Regulatory Mechanisms ISSN 2519-8521 (Print)

ISSN 2520-2588 (Online)

in Biosystems Regul. Mech. Biosyst.,

2022, 13(4), 393–399
doi: 10.15421/022252

Patho-histological features of fibroblastic sarcoid in horses

M. Portenko, O. Shchebentovska
National University of Veterinary Medicine and Biotechnologies named after Stepan Gzhytskyi, Lviv, Ukraine

Article info Portenko, M., & Shchebentovska, O. (2022). Patho-histological features of fibroblastic sarcoid in horses. Regulatory Mechanisms in
Received 19.10.2022 Biosystems, 13(4), 393–399. doi:10.15421/022252
Received in revised form
09.11.2022 Sarcoid is one of the most common skin tumours, which is diagnosed in various breeds of horses at any age regardless of the animal’s
Accepted 10.11.2022 sex. Such fibroblastic neoplasm manifests itself in several clinical ways with its specific morphological features. As a rule, it metastasizes
rarely but can be locally invasive. The disease’setiology is multifactorial and includes the confirmed role of the bovine papillomavirus and
National University genetic and environmental factors. The article introduces the results of a retrospective study of horses of the Ukrainian riding breed with a
of Veterinary Medicine fibroblastic sarcoid type, which was localized mainly in the area of the external thoracic vein. Neoplasms were represented by two types.
and Biotechnologies The first one included broad base neoplasms without a pronounced pedicle but with signs of hyperkeratosis. Massive rounded dense forma-
named after Stepan
Gzhytskyi, Pekarska st.,
tions with an ulcerated surface refer to the second type. To verify the studied types of sarcoid, wide surgical excision of the lesion’svisible
50, Lviv, 79010, Ukraine. parts was performed, followed by the selection of fragments for the pathohistological diagnosis. Also, additional staining methods were used
Тel.: +38-067-701-81-46. to detect the connective and muscle tissue (Van Gieson’s staining) and elastic fibers (Weigert’s resorcin-fuchsin staining). Microscopically,
E-mail: the neoplasm without a visible pedicle showed signs of hyperkeratosis and acanthosis in the peritumoral epidermal layer. Epidermis desqu-
schebentovskaolga@ amation with a significant amount of oxyphilic detritus, diapedesis hemorrhages, and dilated vessels was also detected in some areas. Chao-
gmail.com
tic placement of fibroblasts and fibrocytes was noted, to a greater extent, subdermally. Anisocytosis and anisokaryosis were expressed mod-
erately. Sarcoids, macroscopically presented in the form of massive dense formations with an ulcerated surface, were histologically
characterized by the replacement of the epidermis with cellular elements, subdermal hemorrhages, and the characteristic perpendicular orien-
tation of coarse collagen fibers towards the basement membrane. Closely spaced spindle-shaped cells with fibers forming moiré structures
were visualized in the deep dermis layers. Nuclei were hyperchromic and elongated in shape, no atypical mitoses were noted. Pathohistolog-
ical examination during the identification of a sarcoid type for diagnostic purposes can cause rapid growth and formation of an ulcer. The
final diagnosis regarding equine sarcoid can be made based on a combination of clinical signs, histopathological examination, and molecular
genetic testing with the isolation of BPV DNA.
Keywords: skin; papillomavirus; hyperkeratosis; necrobiosis; collagen fibers; moiré structures; fibroblasts.
Introduction 2013). However, Derek C. Knottenbelt noted in his studies that the role of
