essential component of language proficiency and plays a crucial
role in everyday communication, social interaction, and academic and professional success.
Speaking skills comprise several key components, such as:
I. Pronunciation: Pronunciation refers to the accurate production of sounds, stress
patterns, intonation, and rhythm in spoken language.
II. Vocabulary: Vocabulary encompasses the words and phrases a speaker knows and
uses to express ideas and communicate effectively.
III. Grammar: Grammar refers to the rules and structures governing the arrangement of
words and sentences in a language.
IV. Fluency: Fluency is the ability to speak smoothly, confidently, and with a natural flow
without hesitations or pauses.
V. Coherence and Cohesion: Coherence refers to the logical organization and sequencing
of ideas, while cohesion involves the use of cohesive devices such as conjunctions,
transitions, and pronouns to connect and link sentences and ideas together in a
coherent manner.
VI. Interactive Strategies: Interactive strategies involve the ability to engage in
conversation, participate in discussions, ask and answer questions, and respond
appropriately to others in various communicative situations.
• Speaking Contexts: Understanding speaking contexts involves
recognizing the diverse purposes, functions and settings in which
oral communication occurs. 1
6-2
o Transactional Function: Transactional speaking focuses on
conveying information, exchanging facts, giving instructions, or
completing tasks. It’s goal often involves straightforward communication
aimed at achieving a specific outcome. Examples include giving a
presentation, making a phone call to inquire about a product, or providing
directions.
o Interpersonal Function: Interpersonal speaking centres on building
relationships and expressing emotions, sharing opinions, and engaging in
social interaction. It emphasizes the relational aspect of communication and
involves expressing feelings, empathy, and understanding. Examples include
casual conversations with friends, expressing condolences, or participating in
small talk.
o Interactive Speaking: Interactive speaking involves two or more
participants actively engaging in a dialogue or conversation. It is
characterized by reciprocal communication, turn-taking, and responsiveness to
each other's contributions. Examples include group discussions and debates,
negotiations, and collaborative problem-solving activities.
o Non-Interactive Speaking: Non-interactive speaking refers to one-way
communication where the speaker delivers a message without direct
interaction or feedback from the audience. This include speeches and
 lectures, presentations, or announcements where the primary goal is to convey
information or persuade the audience.
o Planned Speaking: Planned speaking occurs in situations where speakers
have time to prepare and organize their thoughts before communicating. This
includes formal presentations, speeches, debates, and scripted performances
where speakers have the opportunity to plan and rehearse their delivery in advance.

o Unplanned Speaking: Unplanned speaking occurs spontaneously, without

prior preparation or rehearsal. It often involves responding to unexpected
situations, impromptu questions, or spontaneous interactions. Examples include
answering questions during a Q&A session, participating in a spontaneous
discussion, or giving impromptu remarks.

• Importance of Understanding Speaking Contexts:

o Effective Communication: Recognizing the purpose, function, and context of
speaking helps speakers tailor their communication style, language, and delivery
to suit the specific situation and audience, leading to more effective
communication and greater clarity of message. o Social Interaction: Understanding
the interpersonal aspects of speaking allows individuals to navigate social
interactions, build rapport, and establish meaningful connections with others. o
Adaptability: Being aware of different speaking contexts enables individuals to adapt
their communication skills to various situations, audiences, and cultural norms,
enhancing their versatility and flexibility as communicators.
o Confidence: Familiarity with speaking contexts and purposes can boost
speakers' confidence and competence, empowering them to communicate more
effectively and assertively in diverse settings.
• Conversational strategies: techniques and behaviors individuals use to engage in
effective and meaningful communication during conversations. These strategies
encompass various aspects of language use, interactional patterns, and social norms
that facilitate smooth and coherent dialogue between speakers.
o Language Forms: Language forms refer to the grammatical structures,
vocabulary, and linguistic features used to convey meaning in conversation.
These include using appropriate pronouns, verb tenses, sentence structures, and
speech acts (such as requests, apologies, compliments, etc.).
o Language Functions: Language functions relate to the communicative purposes
or intentions behind utterances in conversation. Common language functions include
giving information, asking questions, making requests, expressing opinions, offering
suggestions, and providing feedback. Speakers use language functions to achieve
specific goals and convey their intended message effectively.
o Turn-Taking: Turn-taking is the process by which speakers alternate speaking
roles during a conversation. Turn-taking involves several principles and norms,
including:
▪ Transition Relevance Place (TRP): TRPs are points in conversation
where speakers indicate they are ready to relinquish the speaking turn
and allow another speaker to take a turn. TRPs may occur at the
completion of a thought, at the end of a clause or sentence, or at natural
pauses in speech.
 ▪ Turn Allocation: Speakers may allocate turns to themselves or others
based on conversational cues such as eye contact, body language, or
verbal signals (e.g., nodding, using turn-taking markers like "um" or
"uhhuh").
▪ Overlapping Speech: Overlapping speech occurs when two or more
speakers talk simultaneously, either intentionally or unintentionally. While
overlapping speech can sometimes lead to confusion, it is a common
feature of natural conversation and often serves to signal enthusiasm,
agreement, or engagement.
o Adjacency Pairs: Adjacency pairs are pairs of utterances that are closely related
and occur sequentially in conversation. These pairs typically consist of an
initiating utterance (first part) and a responding utterance (second part).
Examples of common adjacency pairs include:
▪ Question-Answer: One speaker asks a question, and another speaker
provides a response. For example:
• Speaker A: "What time does the movie start?"
• Speaker B: "It starts at 7:30."
▪ Offer-Acceptance/Rejection: One speaker makes an offer, and another
speaker either accepts or rejects it. For example:
• Speaker A: "Would you like some coffee?"
• Speaker B (Acceptance): "Yes, please."
• Speaker B (Rejection): "No, thank you."
▪ Compliment-Acceptance/Rejection: One speaker offers a compliment,
and another speaker either accepts or rejects it. For example:
• Speaker A: "You did a great job on the presentation!"
• Speaker B (Acceptance): "Thank you, I appreciate that."
• Speaker B (Rejection): "Oh, it was nothing, really."

