Mesh Analysis: Apply KVL to

find unknown Currents

 Paths abefa and bcdeb are meshes

 Although path abcdefa is a loop and

not a mesh, KVL still holds.

 Mesh analysis is applied to planar circuits: One that can be

drawn in a plane with no branches crossing each other
 Superposition Theorem
 Turn off all independent
sources except one source.
Find the output (voltage or
current) due to that active
source
 Do this for each of the
other independent sources
also.
 Find the total contribution
by adding algebraically all
the contributions due to
the independent sources.
 Superposition Theorem

Voltage Division
Current Division
 Thevenin’s Theorem
• Thevenin’s theorem
states that a linear two-
terminal circuit can be
replaced by an
equivalent circuit
consisting of a voltage
source VTh in series with
a resistor RTh, where VTh
is the open-circuit
voltage at the terminals
and RTh is the input or
equivalent resistance at
the terminals when the
independent sources are
turned off.
 Thevenin’s Theorem

• With No Dependent Sources

Turning off All

independent
sources to
calculate RTh
 Thevenin’s Theorem

Thevenin’s
Equivalent Circuit
 Thevenin’s Theorem
• With Dependent Sources
 Thevenin’s Theorem
• With Dependent Sources
 Thevenin’s Theorem
• With Dependent Sources
 Thevenin’s Theorem
• With Dependent Sources
 Norton’s Theorem
 Norton’s theorem states that
a linear two-terminal circuit
can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting
of a current source IN in
parallel with a resistor RN

 IN is the short-circuit current

through the terminals

 RN is the input or equivalent

resistance at the terminals
when the independent
sources are turned off.
 Relationship between
Thevenin’s & Norton’s Theorem

Thevenin’s equivalent circuit Norton’s equivalent circuit

 Close relationship between Thevenin’s theorems and Norton’s

theorem
 This is source transformation
 Relationship between
Thevenin’s & Norton’s Theorem

Find two out of the below for Thevenin or Norton equivalent circuit:
 The open-circuit voltage voc across terminals a and b

 The short-circuit current iSC at terminals a and b

 The equivalent or input resistance Rin at terminals a and b when
all independent sources are turned off.
Norton’s Theorem Example
Norton’s Theorem Example
Norton’s Theorem Example
 Maximum Power Transfer
 Thevenin equivalent is useful in
finding the maximum power a
linear circuit can deliver to a load.

 Power delivered to the load is:

 Maximum Power Transfer

 Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance

equals the Thevenin resistance as seen from the load (RL = RTh).
Maximum Power Transfer

Putting in

gives

Maximum power transferred to the load

Signal Waveforms
Exponential Waveform
Sinusoidal Waveforms

 Current in
oscillating circuit

 Vibration of a
string
Periodic Waveforms
 Periodic Waveforms

• The average value of a varying current i(t) over the period T is

the steady value of current Iav that in the period T would
transfer the same charge Q

Similarly,
Unit Step Function
 Reference Books

• Introduction to Electric Circuits, James A. Svoboda and

Richard C. Dorf, 9th Ed, 2001.

• Fundamentals of Electric Circuits, Alexander Charles and

Matthew Sadiku, 5th Ed, McGraw Hill, 2013.