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o Empowering employees
o Avoiding complacency
o Reinvesting in the company
Risky R&D (research and development) also help Zildjian maintain a competitive edge with
65% of the world cymbal market. Introducing the first titanium-coated cymbal and
expanding their plant are two examples of how they are taking risks and betting on the future.
Careful listening is part of the corporate strategy. This includes bringing in artists
(musicians) to meet with the R&D manager and marketing staff. An excellent example of
how Zildjian collaborates with their customers.
Ask students to compare much younger companies they are familiar with (they ar e likely to
mention Apple or Google) with the nearly 400 year old Zildjian Company. What are the
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a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
20 Chapter 2: The Evolution of Management Thought
Chapter 2: The Evolution of Management Thought 20
similarities and differences? What can these young companies learn from the history and
success of such an old company?
LECTURE OUTLINE
Historians and managers alike believe that one needs to know where management has been if one is to
understand where it is going.
Various approaches in the evolution of management thought are discussed relative to the lessons each can
teach today’s managers.
I. THE PRACTICE AND STUDY OF MANAGEMENT
The systematic study of management is relatively new, essentially a product of the twentieth
century. The actual practice of management has been around for thousands of years.
The pyramids of Egypt stand as tangible evidence of the ancient world’s ability to
manage.
Those ancient managers faced many of the same general problems managers face today
such as planning, staffing, managing resources, keeping records, monitoring progress and
taking corrective action when needed.
A. Information Overload
In early cultures, management was learned by word of mouth and by trial and error.
There was no systematically recorded body of management knowledge.
Thanks to modern print and electronic media there is a wealth of information on
management available for students of management.
So much information exists today that it is difficult or impossible to keep abreast of it all.
B. An Interdisciplinary Field
Scholars from many fields—including psychology, sociology, cultural anthropology,
mathematics, philosophy, statistics, political science, economics, logistics, computer science,
ergonomics, history, and various fields of engineering—have, at one time or another, been
interested in management.
Administrators in the areas of business, government, religious organizations, health
care, and education have also contributed.
Each group has offered its own perspective, with new questions and assumptions,
new research techniques, different technical jargon, and new conceptual
frameworks.
C. No Universally Accepted Theory of Management
There is no single theory of management that is universally accepted today.
This chapter covers five approaches to management, which provide the main headings
for the chapter.
Annotation 2a
What About Factual Accuracy?
Questions: In general, how much do you trust the factual accuracy of historical accounts?
Anyone who has ever played the game “Operator” as a child knows how quickly information can be
distorted as it is passed from one person to another. Add the emotions of the moment when a historical
event occurs, along with the effect of time passing, and no historical account will ever be completely
accurate. Then consider the different perspectives of people in varying roles at the event. To test this,
go to your parents and ask about an event that occurred before you were born. Whether you choose a
personal event or one of broader significance, you will get two very different accounts.
What is the best way to get the real story? The best way to get the real story of any past incident or
period is to collect information from as many sources as possible and look for consistencies. In
general, however, approach any account with a healthy dash of doubt.
II. THE UNIVERSAL PROCESS APPROACH

The universal process approach is the oldest and one of the most popular approaches to
management thought. It is also called the universalist or functional approach. Early writers
emphasized the specialization of labor, the chain of command, and authority.
There are two main assumptions:
Although the purpose of organizations may vary, a core management process remains the
same across all organizations.
This process can be reduced to a set of separate functions and related principles.
A. Henri Fayol’s Universal Management Process
Henri Fayol published his classic book, Administration Industrielle et Générale, in 1916. It
was not translated into English until 1949. Fayol’s work had a permanent impact on twentieth-
century management thinking.
Fayol divided the manager’s job into five functions (as mentioned in Ch. 1):
(1) Planning
(2) Organizing
(3) Command
(4) Coordination
(5) Control
His 14 universal principles of management (listed and explained in Table 2.1 in the text) were
intended to show managers how to carry out their functional duties. These principles are
(1) Division of work
(2) Authority
(3) Discipline
(4) Unity of command
(5) Unity of direction
(6) Subordination of individual interests to the general interest
(7) Remuneration
(8) Centralization
(9) Scalar chain
(10) Order
(11) Equity
(12) Stability and tenure of personnel
(13) Initiative
(14) Esprit de corps
These functions and principles have withstood the test of time because of their widespread
applicability.
B. Lessons from the Universal Process Approach
The complex management process can be separated into interdependent areas of
responsibility, or functions.
Management is a continuous process beginning with planning and ending with
controlling.
There is a concern that this rigid approach may make management seem more rational
and orderly than it really is.
The functional approach is useful because it specifies what managers should do.
III. THE OPERATIONAL APPROACH

The term operational approach is a convenient description of the production-oriented area of
management dedicated to improving efficiency and cutting waste.
It has also been called scientific management, management science, operations research, production
management, and operations management.
Its underlying purpose is “to make person-machine systems work as efficiently as possible.”
A. Frederick W. Taylor’s Scientific Management
Taylor was born in 1856 and was a self-made man.
As a factory manager, Taylor was appalled at the industry’s unsystematic practices.
In his pursuit to find a better way he sought what he termed a “mental revolution” in the
practice of industrial management.
Scientific management is the development of performance standards on the basis of
systematic observation and experimentation.
Experiment was Taylor’s trademark.
Taylor focused on four areas:
Standardization
Time and task study
Systematic selection and training
Pay incentives
Annotation 2b
Piece-Rate Puzzle
Questions: How do you want to get paid? Why?
What kind of a worker are you? Do you tend to stay focused until a task is done, or do you work in
spurts followed by periods of unproductive behavior? How long can you concentrate before needing
to take a break? Do you tend to work faster than average, or are you the slow and steady one who
wins the race? How accurate do you tend to be? Are you good or bad with details? The answers to
these questions affect which pay system you would prefer.
If you’re a fast and focused worker who tends toward accuracy in details, the piece rate would be
much more favorable. If you need to take your time to be accurate, you would probably benefit more
with a straight hourly rate.
Which pay plan is probably better for the library? why?
In terms of library goals, the piece rate is probably the best bet for ensuring both productivity and
accuracy.
B. Taylor’s Followers
Frank and Lillian Gilbreth were inspired by Taylor to turn motion study into an exact science.
Using motion pictures, they studied and streamlined work motions, paving the way for
work simplification by cataloguing 17 different hand motions (called therbligs)
They are best known today as the parents in the humorous book and movie Cheaper by
the Dozen, which 2 of their 12 children wrote about living in a household where
scientific management was applied.
Henry L. Gantt refined production control and cost control techniques.
Variations of Gantt’s work-scheduling charts are still used today. (See Chapter 6.)
Gantt also emphasized the importance of the human factor and urged management to
concentrate on service rather than profits.
C. The Quality Advocates
Today’s managers recognize the strategic importance of quality. In the 1980s, Americans
began to realize that quality was the reason for Japan’s dominance in world markets. As a
result, the following quality advocates began to be listened to:
Walter A. Shewhart introduced statistical quality control in 1931.
Kaoru Ishikawa was a professor at the University of Tokyo who advocated quality before
World War II.
o He founded JUSE (the Union of Japanese Scientists and Engineers).
o He focused on prevention and introduced the idea of both internal and external
customers.
o He introduced fishbone diagrams, which are still used as a problem-solving tool.
(See Chapter 8.)
W. Edwards Deming introduced concepts such as employee participation and continuous

improvement in Japan. His 1986 book, Out of the Crisis, became a bible for Deming
disciples. (See Chapter 16 for more.)
Joseph M. Juran also had a strong influence on Japanese managers.
o The Juran Institute helped strongly establish the concept of the internal customer.
o Teamwork, partnerships with suppliers, problem solving, and brainstorming are all
Juran trademarks.
o Juran also introduced Pareto analysis, a technique for separating major problems
from minor ones (his 80/20 rule is further discussed in Chapter 6 under the heading
of “Priorities”).
Armand V. Feigenbaum developed the concept of total quality control while a doctoral
student at MIT.
o His 1951 book focused on quality improvement throughout an organization.
o He felt that the customer is the one who ultimately determines quality.
Philip B. Crosby wrote the 1979 best-seller Quality Is Free, which promoted the concept
of zero defects, or doing it right the first time.
D. Lessons from the Operational Approach
Scientific management was a revolutionary approach, producing dramatic results in the
context of the haphazard industrial practices at the time.
It created a much-needed emphasis on promoting production efficiency and combating
waste.
Even though Taylor’s work is often considered “dehumanizing” today, Taylor actually
improved working conditions by reducing fatigue and redesigning machines to fit people.
Operations management tends to be broader in scope and application than scientific
management. Operations management is defined as developing tools and procedures to
efficiently transform raw materials, technology, and human talent into useful goods and
services.
WINDOW ON THE WORLD