4) Writing Skills: Writing skill refers to the ability to convey ideas, information, and thoughts
effectively through written language. It involves composing coherent and organized texts that
communicate a message to a specific audience. Writing skill encompasses various aspects,
including language proficiency, creativity, critical thinking, and rhetorical awareness. It is a
fundamental literacy skill that is essential for academic, professional, and personal
communication. Here are some vital components of writing skill:
I. Clarity and Coherence: Writing skill involves expressing ideas clearly and logically,
ensuring that the text is easy to understand and flows smoothly from one point to
another. Coherence refers to the logical organization of ideas and the use of cohesive
devices to connect sentences and paragraphs.
II. Grammar and Syntax: Proficiency in grammar and syntax ensures that writing is
grammatically correct and follows the conventions of the language. This includes using
proper sentence structure, punctuation, verb agreement, and avoiding errors such as
run-on sentences or fragments.
III. Vocabulary and Word Choice: Writing skill requires a rich and varied vocabulary to
convey meaning accurately and effectively. Choosing appropriate words and phrases
enhances the clarity, precision, and impact of the writing.
IV. Style and Tone: Writing skill involves developing a distinct style and tone appropriate for
the intended audience and purpose. Style encompasses the writer's voice, personality,
and rhetorical choices, while tone reflects the attitude or emotion conveyed in the writing
(e.g., formal, informal, persuasive, descriptive).
V. Organization and Structure: Effective writing skill entails organizing ideas logically and
structuring the text in a coherent manner. This includes using outlines, paragraphs,
headings, and transitions to guide the reader through the text and convey the intended
message effectively.
VI. Audience Awareness: Writing skill requires considering the needs, interests, and
background of the intended audience. Writers must tailor their language, tone, and
content to engage and connect with the reader, ensuring that the writing is relevant and
meaningful to its audience.

• Literacy in Writing: Literacy in writing encompasses a range of skills and competencies