papillomaviruses in the development of sarcoid remains unclear. Never-
Equine skin diseases are usually a serious problem that limits the use theless, a large part of these neoplasms contained genetic material identical
of horses in professional sports. Sarcoid is common worldwide, being one or very similar to the one found in some papillomaviruses (Knottenbelt &
of the dominant tumorigenic diseases in horses (Ragland et al., 1970; Matthews, 2001; Nasir & Campo, 2008; Finlay et al., 2009).
Cotchin, 1977; Miller & Campbell, 1982; Marti et al., 1993; Knowles Sarcoid was first described and characterized as a separate clinical
et al., 2016). These fibroblastic neoplasms of the skin usually do not me- entity in 1936 by C. Jackson. The scientist determined that this type of
tastasize but show a variety of clinical manifestations, ranging from ag- tumour is widespread throughout the world and could affect other equids
gressive infiltrative growth to “spontaneous” regression (Ragland et al., at any age and of any sex: donkeys, zebras, mules. The virus is transmitted
1970; Lane, 1977). Immunotherapy and treatment have not produced the through insect bites, incorporates itself into the DNA of affected skin cells,
expected results, since neoplasms frequently demonstrated locally aggres- causing the transformation of these cells into tumours. Olsen and Cook
sive growth, were large in size with multiple lesions and their removal was were the first to suggest a possible role of bovine papillomavirus as an
complicated due to their localization in hard-to-reach places. One of the oncogenic equine sarcoid virus in 1951 when they investigated the trans-
reasons for disqualification of expensive sport horses at competitions was missibility of papillomas. Injections of bovine papilloma extract into the
the aesthetic effect (disfiguring the exterior) and anatomical location of the skin of horses caused “sarcoid-like” tumours. A study of equine skin
neoplasm (preventing them from fully performing exercises). pathologies in which DNA of bovine papillomavirus (BPV) was availa-
Nowadays, the sarcoid etiology is still debated, but most scientists be- ble, especially in normal skin, suggested that the virus may be in a latent
lieve its cause in horses is a virus related or identical to bovine papilloma- state and is activated after stimulation by an unknown agent. It is the virus
virus (BPV) of types 1 and 2, and probably type 13 (Otten et al., 1993; latency that may explain why sarcoids recur after complete surgical re-
Marti et al., 1993; Chambers et al., 2003; Koch et al., 2018). The con- moval and proves their ability to appear at sites of damage or trauma.
ducted studies revealed that bovine papillomavirus DNA was present in It has been determined that sarcoid neoplasms can occur in any part
almost 100% of the examined sarcoid tumours (Bogaert et al., 2005; of the body, both individually and in groups, but the head, ventral part of
Bogaert et al., 2007; Taylor & Haldorson, 2013; Epperson & Castleman, the abdomen, and limbs are affected most often. Skin injuries, surgical
2017). In addition, BPV-1 DNA was detected in flies that were in the wounds, microtraumas after injections, or even insect bites promote the
vicinity of horses suffering from sarcoid, which may indicate their direct progression or recurrence of neoplasms (Bergvall, 2013; Knottenbelt et al.,
role in the transmission and spread of this virus (Taylor & Haldorson, 2016; Ogłuszka et al., 2021). Some scientific sources report that only one

