Squeeze Theorem

If
a ) f ( x ) ≤ g ( x ) ≤ h ( x ) as long as x is "near" a and 
 , then lim g ( x ) = L
b ) lim f ( x ) = lim h ( x ) = L ( L is finite )  x →a
x→a x→a

 5   5 
ex.) lim x 6 sin  2  f = − x 6 , g = x 6 sin  2  , h = x 6 lim f ( x ) = lim h ( x ) = 0
x →0
x  x →0 x →0
x 
−1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1
 5   5 
−1 ≤ sin  2  ≤ 1 ⇒ − x 6 ≤ x 6 sin  2  ≤ x 6  5
x  x  so by the squeeze theorem, lim x 6 sin  2  = 0
x →0
x 

f ( x) h ( x)
2
If 6 x − 18 ≤ g ( x ) ≤ x − 4 x + 7 for all x, evaluate lim g ( x ) .
x →5

Squeeze Theorem

lim ( 6 x − 18 ) = 12 If
x →5 a ) f ( x) ≤ g ( x ) ≤ h ( x ) as long as x is "near" a and
 , then lim g ( x) = L
b) lim f ( x ) = lim h ( x ) = L ( L is finite)
lim ( x − 4 x + 7 ) = 12
x→a
2 x →a x →a 
x →5

5
"Why should I care about the Squeeze Theorem?"

The Squeeze Theorem can be used to find the value of a very important limit.
sin ( x )
lim =1
x →0 x

If we let a be a constant, then a more general version of the limit above is

sin ( ax )
lim =1
x →0 ax

Finally a third fundamental limit based on the two limits above is

cos x − 1
lim =0
x →0 x
The three limits above form the foundation for the proof of the fact that
the derivative of sin x is cos x.

sin ( x ) Math 103 – Rimmer

2.2/2.4 Intro. to Limits
Prove : lim =1
x

x →0

Area ∆OAB < Area sector OAB < Area ∆OAD

 1 1 2 1
 tan θ (1)( sin θ ) (1)( tan θ )
π rθ
0 <θ < 2 2 2


2
1 1 1
sin θ  2
sin θ < θ < tan θ
2 2
 divide by
1
2
sin θ
1<
θ
<
1
cos θ sin θ cos θ
sin θ
take reciprocals cos θ < <1
DA θ
= tan θ ⇒ DA = tan θ
OA
 lim cos θ = 1 and lim1
1 θ →0 θ →0
sin θ
By the Squeeze Theorem: lim+ = 1.
θ →0 θ
sin θ
is an even function ( symmetric with respect to the y − axis ) , sin θ
θ lim =1
so its left hand limit at 0 exists and is the same as the right hand limit. θ → 0− θ
sin θ sin ( x )
⇒ lim =1 let θ = x ⇒ lim =1
θ →0 θ x →0 x

11
 sin 5 x
lim
x →0 x

sin 3 x
lim
x →0 sin 4 x

tan 5 x
lim
x →0 sin 3 x

cos ( h ) − 1 h Math 103 – Rimmer

Prove : lim =0 cos ( h ) = 1 − 2sin 2   2.2/2.4 Intro. to Limits

h →0 h 2

h h h

1 − 2sin 2   − 1 −2sin 2   − sin 2  
cos ( h ) − 1  
2   = lim
2 2
lim = lim = lim
h →0 h h →0 h h → 0 h h → 0 h
2
h
sin  
h sin θ sin θ
= − lim   sin   = − lim
2 sin θ = − lim ⋅ lim sin θ
h →0 h 2 θ → 0 θ θ → 0 θ θ →0
2
 
−1 0
h
let θ =
2
cos ( h ) − 1
⇒ lim =0
h →0 h

12
 1. Given that 7 x ≤ f ( x ) ≤ 3 x + 2 for all x determine the value of lim f ( x ) .
2
x→2

Hint : Recall the Squeeze Theorem.

Solution
This problem is set up to use the Squeeze Theorem. First, we already know that f ( x ) is always
between two other functions. Now all that we need to do is verify that the two “outer” functions have
the same limit at x = 2 and if they do we can use the Squeeze Theorem to get the answer.