Norwegian Paper Maker Benefits from a Detailed Model of Its Global Operations
Discussion Question: Why is this analytical approach superior to the usual us-versus-them
approach to union-management relations?
When Norske Skog managers began to analyze performance and plant outcomes based on
numerical data they removed the subjective nature of decision making and instead based their
strategic decisions on cold hard facts. When the union hired their own experts they probably
thought they would discover some flaw in the data analysis model, instead they “found
nothing to complain about”. By focusing the analysis on the numbers and performance
outcomes, management removed any potential for employees or the union to challenge their
decision making or accuse them of personal bias. Ultimately, this creates an environment
where the union members are far more likely to support management rather than waste
valuable time and energy working against management.
IV. THE BEHAVIORAL APPROACH

This approach recognizes the importance of people in management and reflects the belief that
successful management depends on the ability to understand and work with a variety of people.
A. The Human Relations Movement
The human relations movement was a concerted effort among theorists and practitioners to
make managers more sensitive to employee needs. It was supported by three very different
historical influences.
(1) The Threat of Unionization: The movement was a union-avoidance tactic, with the idea
that satisfied employees would be less likely to join unions.
(2) The Hawthorne Studies: Practical behavioral research studies such as these made
management aware of the psychological and sociological dynamics of the workplace.
One outcome – researchers determined that productivity was much less affected by
changes in work conditions than by the attitudes of the workers themselves.
(3) The Philosophy of Industrial Humanism: A convincing rationale for treating employees
better and recognition that people were important to productivity. There were three
primary proponents:
Elton Mayo focused on emotional factors. He encouraged work that fostered
personal and subjective satisfaction.
Mary Parker Follett encouraged managers to motivate performance rather than
demand it. She recognized that employees are a complex collection of emotions,
beliefts, attitudes and habits. Cooperation, a spirit of unity, and self-control were
keys to productivity.
Douglas McGregor created the Theory X/Y philosophy, with Theory X as the
traditional assumptions (which he characterized as pessimistic, stifling and
outdated) and Theory Y stating that employees are energetic and creative if given
the opportunity.
ETHICS: Character, Courage and Values

American Express Puts Its People First
For Discussion:
Why is this employee-centered management style both good business and a key
workplace ethics issue? The theory: Happier employees mean happier customers.
As their CEO says, “Great service starts with the people who deliver it.” By asking
the employees what THEY want and then implementing, the company is putting
actions behind those words. In addition to happier employees who are more
committed and engaged, they are also more loyal, have a greater sense of
ownership and are much less likely to lie, cheat or steal from the company. Thus,
happy employees deliver good customer service which is good for business and
happy employees foster an ethical work environment which is also good for
business.
B. Organizational Behavior
1. Organizational behavior is a modern approach to management that attempts to
determine the causes of human work behavior and translates the results into effective
management techniques.
2. This is an interdisciplinary approach with psychology predominating.
Annotation 2c
Craigie Zildjian - Theory X or Theory Y?
Does Craigie Zildjian appear to be a Theory X or a Theory Y manager?
Craigie appears to be pretty much Theory Y. Her strategies involve her managers and her
employees. Every example she gave focused on some responsibility her employees had—from
meeting with artists to visiting music stores. The other clue is her constant use of the word “we”
She never says, “I do” in this discussion but, rather, always focuses on everyone involved.
C. Lessons from the Behavioral Approach

Primarily, the behavioral approach makes it clear to present and future managers that
people are the key to productivity.
Negatively, traditional human relations doctrine has been criticized as vague and
simplistic. Supportive supervision and good human relations does not guarantee higher
morale and productivity.
V. THE SYSTEMS APPROACH

A system is a collection of parts operating interdependently to achieve a common purpose.
This approach requires a completely different style of thinking. The traditionalists said that the
whole can be explained in terms of its parts. Systems theorists assume that the whole is greater than
the sum of its parts. The difference is traditional analytic thinking (outside-in) versus synthetic
thinking (inside-out). Systems theorists propound synthetic thinking because management is not
practiced in a vacuum. Many organizational and environmental variables affect each other.
A. Chester I. Barnard’s Early Systems Perspective
Barnard wrote the classic The Functions of the Executive in 1938.
In it, he characterized all organizations as cooperative systems.
“A cooperative system is a complex of physical, biological, personal, and social
components which are in a specific systematic relationship by reason of the cooperation
of two or more persons for at least one definite end.”
Barnard felt that an organization did not exist if three principal elements—willingness to
serve, common purpose, and communication—were not present and working
interdependently (see Figure 2.4).
B. General Systems Theory
General systems theory is an interdisciplinary area of study based on the assumption that
everything is part of a larger, interdependent arrangement. Ludwig von Bertalanffy, a
biologist, was the founder of general systems theory.
1. Levels of Systems
Identifying hierarchies of systems, ranging from very specific to very general, has
helped make general systems theory more concrete.
See the seven-level scheme of living systems in Figure 2.5.
2. Closed versus Open Systems
A closed system is a self-sufficient entity.
An open system depends on the surrounding environment for survival.
Systems can be categorized as open or closed by evaluating the amount of
interaction they have with the outside environment.
Organizations are, by their very nature, open systems.
Annotation 2d
What type of System is the Zildjian Company ?
Zildjian Company is definitely an open system. Customer collaboration goes back decades, as
far as 1929, and it continues today as artists visit the plant so the Research and Marketing teams
can meet directly with them. Zildjian managers are also very aware of their competition. The
remark “careful listening is part of our corporate strategy” is evidence of their awareness that
their organization is an open system.
C. New Directions in Systems Thinking

Organizational Learning and Knowledge Management
Organizational learning portrays the organization as a living and thinking open system.
Like the human mind, organizations rely on feedback to adjust to changing
environmental conditions, and they learn from experience.
Organizations engage in complex mental processes such as anticipating, perceiving,
envisioning, problem solving, and remembering.
When organizational learning becomes a strategic initiative to identify and fully exploit
valuable ideas from both inside and outside the organization, a knowledge management
program exists. More is said about knowledge management and how it relates to decision
making in Chapter 8.
Chaos Theory and Complex Adaptive Systems
Chaos theory was developed in the 1960s and 1970s by mathematicians Edward
Lorenz and James Yorke.
The challenge for those in the emerging field known as complex adaptive systems
theory is the notion that every complex system has rules that govern the seemingly
random patterns and that those rules can be discovered in a seemingly chaotic
system.
With this theory, managers are challenged to be more flexible and adaptive than in
the past.
Chaos theory and complex adaptive systems theory are launching pads for new and
better management models, not final answers.
Lessons from the Systems Approach

Managers have a greater appreciation for the importance of seeing the whole
picture.
The systems approach also works to integrate various management theories.
Critics say the systems approach is short on verifiable facts and practical advice.
Green Management: Toward Sustainability

For Discussion:
How can this sort of open-system thinking help managers create more sustainable practices
and products? From its extraction through sale, use and disposal, all the stuff in our lives
affects communities at home and abroad, yet most of this is hidden from view. The Story of
Stuff is a 20-minute, fast-paced, fact-filled look at the underside of our production and
consumption patterns. The Story of Stuff exposes the connections between a huge number of
environmental and social issues, and calls us together to create a more sustainable and just
world. It'll teach you something, it'll make you laugh, and it just may change the way you
look at all the stuff in your life forever. Watch Annie Leonard’s video at
www.storyofstuff.com. Viewing the video in class will lead to a lively discussion about
limited resources and how today’s managers need to think beyond their company and look
at the entire open system and supply chain. In this open system environment they will
realize the need to develop creative strategies (that remain market driven) for repurposing
waste and making better use of locally available resources & technology while minimizing
our consumption of natural resources. This will lead to increased efficiency and
effectiveness. Companies that have an open system mind-set and encourage managers to
develop sustainable practices and products will ultimately realize competitive advantage.
How about all of your “stuff”?
Students are likely to respond with answers varying from eco friendly purchasing to
shopping at the local farmer’s market. On the other end – most will mention recycling and
composting.
VI. THE CONTINGENCY APPROACH