Regul. Mech. Biosyst., 2022, 13(4)

393
type of sarcoid is usually recorded in one animal, but there have been
cases when sick horses were observed to have several sarcoids during
their lifetime. Those neoplasms might remain static for months or years
and then slowly or suddenly become aggressive and progress for no ap-
parent reason.
As a rule, sarcoid is locally invasive and does not metastasize, except
in the malignant form, where the spread occurs by the lymphogenic route
with the formation of numerous neoplasms along the lymphatic vessels
and in the lymph nodes (Kasperowicz et al., 2006; Knottenbelt et al.,
2016). Spontaneous regression is rarely reported, and new sarcoid tu-
mours usually do not develop in such horses. Only one study in a popula-
tion of Franches-Montagnes horses in Switzerland found a high rate of
spontaneous remission (Berruex et al., 2016). Equine sarcoid had a high
recurrence rate after treatment, especially after surgical removal. Recurrent
neoplasms are more aggressive than the primary lesion, demonstrate a
tendency for rapid growth and occupy a larger lesion area. Recurrent
sarcoid can emerge weeks to months or years later.
Depending on macroscopic structure, sarcoids are divided into six dif-
ferent types: warty, nodular, fibroblastic, mixed, malignant, and latent.
Warty sarcoid is a neoplasm localized on the muzzle, at the ear base,
and in the groin. Those lesions are allopathic and cause neither itching nor
pain. They have a typical warty appearance with pronounced hyperkerato-
sis. Warty sarcoids mostly grow slowly but can progress to a more aggres-
sive form, especially as a consequence of trauma (Scott & Miller, 2003).
Nodular sarcoid is a subcutaneous, easily mobile mass, often but not
always spherical, covered by intact, clinically normal skin. Nodules are
divided into types A and B. There is no strong connection between the
skin and the subcutaneous tissue in case of type A nodules. Type B no-
dules have a clear skin lesion and the skin surface cannot move indepen-
dently (Foy et al., 2002; Gebre et al., 2018).
Fibroblastic sarcoid is the most aggressive form that can develop
from any other type of neoplasm after accidental or iatrogenic manipula-
tion, including biopsy (Foy et al., 2002). The neoplasm has a fleshy ap-
pearance, sometimes with ulcers, which are covered with a scab under
which the granulation tissue is formed. Ulcerous surfaces attract flies,
which contribute to irritation, local infection with bacteria, and the deve-
lopment of miasms. Groin, abdomen, wounds, and distal parts of the
limbs are the typical locations of fibroblastic sarcoids. Cutaneous wounds,
especially on the distal extremities, are also at risk for fibroblastic sarcoid.
Fibroblastic sarcoid is divided into two types. Type 1 is characterized by a
pedicle without thickening at the neoplasm’s base, mainly with a fleshy
head from normally pigmented skin or the formation of ulcers due to
constant trauma. Type 2 has a broad local base with the skin thickening in
the form of a large callus (Scott & Miller, 2003; Yuan et al., 2011; Wilson
et al., 2013).
Mixed sarcoid (occult, warty, nodular, and fibroblastic) is a combina-
tion of two or more of these types and may represent a progressive or
transitional state between warty or occult, fibroblastic or nodular (Hartl
et al., 2011). Most sarcoids can be classified as mixed because some types
(verrucous, nodular, and fibroblastic) are often present in different varia-
tions within the same lesion. If it is difficult to determine which type of
sarcoid predominates, and the classification of mixed sarcoid is used. This
can happen in the phase of transition or progression from one clinical type
to another. The muzzle, eyelids, groin and medial part of the thigh are the
places where the mixed type of sarcoid is detected most often.
Malignant sarcoid is a particularly invasive type of tumoru which can
invade the lymphatic vessels, causing the formation of multiple tumours
along the vessels and local lymph nodes. The malignant type is most often
localized on the skin of the jaw and muzzle, elbow, and medial part of the
thigh (Knottenbelt, 2005).
Occult sarcoid is a small area of skin without hair or with thin hair and
altered pigmentation. Typically, it is a rounded alopecia-like formation
with nodules about 2–5 mm in diameter localizing on the skin around the
mouth, eyes, and neck, especially in those places where the number of hair
follicles is smaller. However, occult sarcoid can affect large surfaces,
and some horses can have even several such lesions (Giraldo et al.,
2020). Itching and pain are absent. This type of sarcoid grows slowly
and can turn into a verrucous one. Occult sarcoid rarely affects the ex-
tremities.
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394
In practice, veterinarians have tried several protocols for sarcoid treat-
ment, which generally showed positive dynamics, but the response to the
therapy was not always consistent and effective in various breeds of hor-
ses. Modern sarcoid treatment primarily involves antitumour therapy, but
the development of preventive measures in the future may be directed
against the causative papillomavirus agent (Hallamaa et al., 2005; Scaglia-
rini et al., 2012; Knottenbelt, 2019). In Ukraine, like in many European