=lim 7 x 14 =lim ( 3 x 2 + 2 ) 14
x→2 x→2

So, we have,
7 x lim ( 3 x 2 +=
lim= 2 ) 14
x→2 x→2
and so by the Squeeze Theorem we must also have,
lim f ( x ) = 14
x→2

π 
2. . Use the Squeeze Theorem to determine the value lim x 4 sin   .
of
x →0
x

Hint : Recall how we worked the Squeeze Theorem problem in this section to find the lower and upper
functions we need in order to use the Squeeze Theorem.

Solution
We first need to determine lower/upper functions. We’ll start off by acknowledging that provided
x ≠ 0 (which we know it won’t be because we are looking at the limit as x → 0 ) we will have,
π 
−1 ≤ sin   ≤ 1
x

Now, simply multiply through this by x 4 to get,

π 
− x 4 ≤ x 4 sin   ≤ x 4
x

Before proceeding note that we can only do this because we know that x 4 > 0 for x ≠ 0 . Recall that if
we multiply through an inequality by a negative number we would have had to switch the signs. So, for
instance, had we multiplied through by x 3 we would have had issues because this is positive if x > 0
and negative if x < 0 .

Now, let’s get back to the problem. We have a set of lower/upper functions and clearly,
lim x 4 = lim ( − x 4 ) = 0
x →0 x →0

Therefore, by the Squeeze Theorem we must have,

π 
lim x 4 sin   = 0
x →0
x
Infinite Limits

9
1. For f ( x ) = evaluate the indicated limits, if they exist.
( x − 3)
5

(a) lim− f ( x ) (b) lim+ f ( x ) (c) lim f ( x )

x →3 x →3 x →3

(a) lim− f ( x )
x →3

Let’s start off by acknowledging that for x → 3− we know x < 3 .

For the numerator we can see that, in the limit, it will just be 9.

The denominator takes a little more work. Clearly, in the limit, we have,
x −3→ 0
but we can actually go a little farther. Because we know that x < 3 we also know that,
x −3< 0

More compactly, we can say that in the limit we will have,

x − 3 → 0−

Raising this to the fifth power will not change this behavior and so, in the limit, the denominator will be,
( x − 3)
5
→ 0−

We can now do the limit of the function. In the limit, the numerator is a fixed positive constant and the
denominator is an increasingly small negative number. In the limit, the quotient must then be an
increasing large negative number or,
9
lim− = −∞
( x − 3)
5
x →3

Note that this also means that there is a vertical asymptote at x = 3 .

(b) lim+ f ( x )
x →3

Let’s start off by acknowledging that for x → 3+ we know x > 3 .

As in the first part the numerator, in the limit, it will just be 9.

The denominator will also work similarly to the first part. In the limit, we have,
x −3→ 0
and because we know that x > 3 we also know that,
x −3 > 0

More compactly, we can say that in the limit we will have,

x − 3 → 0+

Raising this to the fifth power will not change this behavior and so, in the limit, the denominator will be,
( x − 3)
5
→ 0+

We can now do the limit of the function. In the limit, the numerator is a fixed positive constant and the
denominator is an increasingly small positive number. In the limit, the quotient must then be an
increasing large positive number or,
9
lim+ = ∞
( x − 3)
5
x →3

Note that this also means that there is a vertical asymptote at x = 3 , which we already knew from the
first part.

(c) lim f ( x )
x →3

In this case we can see from the first two parts that,
lim f ( x ) ≠ lim+ f ( x )
x →3 − x →3

and so, from our basic limit properties we can see that lim f ( x ) does not exist.
x →3

For the sake of completeness and to verify the answers for this problem here is a quick sketch of the
function.
 2t
2. For h ( t ) = evaluate the indicated limits, if they exist.
6+t

(a) lim− h ( t ) (b) lim+ h ( t ) (c) lim h ( t )

t →− 6 t →− 6 t →− 6

(a) lim− h ( t )
t →− 6

Let’s start off by acknowledging that for t → −6− we know t < −6 .

For the numerator we can see that, in the limit, we will get -12.

The denominator takes a little more work. Clearly, in the limit, we have,
6+t → 0
but we can actually go a little farther. Because we know that t < −6 we also know that,
6+t < 0

More compactly, we can say that in the limit we will have,

6 + t → 0−

So, in the limit, the numerator is approaching a negative number and the denominator is an increasingly
small negative number. The quotient must then be an increasing large positive number or,
2t
lim− = ∞
t → −6 6+t

Note that this also means that there is a vertical asymptote at t = −6 .