The contingency approach is an effort to determine, through research, which managerial practices
and techniques are appropriate in specific situations.
Different situations require different managerial responses.
This approach is particularly appropriate in intercultural situations.
In real-life management, the success of any given technique is dictated by the situation.
A. Contingency Characteristics
Contingency thinking is viewed as a workable compromise between the systems approach and
a purely situational perspective. (Figure 2.6 illustrates this.)
The contingency approach is
(1) An open-system perspective
(2) A practical research orientation
(3) A multivariate approach
Bivariate analysis looks for simple one-to-one causal relationships.
Multivariate analysis is a research technique used to determine how a combination
of variables interacts to cause a particular outcome.
B. Lessons from the Contingency Approach
The contingency approach is a helpful addition to management thought because it
emphasizes situational appropriateness.
Contingency thinking is a practical extension of the systems approach.
Critics say contingency theory creates the impression that the organization is a captive of
its environment, making attempts to manage it useless.
The contingency approach is not yet fully developed. Its final impact remains to be seen.
Annotation 2e
What evidence is there of the contingency approach at Zildjian
Company ?
Bringing in current musicians to talk to the team and sending employees out to music stores to
listen both incorporate a focus on the open system perspective. New products such as a titanium-
coated cymbal show a practical research focus. Having a focus on numerous core values such as
continuous quality improvement, innovation, craftsmanship, etc. show that Zildjian takes a
multivariate approach.
VII. THE ERA OF MANAGEMENT BY BEST SELLER: PROCEED WITH CAUTION

Over the last 25 years or so, the field of management moved from the classroom into the
mainstream. Peter Drucker launched this trend, becoming the first management guru who appealed
to both academics and practicing managers.
In 1982, the popularization of management shifted into high gear when Thomas J. Peters and Robert
H. Waterman, Jr. published In Search of Excellence.
Others followed (see Table 2.4), and the popular appeal of management grew.
Certain academics worried that the instant gurus and their best sellers would encourage shoddy
research and simplistic thinking.
A. What’s Wrong with Management by Best Seller?
Top managers will apply concepts learned in a book to an organization with no diagnosis or
assessment to determine the real organizational problems. This is not the fault of the
management books, which typically contain some really good ideas. Rather, it is the hurried
and haphazard application of those ideas that causes the problems.
B. How to Avoid the Quick-Fix Mentality
In a follow-up study of the “excellent” companies outlined in Peters and Waterman’s In
Search of Excellence, companies that satisfied all of the excellence criteria turned out to be no
more effective than a random sample of Fortune 1000 companies.
To avoid the quick-fix mentality, managers should
1. Remain current with literature in the field, particularly with journals that translate
research into practice.
2. Ensure that concepts applied are based on science or, at least, some form of rigorous
documentation, rather than purely on advocacy.
3. Be willing to examine and implement new concepts, but first do so using pilot tests with
small units.
4. Be skeptical when solutions are offered; analyze them thoroughly.
5. Constantly anticipate the effects of current actions and events on future results.
Annotation 2f
Practical Take-Aways
Question: What specific take-away lessons have you learned from studying this chapter that
can help you avoid common “rookie” mistakes as a manager?
Would you start building a house without some experience with the tools, familiarity with the
properties of the materials you were using, and some basic knowledge of how a building is put
together? Would you try to take out an appendix without a basic knowledge of anatomy and
some experience in wielding a surgical scalpel? How about something simpler? How about
driving a car? Do you remember your first time behind the wheel? And that frightening feeling
gripped you even after years of observing others driving.
Yet, when it comes to management and organizational behavior, people are thrown into
situations with limited (if any) training and experience and are expected to get it right. One of
the most critical take-aways is the understanding that there are many approaches and ideas in
management and you have to take the time to see what works for you. It takes practice and the
maturity to blend theory, experience and the advice of others with your own experience.
C. Putting What You Have Learned to Work

To put this historical overview into proper perspective, this chapter provides a useful
conceptual framework for students but generally does not carry over to the practice of
management. Managers are pragmatists; they use whatever works, generally a “mixed bag”
approach.
END OF CHAPTER FEATURES

Terms to Understand – encourage students to make use of the flashcards available on the student
website. Also, suggest they visit the Manager’s Toolkit section on the website for tips and
suggestions for aspiring managers.
Action Learning Exercise – Open Systems Thinking and Recycling Encourage students to keep a
log for 24 hours recording all tangible items they buy or consume, include in the report what they
did with packaging, waste and leftovers. Then have students respond to the questions for
consideration at the end, and discuss the results in class.
Ethics Exercise – Do The Right Thing, Putting the Recent Recession into Historical Perspective.
After reading John Gerzema’s observations have students respond to the questions that follow. A
few possible responses they are likely to offer are included.
What are the ethical implications of the following interpretations?
1. Managers will need to be mindful of the new reality – money has become less important
to people. From an ethical perspective we hope this is good news. Although we may see
less bad behavior that is motivated by money and instead is replaced by a quality of life
incentive. Changes in motivation do not automatically eliminate ethical concerns.
Therefore, managers will need to learn what does motivate their employees as they strive
to increase employee loyalty and productivity while still fostering an ethical workplace.
The American Dream that was driven by material possessions has taken a bit of turn to
also include happiness that is derived from activities and relationships.
2. Historical blip or new reality? Have we learned from the past? A walk down memory
lane will remind us of “old-fashioned” values – family, faith and community. These have
come and gone often times as unemployment rates and prosperity hit peaks and valleys.
Students’ opinions will vary on whether or not this new reality is here to stay.
3. Younger employees are less motivated by money and more interested in balancing their
work and personal lives. In an effort to find the keys to motivating this new generation,
managers should begin by simply asking each employee. As we learned from Mary
Parker Follett, employees are a complex collection of emotions, beliefs, attitudes and
habits. From an ethical perspective it simply makes good sense to treat each person as a
unique individual with emotional needs rather than a number or machine. Each person
has a unique set of needs, wants and values so a manager cannot assume that each of their
team members is motivated by the same opportunities or rewards. Lead by seeking
input and inviting feedback. Ask them “what’s working?” and “what’s not?”.
Managers-In-Action Video Case Study – Mitchell Gold + Bob Williams
Gold & Williams Industry Trendsetter

Length: 8 minutes and 15 seconds
Topics:
Quality, Employees, Eco-friendly manufacturing\Recycling, Employee Benefits, Customer
Expectations, Diversity, Work environment, Recruitment, Retention, Health & Wellness, and
Innovation.
Company Background
Source: Mitchell Gold + Bob Williams company website January 4, 2011

http://www.mgbwhome.com/
Whether you're raising a baby or a business, there are more than enough rules on how
to do it. The furniture industry is no exception. Right from the start, Mitchell Gold knew
he had to break some of those rules to satisfy their customers. And it paid off big time.
In 1989 when the economy was unstable, he and his partner, Bob Williams, naively
created The Mitchell Gold Co. Since then, despite tough economic times and upheaval
in the furniture industry, sales have reached in excess of $100 million. The combination
of Gold's years of marketing experience with Williams' talents as art director set the
course for Mitchell Gold and changed the furniture industry.
One of their earliest ideas, "Relaxed Design," was based on trends they saw in the
apparel industry. Designing furniture Bob Williams would want in his own home -
comfortable, classic, affordable - he dressed his pieces in relaxed slipcovers of pre-
washed fabrics like denim, khaki and velvet. He also addressed the need for a less-
intimidating shopping experience by limiting choices to avoid confusing consumers.
Along the way, Williams has received numerous awards, including Design 100 awards
from Metropolitan Home magazine. And today, the line, which started with dining chairs,
offers both slipcovered and tailored upholstery (including down-blend cushions,
premium goose-down-blend and comfortable sleepers), leather, sectionals, beds,
ottomans, recliners and yes.. dining chairs.
Mitchell Gold + Bob Williams has won accolades from the media, as well as its
consumers. Following are some innovations on the company's journey to success:
Customer Service. "Our emphasis is on taking care of a small and highly select number
of customers extremely well," says Gold. "And on training each store's salespeople so
that consumers feel safe and satisfied buying from them." To do that, explains Gold,
"we added a special group called TAPs (The Answer People), who travel the country
doing no selling, but only sharing knowledge of our products."
Retail Partners. The company is a leading home-furnishings brand, carried in such