countries, sarcoid remains an important clinical problem, especially for
thoroughbred horses. However, almost no cases of this disease have been
found in Ukraine until recently.
Our work aimed at verifying sarcoid, determining its type, and fin-
ding out some pathohistological features of organization of this neoplasm.
Materials and methods
During the studies, we followed the general rules of the appropriate
GLP laboratory practice (1981), positions of the General Ethical Principles
of the Experiments on Animals, approved by I National Congress of
Bioethics (Kyiv, 2001). The whole experimental part of the study was
conducted according to the requirements of the International Principles of
the European Convention for the Protection of Vertebrate Animals used
for Experimental and other Scientific Purposes (Strasbourg, 1986), Rules
of Studies using Experimental Animals, approved by the Decree of the
Ministry of Healthcare No. 281 as of November, 1, 2000, “On Measures
for Further Improvement of Organization Forms of Studies using Expe-
rimental Animals” and the corresponding Law of Ukraine “On Protection
of Animals against Abuse” (No. 3447-IV as of 21.02.2006, Kyiv).
This epizootological study is based on a retrospective analysis of
152 horses during 2019–2022, mainly of the Ukrainian riding breed in the
country’s western region, of which 52 animals were clinically diagnosed
with sarcoid. Neoplasms were localized on the abdomen (19), chest area
(17), limbs (9), and neck (7). Tumours localized in the abdominal area
were surgically removed along with the removal of neoplasms under
general and local anesthesia in a standing position. During the clinical
examination, all horses were healthy, except for existing neoplasms. Sur-
gically, using a scalpel, a wide excision of the lesion’s visible parts was
performed. The preventive measures to avoid autoinoculation with tu-
mour cells were taken, following all rules of antiseptics. A punch biopsy
was performed when the neoplasm was localized in hard-to-reach places
(chest area, neck) near large vessels and occupied minor, mostly limited
foci of up to 0.5 cm. All the manipulations were performed with the use of
analgesicand sedative drugs, depending on the weight of the animal and
operative removal method in compliance with the fixation techniques and
the rules of the European Convention on animal treatment. The article
describes the cases of neoplasms localized in the abdomen.
Fragments of neoplasms had been selected for histopathological exa-
mination and were fixed in a 10% neutral formalin solution. After fixation,
the neoplasm was excised, taking into account its tissue localization, fol-
lowed by washing in tap water during 24 hours. Histological cassettes
with fragments were dehydrated in an ascending series of alcohols, star-
ting with 70°, and increasing the concentration by 10% with exposure for
12 hours each. After bringing it to absolute ethanol, the exposure was
reduced to six hours. The next stage was transferring the fragments to a
1:1 mixture of xylene and absolute ethanol for 1 hour, then xylene I for
1 hour and xylene II for 1 hour. Finally, the fragments were kept in a 1:1
mixture of xylene and paraffin. Paraffin was soaked in two portions in a
thermostat at the temperature of 56 °C with exposure for 1 hour.
The material was poured into blocks and cooled. Histological 7 μm-thick
sections were prepared from the obtained blocks using a sledge micro-
tome MC-2. The sections were mounted on glass slides by the method of
extraction from distilled water. The mounted sections were dried in a
thermostat for 12 hours at the temperature of 37 °C. Deparaffinization was
carried out using xylene and followed by rehydration through a descen-
ding series of alcohols to distilled water (Merkulov, 1969). Staining was
performed using Ehrlich’s hematoxylin and eosin. After dehydration in an
ascending series of alcohols through xylene, the sections were enclosed in
a synthetic medium, and covered with a cover glass. To verify the sarcoid
type, additional staining according to the Van Gieson method was used for
collagen fibers, and resorcin-fuchsin according to Weigart for elastic fi-
bers. Histological examination and photofixation were performed using a
Leica DM-2500 light microscope with a Leica DFC 450C camera and
Leica Application Suite 4.4 software.
Results
Macroscopically, sarcoid in some horses was localized in the area of
the external thoracic vein in the form of a neoplasm with a broad base
without a pronounced pedicle, round and elongated in shape, of a dense
consistency with signs of hyperkeratosis, 3 to 8 cm in diameter (Fig. 1a).
In other horses, it occurred in the form of massive rounded tumours with a
narrower base (pedicle) and an ulcerated surface (Fig. 1b), which attracted
insects. After its surgical removal, the sarcoid sections were examined.
Neoplasms were represented by dense fibrous tissue with the expressed
massive and perpendicularly located strands at the periphery (Fig. 1c, d).
Histological examination of skin fragments around the sarcoid re-
vealed slight hyperkeratosis. Sebaceous glands of a typical morphological
structure were located in the reticular layer of the dermis, which opened
into the hair follicle channel (Fig. 2a). The preserved hair shafts in the hair
follicles were visible on the cross-sectional micro-preparations (Fig. 2b).