that enable individuals to produce written texts effectively and accurately. This includes
proficiency in handwriting, spelling, layout, and punctuation, which are essential
components of written communication.
o Handwriting 2: Handwriting refers to the physical act of writing by hand
using a pen to form letters, words, and sentences on paper or other writing
surfaces. Proficiency in handwriting involves:
▪ Legibility: Writing that is clear, readable, and easily understood by others.
Legible handwriting ensures that the intended message is communicated
effectively without ambiguity or confusion.
▪ Consistency: Maintaining consistent letter formation, size, spacing,
and alignment throughout the text. Consistent handwriting enhances
the overall appearance and readability of the writing.
▪ Speed: The ability to write quickly and efficiently without sacrificing
legibility. Developing speed in handwriting allows writers to express
their thoughts more fluently and produce written work more
efficiently.
o Spelling 2: Spelling refers to the correct arrangement of letters to form
words according to standard language conventions. Proficiency in spelling
involves: ▪ Accuracy: Spelling words correctly without errors or
misspellings. Accurate spelling is essential for clear communication and
prevents misinterpretations of written text.
▪ Vocabulary: Developing a broad vocabulary and knowledge of
spelling rules, and exceptions. Understanding common spelling rules
(e.g., phonetic spelling, silent letters, prefixes, suffixes) helps writers spell
words correctly and apply spelling strategies effectively.
▪ Proofreading: Reviewing written work for spelling errors and using
spelling aids such as, spell-checkers, and word prediction tools to
identify and correct mistakes.
o Layout and Punctuation 2: Layout and punctuation refer to the
organization and presentation of written text, including the arrangement
of words, sentences, paragraphs, and the use of punctuation marks to convey
meaning and clarity.
Proficiency in layout and punctuation involves:
▪ Organization: Structuring written text logically with clear
introduction, body, and conclusion. Organizing ideas into paragraphs
with topic sentences, supporting details, and transitions enhances
coherence and readability.
▪ Punctuation: Using punctuation marks such as commas and
periods, correctly to indicate pauses, emphasis, and grammatical
 relationships between words and phrases. Proper punctuation clarifies
meaning, prevents ambiguity, and enhances the flow of writing.
▪ Consistency: Maintaining consistency in formatting and alignment
throughout the text. Consistent layout and punctuation create a
professional and polished appearance and facilitate ease of reading and
comprehension.
• Importance of Literacy in Writing: 2
o Effective Communication: Literacy in writing enables individuals to
communicate ideas, information, and thoughts clearly, accurately, and
persuasively in written form.
o Academic Success: Proficiency in writing is essential for academic achievement
across all subjects and disciplines, as it is the primary mode of assessment and
communication in coursework, exams, and research.
o Professional Development: Writing proficiency is a valuable skill in the workplace,
as it is required for composing emails, reports, memos, proposals, and other
business documents.
o Critical Thinking: Writing fosters critical thinking skills by encouraging individuals
to analyze, evaluate, and synthesize information, formulate arguments, and
express their perspectives effectively.
• Approaches in Teaching Writing: Teaching writing to children involves
considering various approaches and strategies to develop their writing
skills effectively. Three main frameworks for teaching writing are the
product approach, the process approach, and the balanced approach.
Let's explore each in detail:
o Product Approach 5: The product approach to teaching writing
focuses primarily on the end result or the written product itself. This
approach emphasizes correct spelling, grammar, punctuation, and
organization from the outset. While the product approach emphasizes
correctness and accuracy in writing, critics argue that it may stifle creativity
and expression by focusing too much on the final product rather than the
writing process itself. Key features of the product approach include:
▪ Modeling: Teachers provide models of well-written texts for students
to follow. These models serve as examples of good writing and help
students understand the conventions and structure of written language.
▪ Exercises: exercises are commonly used to reinforce spelling,
grammar, and punctuation rules. Students practice writing sentences,
paragraphs, or essays following specific guidelines and instructions.
▪ Feedback: Teachers provide corrective feedback on students'
writing, focusing on errors in spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
Students are encouraged to revise their work based on the feedback
received.
▪ Assessment: Assessment in the product approach often focuses on
the final written product, with an emphasis on correctness and
accuracy. Students' writing is evaluated based on spelling, grammar,
punctuation, organization, and adherence to writing conventions.
Process Approach 5: The process approach to teaching writing shifts the
focus from the final product to the writing process itself. This approach
emphasizes the various stages of writing, including prewriting, drafting, revising,
editing, and publishing. The process approach to teaching writing encourages
 students to engage actively in the writing process, fosters creativity and self-
expression, and empowers students to take ownership of their writing. Key
features of the process approach include:
▪ Brainstorming and Planning: Students engage in prewriting
activities such as brainstorming, clustering, or outlining to generate
ideas and organize their thoughts before writing.
▪ Drafting: Students write a rough draft of their ideas, focusing on
getting their thoughts down on paper without worrying about
spelling, grammar, or punctuation.
▪ Revision: Students revise their drafts, focusing on improving
content, clarity, coherence, and organization. Revision may involve
adding, deleting, or rearranging sentences or paragraphs to enhance the
overall quality of the writing.
▪ Editing: Students edit their revised drafts for spelling, grammar,
punctuation, and other mechanical errors. Editing may involve peer or
teacher feedback, self-correction, or the use of editing checklists.
▪ Publishing: Students share their final drafts with an authentic audience,
such as classmates, parents, or the wider community. Publishing may
involve displaying work on bulletin boards, creating class books, or
sharing writing online.
o Balanced Approach: The balanced approach to teaching writing integrates
elements of both the product and process approaches, striking a balance
between the focus on the final product and the writing process. The balanced
approach aims to develop students' writing skills holistically, fostering a balance
between correctness and creativity, product and process, and teacher-directed
instruction and student autonomy. Key features of the balanced approach
include:
▪ Explicit Instruction: Teachers provide explicit instruction in writing
conventions, grammar, and language skills while also emphasizing the
importance of creativity, self-expression, and the writing process.
▪ Modeling and Practice: Students are exposed to models of good writing
and engage in writing practice activities that focus on both correctness
and creativity.
▪ Feedback and Revision: Teachers provide feedback on students' writing,
focusing on both content and mechanics. Students revise their work
based on feedback received, with an emphasis on improving both the
quality of their writing and their mastery of writing conventions.
▪ Authentic Writing Tasks: Students engage in authentic writing tasks that
are meaningful, purposeful, and relevant to their interests, experiences,
and real-world contexts.