national chains as Pottery Barn, Restoration Hardware, Williams Sonoma Home, and
Bloomingdale’s, as well as in more than 60 independent retailers nationwide. In
addition, there is a growing chain of Mitchell Gold + Bob Williams Signature Stores that
carries exclusively their products, in cities ranging from New York to D.C., Miami,
Houston, Portland OR, and L.A.
Commercial Ventures. Mitchell Gold + Bob Williams furniture is so popular that hip hotel
chains such as the W Hotels or Rande Gerber's Whiskey Bars want to treat their guests
to Mitchell Gold + Bob Williams.
Brand Building. "People want to know who makes the furniture they're spending their
lives on and want to buy a brand associated with the lifestyle they want to live", says
Gold. The right ads, the right publications and subtle "co-branding" with retailers have
helped Gold do that.
Hot Stuff. It's not just advertising that makes people remember a brand, says Gold. It's
the right advertising. Designed to "make a statement" and grab consumers' attention by
pushing the envelope in style, content and theme, Mitchell Gold's advertising campaigns
are always unexpected and a strong departure from typical advertisements in the
industry. Besides, who said furniture ads can't be as provocative as apparel or
cosmetics?
Instant Antiques. Leather European club chairs that look as if they'd been in the family
for years and go so well with flea market finds - but are proportioned just right for today.
Factory Power. Where does 18 years of incredible growth lead? A big factory. In 1998
Mitchell Gold built a 267,000 sq-ft., state-of-the-art factory, bringing total manufacturing
and warehouse space to 400,000 sq. ft. The new facility has a health-conscious café,
employee gym and indoor walking track, and even its own on-site daycare center for its
over 700+ employees (lulu's child enrichment center link) - the first one of its kind in the
residential furniture industry.
Community Advocacy. Mitchell Gold + Bob Williams are honored to support grass-roots
and national not-for-profits who champion for those less fortunate and individuals living
with life-challenging illnesses. The company is proud to support groups such as the
Human Rights Campaign, Empire State Pride Agenda, DIFFA (Design Industries
Foundation for AIDS), Friends In Deed, ALFA (AIDS Leadership Foothills-area
Alliance), Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation, Ovarian Cancer Research Fund and
the Leukemia Society.
On the Mitchell Gold + Bob Williams website there is a link

(http://mgbwhome.com/whoweare.asp) to “Who We Are” which leads to the list below which is
great for class discussion on company values and becoming a people-centered organization. This
also appears in the background on a wall during the video.
Mitchell Gold + Bob Williams
Synopsis of Video
Company Founders Mitchell Gold and Bob Williams discuss their unique approach in the
furniture industry when they started their company. They clearly demonstrate how successful
companies can produce quality products while also providing a great place to work. Employees
share their perspective, which makes it easy to understand why Mitchell Gold + Bob Williams
has grown from 23 employees to more than 700.
For more information about Mitchell Gold + Bob Williams visit their website:
http://www.mgbwhome.com/
Previewing Questions
1. Describe quality management ideas and practices suggested by quality
advocates Deming, Ishikawa, Juran, and Feigenbaum (discussed in this
chapter in the Quality Advocates section)?
Kaoru Ishikawa who advocated quality by focusing on prevention. He also introduced

the idea of both internal and external customers, and fishbone diagrams as a problem-
solving tool.
W. Edwards Deming introduced concepts such as employee participation and continuous
improvement.
Joseph M. Juran helped strongly establish the concept of the internal customer.
Teamwork, partnerships with suppliers, problem solving, and brainstorming are all
Juran trademarks. He also introduced Pareto analysis, a technique for separating major
problems from minor ones ( 80/20 rule)
Armand V. Feigenbaum developed the concept of total quality control focused on quality
improvement throughout an organization. He felt that the customer is the one who
ultimately determines quality.
2. What responsibility should a company have to their employees’ quality of

life and working conditions? Provide specific examples to support your
answer.
Personal opinion question, however, based on the Ethics Exercise at the
end of the chapter, evidence would suggest managers should pay
attention to quality of life and working conditions. Examples will vary –
consider using REI or Google as examples. They provide excellent
employee benefits and outstanding working conditions that foster
creativity, empowerment, loyalty, productivity, and long-term success.
3. How can business owners and managers get employees to produce their
best work?
Taking the time to learn about each employee and what motivates them
will help managers to provide the appropriate level of challenge and

independence and to structure meaningful rewards.
Postviewing Questions
4. For each of the quality advocates referenced in question one, identify a
quality idea\perspective and discuss a corresponding practice in place
today at Gold + Williams.
Kaoru Ishikawa the idea of both internal and external customers is demonstrated when
the owners discuss not only their commitment to being driven by the external customer as
it relates to design but also focused on listening to their employees. This example also
illustrates W. Edwards Deming’s concept of employee participation and Joseph M.
Juran’s internal customer and teamwork. Armand V. Feigenbaum felt that the customer
is the one who ultimately determines quality. Gold + Williams redefined how the
furniture industry did business after listening to customers. The results were more
affordable, flexible products delivered faster.
5. How does the work environment at Gold + Williams impact quality and
success? Gold + Williams have created a corporate culture centered
around people with the belief that if people are having fun and enjoy their
job they will produce their best work. Air conditioning, good lighting and a
place where everyone is welcome and valued contribute to a higher sense
of ownership, employee engagement and success.
6. From an employee recruitment and retention perspective, what benefits,

policies, and management practices provide Gold + Williams with a
competitive advantage? Explain why.
Air conditioning, good lighting and good coffee were some of the items
mentioned that brought people to the company. Policies and practices
that are inclusive, where people are accepted regardless of their sexual
orientation is another example. Their annual health fair with free physicals
is yet another benefit where management has sent a strong message
through their actions that people in the company are important. The
owners also set an example by being friendly and personable with
employees and leading by example in the community. Creating an
environment where the emphasis is on teamwork: “Each person’s success
is everyone’s success” contributes to a positive work environment. All of
these things combine to create a company where employees feel valued
and are therefore loyal and committed to doing their best work.
7. One of the five overarching changes mentioned in chapter 1 was

environmentalism and sustainability. Discuss how Gold + Williams is
responding to this change and adapting its manufacturing practices?
From day one, Gold + Williams has had a commitment to the environment.
They changed the perspective to consumer/retail driven which leads to
faster shipping and ideally, less waste.
CLOSING CASE: SIX GENERATIONS HAVE FINE TUNED GUITAR MAKER

1. Division of Work: Specialization of labor includes a group of employees who make just the guitar
strings.
Unity of command: No more absentee managers off fixing other factories.
Unity of direction: A commitment from every employee to try to make the perfect guitar.
Remuneration: Since 1986 employees have received about $15 million in profit sharing.
Initiative: Shifting from a traditional hierarchical structure to a more team oriented environment
where employees were more involved.
Esprit de corps: Successfully producing 85,000 guitars in a team oriented environment where
everyone is striving to make the perfect guitar and is rewarded with profit sharing for the effort
implies there is a good bit of esprit de corps.
2. She would be very positive about it. Shifting from a top-down management structure to a more team
oriented approach is certainly aligned with Follett’s focus on people. Everything Martin does is
about valuing a motivated workforce and creating an environment where workers can shine.
3. Martin is definitely a Theory Y manager. His pride in the company and his belief in his employees’
ability to make the perfect guitar is evident.
4. An open system. They rely on customers for their business, they hired people from different
industries with expertise in quality and they seek learning opportunities from outside, nontraditional
experiences such as Outward Bound.
5. The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People: Powerful Lessons in Personal Change. Because all
employees of any company should have the concepts in this book as part of their toolkit.
Reengineering the Corporation: A Manifesto for Business Revolution. Staying competitive in any
industry involves using the all the productivity tools available for manufacturing and design.
INSTRUCTIONAL TIPS
1. In order to help support your students on research projects assigned in this class, this chapter in the
manual provides a list of periodicals that are good resources for articles on management and related
topics. You are welcome to copy this list and share it with your students when giving research
assignments.
2. A brief class discussion of the impact of one’s personal background on one’s present and future
perspective and direction can help highlight the value of using a historical perspective as a basis for
understanding.
3. An interesting and enjoyable class exercise that helps personalize the material in Chapter 2 is to
assign individuals or groups the roles of Henri Fayol, F. W. Taylor, Mary Parker Follett, Chester I.
Barnard, W. Edwards Deming, and Thomas J. Peters. Then ask each expert to debate and discuss
how he or she would handle various contemporary management situations (e.g., global competition,
employee alcohol/drug abuse, diversity issues, the changing character and nature of the workforce,
and motivation of younger employees who value leisure more than work).
4. A debate or other structured class discussion session about the relative merits of each of the major
approaches to management is a good way to compare and contrast the various perspectives. It
quickly becomes apparent that there is no single best approach and that each perspective contributes
something of value to our knowledge of management.
5. There is a saying that “those who do not study history are condemned to repeat it.” Ask students
which of the various approaches to management they think they could use when they become
managers. What ideas do they think would no longer be effective in today’s workplace?
6. To add energy to the discussion of chaos theory and complex adaptive systems theory, bring a
number of small soft balls or toys to class and start the students tossing them around the classroom.
You’ll see the energy level of the class shoot up as students toss the items around. (You can add
arbitrary rules such as “Toss objects to a different person each time.” You can also vary the size of
the balls and toys. For example, add a beach ball to the collection being tossed around.) Slowly add
additional balls and toys, one at a time, until the “system” collapses under the sheer number of
flying things. Discuss the fine line between a complex system and total chaos, using this example.
(Caution: To ensure the safety of this exercise, use only soft balls and toys, and allow only
underhand throwing.)
ADDITIONAL DISCUSSION/ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. What was Henri Fayol’s contribution to the evolution of management thought?
2. How did F. W. Taylor go about improving job performance through scientific management?
3. What circumstances gave rise to the human relations movement?
4. What is an open system, and why is it useful to view organizations as open systems?
5. As this chapter shows, the basis for the quality movement actually started in the 1930s. Why do you
think it took so long to catch on in the United States?
6. How would you react if a new boss gave you a book to read and told you that the organization was
going to change dramatically to reflect the book’s ideas?
DISCUSSION STARTER:
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE AND CONTEXT; MANAGEMENT