Fig. 1. Sarcoid: a – a neoplasm with a broad base without a pronounced pedicle, rounded and elongated in shape with signs of hyperkeratosis;
b – a massive neoplasm with a surface covered with ulcers; c, d – a cross-sectional view of sarcoid

Fig. 2. Horse skin around sarcoid: a – reticular layer of dermis with a hair bulb and hair (1), sweat glands (2);
b – cross section of the dermal layer with hair follicles (1); hematoxylin and eosin
Dilated capillaries, diapedesis hemorrhages, and signs of hyperkerato- peritumourous epidermal layer (Fig. 4a, b). The demarcation line was
sis and acanthosis (Fig. 3a, b) with the epidermis desquamation and the weakly expressed. A significant number of lymphoepithelial elements,
formation of a significant amount of oxyphilic detritus were noted in the segmented neutrophilic granulocytes, and activated macrophages were
Regul. Mech. Biosyst., 2022, 13(4)
395
visualized in places of necrobiosis (Fig. 4b). Chaotic placement of fibro-
blasts and fibrocytes with hyperchromic nuclei was noted subdermally.
Coarse collagen fibers were localized, and to a greater extent, in the deep
layers of the dermis, vessels were dilated, vascularization was insignifi-
cant, anisokaryosis and anisocytosis of tumorous elements were modera-
tely pronounced, and mitoses were rare (Fig. 4c, d). Neoplasm growth
was infiltrative and invasive.
The replacement of the normal dermis components by fibroblasts and
the proliferation of coarse collagen fibers is a characteristic morphological
feature of all sarcoids. Staining with picrofuchsin according to the Van
Gieson method revealed that the neoplasm stroma was mainly represented
by stellate fibroblasts and coarse spindle-shaped fibers, which were stained
bright red (Fig. 5a, b, d).

Fig. 3. Horse skin around sarcoid: a – hyperkeratosis (1); b – acanthosis (2); hematoxylin and eosin