(b) lim+ h ( t )
t →− 6

Let’s start off by acknowledging that for t → −6+ we know t > −6 .

For the numerator we can see that, in the limit, we will get -12.

The denominator will also work similarly to the first part. In the limit, we have,
6+t → 0
but we can actually go a little farther. Because we know that t > −6 we also know that,
6+t > 0

More compactly, we can say that in the limit we will have,

6 + t → 0+
So, in the limit, the numerator is approaching a negative number and the denominator is an increasingly
small positive number. The quotient must then be an increasing large negative number or,
2t
lim+ = −∞
t → −6 6+t

Note that this also means that there is a vertical asymptote at t = −6 , which we already knew from the
first part.

(c) lim h ( t )
t →− 6

In this case we can see from the first two parts that,
lim h ( t ) ≠ lim+ h ( t )
t →− 6 − t →− 6

and so, from our basic limit properties we can see that lim h ( t ) does not exist.
t →− 6

For the sake of completeness and to verify the answers for this problem here is a quick sketch of the
function.

z +3
3. For g ( z ) = evaluate the indicated limits, if they exist.
( z + 1)
2

(a) lim− g ( z ) (b) lim+ g ( z ) (c) lim g ( z )

z →−1 z →−1 z →−1

(a) lim− g ( z )
z →−1

Let’s start off by acknowledging that for z → −1− we know z < −1 .

For the numerator we can see that, in the limit, we will get 2.
Now let’s take care of the denominator. In the limit, we will have,
z + 1 → 0−
and upon squaring the z + 1 we see that, in the limit, we will have,
( z + 1)
2
→ 0+

So, in the limit, the numerator is approaching a positive number and the denominator is an increasingly
small positive number. The quotient must then be an increasing large positive number or,
z +3
lim− = ∞
( z + 1)
2
z →−1

Note that this also means that there is a vertical asymptote at z = −1 .

(b) lim+ g ( z )
z →−1

Let’s start off by acknowledging that for z → −1+ we know z > 1 .

For the numerator we can see that, in the limit, we will get 2.

Now let’s take care of the denominator. In the limit, we will have,
z + 1 → 0+
and upon squaring the z + 1 we see that, in the limit, we will have,
( z + 1)
2
→ 0+

So, in the limit, the numerator is approaching a positive number and the denominator is an increasingly
small positive number. The quotient must then be an increasing large positive number or,
z +3
lim+ = ∞
( z + 1)
2
z →−1

Note that this also means that there is a vertical asymptote at z = −1 , which we already knew from the
first part.

(c) lim g ( z )
z →−1

In this case we can see from the first two parts that,
lim g ( z ) = lim+ g ( z ) = ∞
z →−1 − z →−1

and so, from our basic limit properties we can see that,
lim g ( z ) = ∞
z →−1
For the sake of completeness and to verify the answers for this problem here is a quick sketch of the
function.

x+7
4. For g ( x ) = evaluate the indicated limits, if they exist.
x2 − 4

(a) lim− g ( x ) (b) lim+ g ( x ) (c) lim g ( x )

x→2 x→2 x→2

(a) lim− g ( x )
x→2

Let’s start off by acknowledging that for x → 2− we know x < 2 .

For the numerator we can see that, in the limit, we will get 9.

Now let’s take care of the denominator. First, we know that if we square a number less than 2 (and
greater than -2, which it is safe to assume we have here because we’re doing the limit) we will get a
number that is less than 4 and so, in the limit, we will have,
x 2 − 4 → 0−

So, in the limit, the numerator is approaching a positive number and the denominator is an increasingly
small negative number. The quotient must then be an increasing large negative number or,
x+7
lim− = −∞
x→2 x2 − 4

Note that this also means that there is a vertical asymptote at x = 2 .

(b) lim+ g ( x )
x→2
Let’s start off by acknowledging that for x → 2+ we know x > 2 .

For the numerator we can see that, in the limit, we will get 9.