HISTORY; TODAY’S STUDENTS
Although management theory and practice have been researched and analyzed for hundreds of years, it is
often difficult to convince today’s aspiring managers that learning about the history of management is
worth their time. Today’s college students have grown up with the internet, social media and smart
phones. How can they possibly learn from managers who never had access to these modern day
communication tools?
For Discussion:
1. What impact has technology had on contemporary managers?
2. What aspects of management remain the same?
3. What useful lessons have you learned from the “school of hard knocks” (e.g., your own historical
context)?
4. What lessons can be learned from managers who came before us? And why is it important (or
unnecessary) to put modern management practices into historical context?
BONUS VIDEOS
BIZFLIX VIDEO CASES FROM THE TEXTBOOK WEBSITE
Discussion Questions and Guide
Chapter 2Video Case: Casino
VIDEO CASE SYNOPSIS
Martin Scorcese’s film is a lengthy, complex, and beautifully photographed study of Las Vegas
gambling casinos and their organized crime connections during the 1970s. According to
VideoHound’s Golden Movie Retriever, it completes his trilogy that includes Mean Streets (1973) and
Goodfellas (1990). Ambition, greed, drugs, and sex destroy the mob’s gambling empire. The
film includes strong performances by Robert De Niro, Joe Pesci, and Sharon Stone. The violence
and the expletive-filled dialogue give Casino its R rating.
This scene is part of “The Truth about Las Vegas” sequence that appears early in the
film. It follows the scenes of the casino deceiving the Japanese gambler.
The scene starts with a close-up of Sam “Ace” Rothstein (Robert De Niro) standing between
his two casino executives (Richard Amalfitano and Richard F. Strafella). In a voice-over narration he
says, “In Vegas, everybody’s gotta watch everybody else.” The scene ends after Rothstein describes
the former cheaters who monitor the gambling floor with binoculars.
VIDEO CASE DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTED

ANSWERS
1. Apply Fayol’s principles of management to this scene. Which ones appear in the scene? Give
examples from the scene of what you see.
The scene offers examples of several of Fayol’s principles of management discussed in this
chapter, including:
Unity of command: Each person has a single manager to whom they report. Examples:
Dealers watch players; boxmen watch dealers; floormen watch boxmen.
Division of work: Each function on the gambling floor has a specialized division of labor.
Examples: Dealers deal cards and collect the casino’s take; ex-cheaters specialize in
surveillance.
Unity of direction: All similar gambling floor activities group together with a single
focus.
Scalar chain: Rothstein’s description captures the extensive scalar chain of the Tangiers
casino. The chain of authority relationships extends from him to the lowest level in the
casino through each of managers he describes.
2. Compare the Theory X and Theory Y assumptions to this scene. Which assumptions appear in
this scene from Casino?
The scene primarily shows management behavior associated with Theory X assumptions. Strong
control and direction are major features of management behavior on the gambling floor. The ex -
cheaters appear closer to some Theory Y assumptions than those of Theory X. They show self -
direction and self-control and likely have high commitment to identifying and catching cheaters.
3. How might the systems approach be applied to this managerial environment?
The behind-the-scenes workings of a casino can definitely be described as a system. Students

may disagree as to whether this is an open or a closed system, and in fact, as in most cases, it is
both. However, it is probably best described as relatively open because the internal system is
dependent on the gamblers who play at the casino. Also noteworthy is the amount of time that
both gamblers and casino managers spend in attempting to discern “the rules” that govern the
seemingly chaotic nature of any type of gambling.
BONUS LECTURE
The M.B.B.S. Syndrome

Shortly after Blanchard and Johnson’s first runaway best seller came out, a joke made the rounds among
management consultants.
“Have you heard about the man who studied the One Minute Manager and still got fired?”
“What happened?”
“He didn’t know what to do with the other 59 minutes.”
Recently another story has been circulating based on the constant push for quality in organizations today.
It tells of a CEO who walked into the office of the human resource director one morning and said simply,
“I want our company reengineered too,” and then walked out.
Both of these are examples of a concept referred to as M.B.B.S., Management by Best Seller. This
describes the tendency of some managers, and consequently some businesses, to jump on the bandwagon
of every new idea they run across and just as quickly discard it when it doesn’t work immediately and the
next new idea hits.
M.B.B.S. occurs at all levels of an organization but can have the most impact when initiated at the top.
This is because the people at the top have the authority and dollars to make their ideas a part of the
organization. In its most extreme form, M.B.B.S. can cause an organization to experience many sudden
shifts in direction and focus, leading to confusion and frustration at lower organizational levels. Even
when it appears at lower levels, too strong a focus on one approach to management can cause problems
with a manager’s career or subordinates.
This perspective is not meant to disparage new business ideas. They are generally quite useful and well-
thought-out and can prove to be a positive force when integrated properly into a company. The problem
occurs when executives choose to jump on the bandwagon of one new business or management concept
after another without fully understanding any of them. Here are some reasons for this pattern of behavior:
Weak or unfocused corporate culture and/or strategic focus. When the direction of an
organization is unclear, it is easier to be blown off course by the winds of each new idea.
An insecure or incompetent executive team. The team knows something is wrong but not how to
fix it. The members hope that the new idea will prove to be a panacea for their company.
Strong, unquestioning top-down control. This creates a situation in which a top executive can
become inspired by a new idea, and no one else in the organization will question the new focus,
even if it is inappropriate.
Consultants who recognize the market value of a new concept and present themselves as
experts despite limited experience or understanding. This can lead to spending a great deal of
money hiring people to do consulting or training that doesn’t work.
An unwillingness to spend the time and money or do the hard work that is needed. This refers
either to doing what is required to successfully implement the new idea or to solving the problems
that made the new idea look so appealing in the first place.
A short-term focus. This leads to top management’s constant search for a “quick fix.”
The main problem with this approach is also discussed in Chapter 2 of the text. No one concept or idea
can serve as a cure-all for every organization’s ills. New ideas have to be carefully evaluated for their
value in a specific situation before a decision is made to incorporate them into an organization. Managers
need to understand that even the best ideas require time, money, and effort to implement. Finally, it is
important not to throw out older ideas that have shown their value in favor of the “flavor of the month”
approach to business.
One major danger of this approach is that good ideas can be discarded because of hasty, unsuccessful
attempts to execute them. Another danger is the possibility that a company will ignore or cut back on
business basics because the firm’s time and money are jumping from one big idea to another
indiscriminately. The end result is an injustice to the new ideas as well as to the old.
To avoid this pattern, there are steps a company can take:
Build a strong focus and a clear mission. This applies both to direction and to the way of
achieving that direction within the company.
Develop a system for evaluating new business ideas. This may include a committee to determine
whether the idea will fit with the organization and a phased approach to implementation, involving
testing the new idea on a small department or division first.
Analyze failures. When a new business concept doesn’t work, the organization has to determine
whether the fault lies with itself or with the idea.
Work for balance in the organization. A focus on the new shouldn’t automatically include a
rejection of systems and ideas that have worked well in the past.
Don’t ignore the nuts and bolts of good management. Basics such as feedback, fairness, and
other elements of good management have to be continuously supported no matter what new ideas
develop.
M.B.B.S. does not have to be standard procedure. With the right kind of focus, managers can benefit from
every new business idea, adding the components that best match their needs and letting go of ideas that
may be glamorous but are ineffective or inappropriate for their organization.
BONUS PROJECT ASSIGNMENT