TOPIC 9: LANGUAGE USE IN THE PRIMARY ESL CLASSROOM

• Formal and Informal Setting: refer to different environments or

situations where language is used with varying degrees of
formality. These settings influence the language choices,
communication styles, and expectations for interaction among
students and teachers. Here's an explanation of each:
o Formal Setting: A formal setting in the primary ESL classroom typically refers to structured,
official, or academic contexts where language use adheres to standard conventions and
expectations. These settings often involve planned lessons, assessments, presentations, or
formal interactions with authority figures.
▪ Characteristics:
• Structured: Activities and interactions follow predetermined
schedules, objectives, and guidelines set by the teacher or
curriculum.
• Academic Focus: Language use revolves around academic
content, such as reading comprehension, writing assignments,
grammar instruction, or subject-specific vocabulary.
• Teacher-Directed: The teacher assumes a central role in guiding
and directing classroom activities, providing instructions, and
facilitating learning.
• Formal Language Register: Students are expected to use formal
language registers appropriate for academic or professional
communication, including complete sentences, appropriate
vocabulary, and standard grammar.
o Informal Setting: An informal setting in the primary ESL classroom refers to
relaxed, casual, or social environments where language use is less structured
and more spontaneous. These settings often foster interpersonal communication,
social interaction, and collaborative learning.
▪ Characteristics:
• Relaxed Atmosphere: The atmosphere is informal, friendly, and
conducive to open communication and peer interaction.
• Social Interaction: Language use focuses on socializing, sharing
personal experiences, expressing opinions, and building
relationships with peers.
• Student-Centered: Students have more autonomy and
opportunities to initiate and lead activities, discussions, or group
projects.
• Informal Language Register: Language use may include colloquial
expressions, slang, abbreviated forms, and conversational
language appropriate for casual or familiar interactions.

Form and Meaning:

o Definition: Form refers to the structure and grammatical features of language,
including vocabulary, syntax, morphology, and phonology. Meaning refers to the
semantic content conveyed by language, encompassing the literal and implied
meanings of words, phrases, and sentences.
o o Formal Setting: In a formal setting, there is a greater emphasis on accuracy
and precision in language use. Teachers focus on teaching grammatical
structures, vocabulary, and language rules explicitly to ensure correct form.
o Informal Setting: In an informal setting, there is more flexibility and tolerance for
language variation and creativity. While form is still important, communication
and meaning take precedence over strict adherence to grammatical rules.
• Purpose:
 o Definition: Purpose refers to the intended goal or function of language use in a
particular context. Language learners use language to achieve various
communicative purposes, such as informing, persuading, entertaining, or
expressing emotions.
o Formal Setting: In a formal setting, language is often used for academic or
professional purposes, such as presenting information, analyzing texts, or writing
essays. The purpose of language use is typically explicit and task-oriented, with
clear learning objectives.
o Informal Setting: In an informal setting, language serves social and interpersonal
purposes, such as building relationships, sharing personal experiences, or engaging
in casual conversations. The purpose of language use is often implicit and focused
on social interaction and connection.
• Appropriacy:
o Definition: Appropriacy refers to the degree of suitability or acceptability of
language use in a given context, considering factors such as social norms,
cultural conventions, and situational constraints. Language learners must use
language appropriately to effectively communicate and interact with others.
o Formal Setting: In a formal setting, language use is expected to adhere to
standard linguistic norms and conventions. Students are encouraged to use
formal language registers appropriate for academic or professional contexts,
demonstrating respect for the formality of the setting.
o Informal Setting: In an informal setting, there is more flexibility in language use,
and learners may use colloquial language, slang, or informal expressions that are
appropriate for casual or familiar interactions. However, learners still need to
demonstrate awareness of appropriacy by adapting their language to the social
context and audience.
• Register:
o Definition: Register refers to variations in language use that depend on factors
such as the context, purpose, audience, and social relationships. Different
registers exist along a continuum from formal to informal, each with its own
linguistic features, vocabulary, and conventions.
o Formal Setting: In a formal setting, language typically follows a more formal
register characterized by standard grammatical structures, academic vocabulary,
and precise language use. Formal registers are commonly used in academic
writing, presentations, or professional communication.
o Informal Setting: In an informal setting, language tends to adopt a more casual
or colloquial register, with relaxed grammar, informal vocabulary, and
conversational tone. Informal registers are prevalent in everyday speech, social
interactions, and informal writing.