Fig. 4. Fibroblastic sarcoid: a – the epidermal layer desquamation (1), expansion and blood filling of the capillaries (2), foci of fibroblastic cellular
elements’ with atypical growth (3); b – cellular infiltration with hemorrhages in the peritumorous epidermal layer; dilated and blood-filled capillaries (1);
c, d – spindle-shaped neoplastic cells in the deep layers of the dermis with hyperchromic nuclei that form moiré shapes; hematoxylin and eosin
Regul. Mech. Biosyst., 2022, 13(4)
396
 Cell nuclei were dark brown and oval; cellular atypism was expressed
weakly. In the subdermal layer, fibroblasts were located mainly perpendi-
cular to the basement membrane in the form of strands (Fig. 5c), while
intradermally, a higher density of collagen fibers was noted, which were
intertwined in the form of moire (Fig. 5a, b, d). The amount of collagen
matrix in fibroblastic sarcoid varies from minimal to significant, which
determines a macroscopic structure of neoplasm. Collagen fibers occupied
the bulk of the neoplasm in the examined sarcoids, intradermally forming
dense massive conglomerates.
Weigert’s resorcin-fuchsin staining method was used to detect elastic
fibers in the studied neoplasms of the horses’ skin, revealing no elastic
fibers in the structure of the examined sarcoids (Fig. 6a, b).
Analyzing the microscopic changes in the studied cases of equine
sarcoid, it is possible to note the regularity of the proliferation of dermal
fibroblasts. The observed macroscopic and microscopic signs of the fibro-
blastic-type sarcoid were characterized by the following features: hyperke-
ratosis, complete epidermis ulceration with massive infiltration of poly-
morphonuclear cell elements, vessel expansion, moderate vascularization,
and subdermal and intradermal proliferation of coarse collagen fibers that
formed long twisted moire structures. The epidermal ulcer was the feature
of Type 1 fibroblastic sarcoid, which was observed to have the growth of a
massive neoplasm on the pedicle, occypying both the superficial and deep
skin layers. The demarcation line is not expressed.
Discussion
Sarcoid tumours are usually characterized by focal thickening of the
skin, changes in both skin pigmentation and structure. However, a diagno-
sis is impossible to make based on macroscopic signs alone, so pathohis-
tological examinations are a key element in verifying this pathology. It is
important to note that due to the variable microscopic features of equine
sarcoid, small biopsies may not provide sufficient tissue to differentiate
sarcoid from other skin lesions, such as granulation tissue, fibroma, or fib-
rosarcoma. Therefore, preference should be given to excisional biopsy
material, which will provide the largest amount of diagnostic material
(Knottenbelt, 2005; Wobeser et al., 2010).
According to the scientists, the pathohistological pattern depends on
the clinical type of sarcoid (Martens et al., 2000; Wobeser, 2017). Thus,
for example, in case of warty sarcoid, the epithelial component is affected
more than the dermal one, and is represented mainly in the form of a small
band of active fibroblasts in the epidermis. In the case of fibroblastic sarco-
id, there is always partial or complete ulceration of the epidermis with
infiltration of polymorphonuclear cells (Martens et al., 2000). When it
comes to nodular sarcoid, the epidermis is often thinned (Martens et al.,
2000). If the dermal proliferation does not contact the epidermis, the latter
is normal. In case of occult sarcoid, the epidermis is usually normal or has
only minor changes.

Fig. 5. Fibroblastic sarcoid: a, b, d – intradermal placement of coarse collagen fibers in the form of bundles intertwining with each other in a moiré pattern;
с – fibroblasts are located perpendicular to the basement membrane in the form of strands.Van Gieson