One of the challenges for management students is to identify credible sources for their
research. Although sites such as Wikipedia are fast and easy to access, the reality is that
anyone can publish anything they choose without the need for fact checking or referencing
valid, reliable data. In other words, everything you read on an opensource page should be
viewed with a level of skepticism. In contrast, there are many good resources available for
management scholars. Select a topic from this chapter and find an article from one of the
following publications to bring to class for discussion. The college library subscribes to many
of these publications and they are availabe in print and in a digital format online. Check with
the reference librarians for more information.
Management Literature Resources

These periodicals are good resources for management articles. Many libraries also have the Business
Periodicals Index, the Business Publications Index and Abstracts, and “online” listings of business
articles. Some of these publications are also partially or totally available online. However, if you access
them directly you may have to pay a fee. Try accessing them through the library databases first where the
articles are available to students for free.
Academy of Management Executive Journal of Business Research
Academy of Management Journal Journal of Business Strategy
Academy of Mgt. Learning and Education Journal of Contemporary Business
Academy of Management Review Journal of International Business Studies
Across the Board Journal of Management
Administrative Management Journal of Management Development
American Journal of Sociology Journal of Management Studies
Association Management Journal of Organizational Behavior
Barron’s Journal of Organizational Excellence
Black Enterprise Journal of Purchasing
The Bureaucrat Journal of Small Business Management
Business 2.0 Journal of Systems Management
Business Ethics Journal of World Business
Business Horizons Labor Law Journal
Business Month Long Range Planning
Business and Society Review Management Accounting
Business Week Management International Review
California Management Review Management Today
Canadian Business Management World
Cost and Management Managerial Planning
Decision Sciences MIT Sloan Management Review
Euro-Asia Business Review Monthly Labor Review
Executive Female National Business Woman
Fast Company Operations Research
Fortune Organizational Dynamics
Futurist Personnel
Group and Organization Management Personnel and Guidance Journal
Harvard Business Review Personnel Psychology
Hispanic Business Planning Review HR
Magazine Psychology Today Human
Relations Public Administration
Inc. Public Administration Review
Industrial & Labor Relations Review Public Personnel Management
Industrial Relations Quality Progress
Industry Week Risk Management
Information Week Strategic Management Journal
Information Technology Supervisory Management
Inside Supply Management Technology Review
International Management Training
Journal of Applied Behavioral Science Training and Development
Journal of Applied Psychology The Wall Street Journal
Journal of Business Communication Web Bound
Journal of Business Ethics Working Mother
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
that environment into which it has its outlet. My conception of my
spiritual environment is not to be compared with your scientific world
of pointer readings; it is an everyday world to be compared with the
material world of familiar experience. I claim it as no more real and
no less real than that. Primarily it is not a world to be analysed, but a
world to be lived in.
Granted that this takes us outside the sphere of exact knowledge,
and that it is difficult to imagine that anything corresponding to exact
science will ever be applicable to this part of our environment, the
mystic is unrepentant. Because we are unable to render exact
account of our environment it does not follow that it would be better
to pretend that we live in a vacuum.
If the defence may be considered to have held good against the
first onslaught, perhaps the next stage of the attack will be an easy
tolerance. “Very well. Have it your own way. It is a harmless sort of
belief—not like a more dogmatic theology. You want a sort of spiritual
playground for those queer tendencies in man’s nature, which
sometimes take possession of him. Run away and play then; but do
not bother the serious people who are making the world go round.”
The challenge now comes not from the scientific materialism which
professes to seek a natural explanation of spiritual power, but from
the deadlier moral materialism which despises it. Few deliberately
hold the philosophy that the forces of progress are related only to the
material side of our environment, but few can claim that they are not
more or less under its sway. We must not interrupt the “practical
men”, these busy moulders of history carrying us at ever-increasing
pace towards our destiny as an ant-heap of humanity infesting the
earth. But is it true in history that material forces have been the most
potent factors? Call it of God, of the Devil, fanaticism, unreason; but
do not underrate the power of the mystic. Mysticism may be fought
as error or believed as inspired, but it is no matter for easy tolerance
—
We are the music-makers

And we are the dreamers of dreams
Wandering by lone sea-breakers
And sitting by desolate streams;
World-losers and world-forsakers,

On whom the pale moon gleams:
Yet we are the movers and shakers
Of the world for ever, it seems.
Reality and Mysticism. But a defence before the scientists may not
be a defence to our own self-questionings. We are haunted by the
word reality. I have already tried to deal with the questions which
arise as to the meaning of reality; but it presses on us so persistently
that, at the risk of repetition, I must consider it once more from the
standpoint of religion. A compromise of illusion and reality may be all
very well in our attitude towards physical surroundings; but to admit
such a compromise into religion would seem to be a trifling with
sacred things. Reality seems to concern religious beliefs much more
than any others. No one bothers as to whether there is a reality
behind humour. The artist who tries to bring out the soul in his
picture does not really care whether and in what sense the soul can
be said to exist. Even the physicist is unconcerned as to whether
atoms or electrons really exist; he usually asserts that they do, but,
as we have seen, existence is there used in a domestic sense and
no inquiry is made as to whether it is more than a conventional term.
In most subjects (perhaps not excluding philosophy) it seems
sufficient to agree on the things that we shall call real, and
afterwards try to discover what we mean by the word. And so it
comes about that religion seems to be the one field of inquiry in
which the question of reality and existence is treated as of serious
and vital importance.
But it is difficult to see how such an inquiry can be profitable.
When Dr. Johnson felt himself getting tied up in argument over
“Bishop Berkeley’s ingenious sophistry to prove the non-existence of
matter, and that everything in the universe is merely ideal”, he
answered, “striking his foot with mighty force against a large stone,
till he rebounded from it,—‘I refute it thus’” Just what that action
assured him of is not very obvious; but apparently he found it
comforting. And to-day the matter-of-fact scientist feels the same
impulse to recoil from these flights of thought back to something
kickable, although he ought to be aware by this time that what
Rutherford has left us of the large stone is scarcely worth kicking.
There is still the tendency to use “reality” as a word of magic
comfort like the blessed word “Mesopotamia”. If I were to assert the
reality of the soul or of God, I should certainly not intend a
comparison with Johnson’s large stone—a patent illusion—or even
with the ′s and ′s of the quantum theory—an abstract symbolism.
Therefore I have no right to use the word in religion for the purpose
of borrowing on its behalf that comfortable feeling which (probably
wrongly) has become associated with stones and quantum co-
ordinates.
Scientific instincts warn me that any attempt to answer the
question “What is real?” in a broader sense than that adopted for
domestic purposes in science, is likely to lead to a floundering
among vain words and high-sounding epithets. We all know that
there are regions of the human spirit untrammelled by the world of
physics. In the mystic sense of the creation around us, in the
expression of art, in a yearning towards God, the soul grows upward
and finds the fulfilment of something implanted in its nature. The
sanction for this development is within us, a striving born with our
consciousness or an Inner Light proceeding from a greater power
than ours. Science can scarcely question this sanction, for the
pursuit of science springs from a striving which the mind is impelled
to follow, a questioning that will not be suppressed. Whether in the
intellectual pursuits of science or in the mystical pursuits of the spirit,
the light beckons ahead and the purpose surging in our nature
responds. Can we not leave it at that? Is it really necessary to drag
in the comfortable word “reality” to be administered like a pat on the
back?
The problem of the scientific world is part of a broader problem—
the problem of all experience. Experience may be regarded as a
combination of self and environment, it being part of the problem to
disentangle these two interacting components. Life, religion,
knowledge, truth are all involved in this problem, some relating to the
finding of ourselves, some to the finding of our environment from the
experience confronting us. All of us in our lives have to make
something of this problem; and it is an important condition that we
who have to solve the problem are ourselves part of the problem.
Looking at the very beginning, the initial fact is the feeling of purpose
in ourselves which urges us to embark on the problem. We are
meant to fulfil something by our lives. There are faculties with which
we are endowed, or which we ought to attain, which must find a
status and an outlet in the solution. It may seem arrogant that we
should in this way insist on moulding truth to our own nature; but it is
rather that the problem of truth can only spring from a desire for truth
which is in our nature.
A rainbow described in the symbolism of physics is a band of
aethereal vibrations arranged in systematic order of wave-length
from about .000040 cm. to .000072 cm. From one point of view we
are paltering with the truth whenever we admire the gorgeous bow of
colour, and should strive to reduce our minds to such a state that we
receive the same impression from the rainbow as from a table of
wave-lengths. But although that is how the rainbow impresses itself
on an impersonal spectroscope, we are not giving the whole truth
and significance of experience—the starting-point of the problem—if
we suppress the factors wherein we ourselves differ from a
spectroscope. We cannot say that the rainbow, as part of the world,
was meant to convey the vivid effects of colour; but we can perhaps
say that the human mind as part of the world was meant to perceive
it that way.
Significance and Values. When we think of the sparkling waves as