Now let’s take care of the denominator. First, we know that if we square a number greater than 2 we
will get a number that is greater than 4 and so, in the limit, we will have,
x 2 − 4 → 0+

So, in the limit, the numerator is approaching a positive number and the denominator is an increasingly
small positive number. The quotient must then be an increasing large positive number or,
x+7
lim+ = ∞
x→2 x2 − 4

Note that this also means that there is a vertical asymptote at x = 2 , which we already knew from the
first part.

(c) lim g ( x )
x→2

In this case we can see from the first two parts that,
lim g ( x ) ≠ lim+ g ( x )
x→2 − x→2

and so, from our basic limit properties we can see that lim g ( x ) does not exist.
x→2

For the sake of completeness and to verify the answers for this problem here is a quick sketch of the
function.

As we’re sure that you had already noticed there would be another vertical asymptote at x = −2 for this
function. For the practice you might want to make sure that you can also do the limits for that point.
 A function is continuous at the point x = a if
lim f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) = f ( a )
x →a−




 x→a

this says that the limit

this says that the limit exists
must equal the function
value at x = a

Types of discontinuities
removable jump infinite
discontinuity discontinuity discontinuity
One - Sided Continuity
A function f is continuous from the left at a if A function f is continuous from the right at a if

lim f ( x ) = f ( a ) lim f ( x ) = f ( a )
x →a− x →a+

exercise # 3 f ( x)
f ( x ) is discontinuous at:
x = −4
x = −2
x=2
x=4

f ( x ) is continuous from the left at: x = −2

f ( x ) is continuous from the right at: x = 2
x=4

Continuous on an interval
A function f is continuous on an interval if its continuous at every number in the interval.

exercise # 3 f ( x)

State the intervals on which f is continuous.

( −∞, −4 ) ( −4, −2] ( −2, 2 ) [ 2, 4 ) [ 4, ∞ )

this is used to say that the this is used to say that the
function is continuous from function is continuous from
the left at x = −2. the right at x = 2.
Combining continuous functions
Let k be a constant. If f and g are continuous functions at x = a,
then the following functions are also continuous at x = a :

1. f + g f
4. provided g ( a ) ≠ 0
2. f − g g
3. fg 5. kf

If g is continuous at x = a and f is continuous at g ( a ) , then

f ( g ( x ) ) is contiuous at x = a.

The following functions are continuous at every number in their domain:

1. polynomial functions 5. exponential functions

2. rational functions 6. logarithmic functions
3. root functions 7. inverse trigonometric functions
4. trigonometric functions

Find where the following functions are continuous:

x
f ( x) = g ( x ) = 4x2 − 9 h ( x ) = tan ( 2 x )
x2 + 5x + 6
Domain of tan ( x ) :
x2 + 5x + 6 = 0 4 x2 − 9 ≥ 0 All real numbers except
( x + 2 )( x + 3) = 0 2
x ≥
9
⇒ x≥
3 π
+ nπ , n any integer
2
4 2
Domain of tan ( 2 x ) :
All real numbers  3 3 
 −∞, −  ∪  , ∞  All real numbers except
except x = −2, −3  2 2 
π π
+n , n any integer
4 2
Find the values of a and b that make f continuous everywhere.
 1 + x2 if x<2

f ( x ) =  x + a + b if 2 ≤ x < 4

 x + 5a if x≥4

f ( x ) is continuous away from x = 2 and 4, because the individual parts

of the function are continuous there. We just need to check x = 2 and x = 4

lim f ( x ) = lim− (1 + x 2 ) = 5 lim f ( x ) = lim− ( x + a + b ) = 4 + a + b

x → 2− x→2 x→ 4− x→4

lim f ( x ) = lim+ ( x + a + b ) = 2 + a + b lim f ( x ) = lim+ = x + 5a = 4 + 5a

x→ 2+ x→2 x→ 4+ x→4

⇒ 5 = 2+a +b ⇒ 4 + a
+ b = 4 + 5a
3
⇒3= a+b
⇒ 7 = 4 + 5a
49 = 4 + 5a
a=9
45 = 5a
a =9 b = −6
b = 3 − 9 = −6
Continuity

1. The graph of f ( x ) is given below. Based on this graph determine where the function is
discontinuous.
2. The graph of f ( x ) is given below. Based on this graph determine where the function is
discontinuous.