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397
 Fig. 6. Fibroblastic sarcoid: a, b – the absence of elastic fibers between rough collagen fibers,
which are chaotically intertwined; resorcin-fuchsin staining according to Weigert
The only typical aspect of this sarcoid type is the increased density of
subepidermal fibroblasts, interspersed between the reduced number of hair
follicles and sweat glands (Martens et al., 2000). They do not demonstrate
a typical morphology or a specific moiré distribution. The number of der-
mal fibroblasts is also lower compared with other sarcoid types. The only
feature common to all sarcoid types is that dermal fibroblasts are denser
than such of the normal skin (Martens et al., 2000). Nodular sarcoid can
mimic a schwannoma, although its clinical appearance and the BPV
availability indicate the sarcoid origin of tumor (Bogaert et al., 2011).
The results of our pathomorphological examinations of equine sarco-
ids of the Ukrainian riding breed are coherent with the results of other
studies, which reported that the histological feature of all equine sarcoids is
an increased density of dermal fibroblasts, as compared with the normal
skin. The typical histological changes found in the fibroblastic type of sar-
coid included the proliferation of coarse, densely interwoven bundles and
coils of spindle-shaped fibroblasts in the dermis. In most cases, the epi-
dermis was partially or completely ulcerated with massive infiltration of
polymorphonuclear cellular elements without a visible demarcation line,
dilated vessels, and petechial hemorrhages.
The formation of cells and fibers that united into bundles, forming so-
called “palisade structures” was noted subdermally and intradermally.
Histopathological examinations conducted by Terwid et al. on 100 equine
sarcoids also showed a high frequency of epidermal hyperplasia, the for-
mation of “palisade structures”, which were visualized in 67%, 88% and
91% of cases, respectively. Our research is also consistent with the studies
reporting fibroblastic proliferation during the sarcoid histological examina-
tion, as well as the presence of spindle-like curls that formed chaotic struc-
tures in the dermis. The number of mitoses is small, but the appearance of
fibroblastic orientation at a perpendicular angle to the epidermal basement
membrane is also different but available in a high percentage of tumorus.
The epidermis, if available, was usually hyperplastic with a characteristic
elongated spinous layer, although in many cases, it was normal or even
atrophic with marked hyperkeratosis.
Therefore, the diagnosis of sarcoid should include three components:
clinical, pathohistological, and molecular genetic studies with the detection
of BPV DNA. A thorough clinical examination combined with a detailed
history (duration of problems, localization of lesions, age, breed, number
of lesions, etc.) should be sufficient in making a preliminary diagnosis.
The lack of clinical experience or atypical characteristics of tumour can
confuse veterinarians, and therefore additional laboratory diagnostics are
needed for a correct diagnosis. Histopathological examination is often
decisive, but it should be noted that biopsy, particularly of small and stable
lesions, can cause their rapid growth and ulceration. If a non-excisional
biopsy is required, sites within the tumour should be carefully selected to
include intact epidermis and minimize the factors that would promote sur-
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398
rounding inflammation and granulation (Goodrich et al., 1998; Haspes-
lagh et al., 2018). The possible deterioration of sarcoid after biopsy is the
reason why biopsy of warty, occult, and small nodules is contraindicated,
even if a definitive diagnosis is impossible in such cases. Another option is
to perform complete surgical excision of a sarcoid, including excision of
wide margins of the normal skin, and a noncontact approach followed by
histological confirmation. Thus, the pathologist would be able to verify the
morphological features of tumour and make the correct diagnosis (Goo-
drich et al., 1998). A more modern approach to the diagnosis of equine
sarcoid is the detection of BPV DNA in lesions using polymerase chain
reaction (PCR). This can be done on histopathological specimens of the
tissue with suspected equine sarcoid but without typical histological featu-
res (Angelos et al., 1991). Detection of BPV DNA using PCR has many
advantages, namely, it is non-invasive, causing minimal trauma to the
tumour (Trewby et al., 2014). Disadvantages include its inability to diag-
nose occult sarcoid, lower sensitivity compared with histopathologic diag-
nosis, and low specificity due to the high prevalence of BPV DNA in the
normal equine skin (Martens et al., 2001; Bogaert et al., 2011; Gysens
et al., 2022).
Conclusion
Diagnostics of skin diseases of horses remains an urgent problem and
requires the attention of many Ukrainian and foreign researchers. Unfor-
tunately, the etiology of many diseases is still unknown, and the available
treatment methods are not always effective. Sarcoid is the most common
type of tumour that horse owners and veterinarians have to deal with. It is
a locally invasive skin neoplasm with various clinical manifestations.
Therefore early diagnostics with prompt treatment can improve the prog-
nosis. Spontaneous regression is rare, relapses are common, and exacerba-
tions are a possible complication, especially when a wrong therapy is
attempted. Animals affected by sarcoid can never be considered disease-
free, and horse owners must be properly informed about the characteristics
and behavior of this tumour.
The etiology of equine sarcoid is multifactorial, including bovine pa-
pillomavirus, genetic, and environmental issues. Usually, the treatment of
this pathology depends on the lesion type, its localization, and degree of
changes. The fibroblastic type of sarcoid is the most aggressive neoplasm
form, characterized by hyperkeratosis and acanthosis with epidermis
desquamation, dilation of capillaries, subdermal hemorrhages, lymphoepi-
thelial infiltration in places of necrobiosis, undefined demarcation line,
massive proliferation of coarse collagen fibers (especially in the deep
dermis layers), and absence of elastic fibers in the formation structures.
The authors declare that they have no potential conflict of interest concerning the
authorship or publication of this article.
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