moved with laughter we are evidently attributing a significance to the
scene which was not there. The physical elements of the water—the
scurrying electric charges—were guiltless of any intention to convey
the impression that they were happy. But so also were they guiltless
of any intention to convey the impression of substance, of colour, or
of geometrical form of the waves. If they can be held to have had
any intention at all it was to satisfy certain differential equations—
and that was because they are the creatures of the mathematician
who has a partiality for differential equations. The physical no less
than the mystical significance of the scene is not there; it is here—in
the mind.
What we make of the world must be largely dependent on the
sense-organs that we happen to possess. How the world must have
changed since man came to rely on his eyes rather than his nose!
You are alone on the mountains wrapt in a great silence; but equip
yourself with an extra artificial sense-organ and, lo! the aether is
hideous with the blare of the Savoy bands. Or—
The isle is full of noises,

Sounds, and sweet airs, that give delight, and hurt not.
Sometimes a thousand twangling instruments
Will hum about mine ears; and sometimes voices.
So far as broader characteristics are concerned we see in Nature

what we look for or are equipped to look for. Of course, I do not
mean that we can arrange the details of the scene; but by the light
and shade of our values we can bring out things that shall have the
broad characteristics we esteem. In this sense the value placed on
permanence creates the world of apparent substance; in this sense,
perhaps, the God within creates the God in Nature. But no complete
view can be obtained so long as we separate our consciousness
from the world of which it is a part. We can only speak speculatively
of that which I have called the “background of the pointer readings”;
but it would at least seem plausible that if the values which give the
light and shade of the world are absolute they must belong to the
background, unrecognised in physics because they are not in the
pointer readings but recognised by consciousness which has its
roots in the background. I have no wish to put that forward as a
theory; it is only to emphasise that, limited as we are to a knowledge
of the physical world and its points of contact with the background in
isolated consciousness, we do not quite attain that thought of the
unity of the whole which is essential to a complete theory.
Presumably human nature has been specialised to a considerable
extent by the operation of natural selection; and it might well be
debated whether its valuation of permanence and other traits now
apparently fundamental are essential properties of consciousness or
have been evolved through interplay with the external world. In that
case the values given by mind to the external world have originally
come to it from the external world-stuff. Such a tossing to and fro of
values is, I think, not foreign to our view that the world-stuff behind
the pointer readings is of nature continuous with the mind.
In viewing the world in a practical way values for normal human
consciousness may be taken as standard. But the evident possibility
of arbitrariness in this valuation sets us hankering after a standard
that could be considered final and absolute. We have two
alternatives. Either there are no absolute values, so that the
sanctions of the inward monitor in our consciousness are the final
court of appeal beyond which it is idle to inquire. Or there are
absolute values; then we can only trust optimistically that our values
are some pale reflection of those of the Absolute Valuer, or that we
have insight into the mind of the Absolute from whence come those
strivings and sanctions whose authority we usually forbear to
question.
I have naturally tried to make the outlook reached in these
lectures as coherent as possible, but I should not be greatly
concerned if under the shafts of criticism it becomes very ragged.
Coherency goes with finality; and the anxious question is whether
our arguments have begun right rather than whether they have had
the good fortune to end right. The leading points which have seemed
to me to deserve philosophic consideration may be summarised as
follows:
(1) The symbolic nature of the entities of physics is generally
recognised; and the scheme of physics is now formulated in such a
way as to make it almost self-evident that it is a partial aspect of
something wider.
(2) Strict causality is abandoned in the material world. Our ideas
of the controlling laws are in process of reconstruction and it is not
possible to predict what kind of form they will ultimately take; but all
the indications are that strict causality has dropped out permanently.
This relieves the former necessity of supposing that mind is subject
to deterministic law or alternatively that it can suspend deterministic
law in the material world.
(3) Recognising that the physical world is entirely abstract and
without “actuality” apart from its linkage to consciousness, we restore
consciousness to the fundamental position instead of representing it
as an inessential complication occasionally found in the midst of
inorganic nature at a late stage of evolutionary history.
(4) The sanction for correlating a “real” physical world to certain
feelings of which we are conscious does not seem to differ in any
essential respect from the sanction for correlating a spiritual domain
to another side of our personality.
It is not suggested that there is anything new in this philosophy.
In particular the essence of the first point has been urged by many
writers, and has no doubt won individual assent from many scientists
before the recent revolutions of physical theory. But it places a
somewhat different complexion on the matter when this is not merely
a philosophic doctrine to which intellectual assent might be given,
but has become part of the scientific attitude of the day, illustrated in
detail in the current scheme of physics.
Conviction. Through fourteen chapters you have followed with me

the scientific approach to knowledge. I have given the philosophical
reflections as they have naturally arisen from the current scientific
conclusions, I hope without distorting them for theological ends. In
the present chapter the standpoint has no longer been
predominantly scientific; I started from that part of our experience
which is not within the scope of a scientific survey, or at least is such
that the methods of physical science would miss the significance that
we consider it essential to attribute to it. The starting-point of belief in
mystical religion is a conviction of significance or, as I have called it
earlier, the sanction of a striving in the consciousness. This must be
emphasised because appeal to intuitive conviction of this kind has
been the foundation of religion through all ages and I do not wish to
give the impression that we have now found something new and
more scientific to substitute. I repudiate the idea of proving the
distinctive beliefs of religion either from the data of physical science
or by the methods of physical science. Presupposing a mystical
religion based not on science but (rightly or wrongly) on a self-known
experience accepted as fundamental, we can proceed to discuss the
various criticisms which science might bring against it or the possible
conflict with scientific views of the nature of experience equally
originating from self-known data.
It is necessary to examine further the nature of the conviction
from which religion arises; otherwise we may seem to be
countenancing a blind rejection of reason as a guide to truth. There
is a hiatus in reasoning, we must admit; but it is scarcely to be
described as a rejection of reasoning. There is just the same hiatus
in reasoning about the physical world if we go back far enough. We
can only reason from data and the ultimate data must be given to us
by a non-reasoning process—a self-knowledge of that which is in our
consciousness. To make a start we must be aware of something. But
that is not sufficient; we must be convinced of the significance of that
awareness. We are bound to claim for human nature that, either of
itself or as inspired by a power beyond, it is capable of making
legitimate judgments of significance. Otherwise we cannot even
reach a physical world.[49]
Accordingly the conviction which we postulate is that certain
states of awareness in consciousness have at least equal
significance with those which are called sensations. It is perhaps not
irrelevant to note that time by its dual entry into our minds (p. 51) to
some extent bridges the gap between sense-impressions and these
other states of awareness. Amid the latter must be found the basis of
experience from which a spiritual religion arises. The conviction is
scarcely a matter to be argued about, it is dependent on the
forcefulness of the feeling of awareness.
But, it may be said, although we may have such a department of
consciousness, may we not have misunderstood altogether the
nature of that which we believe we are experiencing? That seems to
me to be rather beside the point. In regard to our experience of the
physical world we have very much misunderstood the meaning of
our sensations. It has been the task of science to discover that
things are very different from what they seem. But we do not pluck
out our eyes because they persist in deluding us with fanciful
colourings instead of giving us the plain truth about wave-length. It is
in the midst of such misrepresentations of environment (if you must
call them so) that we have to live. It is, however, a very one-sided
view of truth which can find in the glorious colouring of our
surroundings nothing but misrepresentation—which takes the
environment to be all important and the conscious spirit to be
inessential. In our scientific chapters we have seen how the mind
must be regarded as dictating the course of world-building; without it
there is but formless chaos. It is the aim of physical science, so far
as its scope extends, to lay bare the fundamental structure
underlying the world; but science has also to explain if it can, or else
humbly to accept, the fact that from this world have arisen minds
capable of transmuting the bare structure into the richness of our
experience. It is not misrepresentation but rather achievement—the
result perhaps of long ages of biological evolution—that we should
have fashioned a familiar world out of the crude basis. It is a
fulfilment of the purpose of man’s nature. If likewise the spiritual
world has been transmuted by a religious colour beyond anything
implied in its bare external qualities, it may be allowable to assert
with equal conviction that this is not misrepresentation but the
achievement of a divine element in man’s nature.
May I revert again to the analogy of theology with the supposed
science of humour which (after consultation with a classical
authority) I venture to christen “geloeology”. Analogy is not
convincing argument, but it must serve here. Consider the proverbial
Scotchman with strong leanings towards philosophy and incapable
of seeing a joke. There is no reason why he should not take high
honours in geloeology, and for example write an acute analysis of
the differences between British and American humour. His
comparison of our respective jokes would be particularly unbiased
and judicial, seeing that he is quite incapable of seeing the point of
either. But it would be useless to consider his views as to which was
following the right development; for that he would need a
sympathetic understanding—he would (in the phrase appropriate to
the other side of my analogy) need to be converted. The kind of help
and criticism given by the geloeologist and the philosophical
theologian is to secure that there is method in our madness. The
former may show that our hilarious reception of a speech is the
result of a satisfactory dinner and a good cigar rather than a subtle
perception of wit; the latter may show that the ecstatic mysticism of
the anchorite is the vagary of a fevered body and not a transcendent
revelation. But I do not think we should appeal to either of them to
discuss the reality of the sense with which we claim to be endowed,
nor the direction of its right development. That is a matter for our
inner sense of values which we all believe in to some extent, though
it may be a matter of dispute just how far it goes. If we have no such
sense then it would seem that not only religion, but the physical
world and all faith in reasoning totter in insecurity.
I have sometimes been asked whether science cannot now
furnish an argument which ought to convince any reasonable atheist.
I could no more ram religious conviction into an atheist than I could
ram a joke into the Scotchman. The only hope of “converting” the
latter is that through contact with merry-minded companions he may
begin to realise that he is missing something in life which is worth
attaining. Probably in the recesses of his solemn mind there exists
inhibited the seed of humour, awaiting an awakening by such an
impulse. The same advice would seem to apply to the propagation of
religion; it has, I believe, the merit of being entirely orthodox advice.
We cannot pretend to offer proofs. Proof is an idol before whom
the pure mathematician tortures himself. In physics we are generally
content to sacrifice before the lesser shrine of Plausibility. And even
the pure mathematician—that stern logician—reluctantly allows
himself some prejudgments; he is never quite convinced that the
scheme of mathematics is flawless, and mathematical logic has
undergone revolutions as profound as the revolutions of physical
theory. We are all alike stumblingly pursuing an ideal beyond our
reach. In science we sometimes have convictions as to the right
solution of a problem which we cherish but cannot justify; we are
influenced by some innate sense of the fitness of things. So too
there may come to us convictions in the spiritual sphere which our
nature bids us hold to. I have given an example of one such
conviction which is rarely if ever disputed—that surrender to the
mystic influence of a scene of natural beauty is right and proper for a
human spirit, although it would have been deemed an unpardonable
eccentricity in the “observer” contemplated in earlier chapters.
Religious conviction is often described in somewhat analogous terms
as a surrender; it is not to be enforced by argument on those who do
not feel its claim in their own nature.
I think it is inevitable that these convictions should emphasise a
personal aspect of what we are trying to grasp. We have to build the
spiritual world out of symbols taken from our own personality, as we
build the scientific world out of the metrical symbols of the
mathematician. If not, it can only be left ungraspable—an
environment dimly felt in moments of exaltation but lost to us in the
sordid routine of life. To turn it into more continuous channels we
must be able to approach the World-Spirit in the midst of our cares
and duties in that simpler relation of spirit to spirit in which all true
religion finds expression.
Mystical Religion. We have seen that the cyclic scheme of physics

presupposes a background outside the scope of its investigations. In
this background we must find, first, our own personality, and then
perhaps a greater personality. The idea of a universal Mind or Logos
would be, I think, a fairly plausible inference from the present state of
scientific theory; at least it is in harmony with it. But if so, all that our
inquiry justifies us in asserting is a purely colourless pantheism.
Science cannot tell whether the world-spirit is good or evil, and its
halting argument for the existence of a God might equally well be
turned into an argument for the existence of a Devil.
I think that that is an example of the limitation of physical
schemes that has troubled us before—namely, that in all such
schemes opposites are represented by + and -. Past and future,
cause and effect, are represented in this inadequate way. One of the
greatest puzzles of science is to discover why protons and electrons
are not simply the opposites of one another, although our whole
conception of electric charge requires that positive and negative
electricity should be related like + and -. The direction of time’s arrow
could only be determined by that incongruous mixture of theology
and statistics known as the second law of thermodynamics; or, to be
more explicit, the direction of the arrow could be determined by
statistical rules, but its significance as a governing fact “making
sense of the world” could only be deduced on teleological
assumptions. If physics cannot determine which way up its own
world ought to be regarded, there is not much hope of guidance from
it as to ethical orientation. We trust to some inward sense of fitness
when we orient the physical world with the future on top, and
likewise we must trust to some inner monitor when we orient the
spiritual world with the good on top.
Granted that physical science has limited its scope so as to leave
a background which we are at liberty to, or even invited to, fill with a
reality of spiritual import, we have yet to face the most difficult
criticism from science. “Here”, says science, “I have left a domain in
which I shall not interfere. I grant that you have some kind of avenue
to it through the self-knowledge of consciousness, so that it is not
necessarily a domain of pure agnosticism. But how are you going to
deal with this domain? Have you any system of inference from
mystic experience comparable to the system by which science
develops a knowledge of the outside world? I do not insist on your
employing my method, which I acknowledge is inapplicable; but you
ought to have some defensible method. The alleged basis of
experience may possibly be valid; but have I any reason to regard
the religious interpretation currently given to it as anything more than
muddle-headed romancing?”
The question is almost beyond my scope. I can only
acknowledge its pertinency. Although I have chosen the lightest task
by considering only mystical religion—and I have no impulse to
defend any other—I am not competent to give an answer which shall
be anything like complete. It is obvious that the insight of
consciousness, although the only avenue to what I have called
intimate knowledge of the reality behind the symbols of science, is
not to be trusted implicitly without control. In history religious
mysticism has often been associated with extravagances that cannot
be approved. I suppose too that oversensitiveness to aesthetic
influences may be a sign of a neurotic temperament unhealthy to the
individual. We must allow something for the pathological condition of
the brain in what appear to be moments of exalted insight. One
begins to fear that after all our faults have been detected and
removed there will not be any “us” left. But in the study of the
physical world we have ultimately to rely on our sense-organs,
although they are capable of betraying us by gross illusions; similarly
the avenue of consciousness into the spiritual world may be beset
with pitfalls, but that does not necessarily imply that no advance is
possible.
A point that must be insisted on is that religion or contact with
spiritual power if it has any general importance at all must be a
commonplace matter of ordinary life, and it should be treated as
such in any discussion. I hope that you have not interpreted my
references to mysticism as referring to abnormal experiences and
revelations. I am not qualified to discuss what evidential value (if
any) may be attached to the stranger forms of experience and
insight. But in any case to suppose that mystical religion is mainly
concerned with these is like supposing that Einstein’s theory is
mainly concerned with the perihelion of Mercury and a few other
exceptional observations. For a matter belonging to daily affairs the
tone of current discussions often seems quite inappropriately
pedantic.
As scientists we realise that colour is merely a question of the
wave-lengths of aethereal vibrations; but that does not seem to have
dispelled the feeling that eyes which reflect light near wave-length
4800 are a subject for rhapsody whilst those which reflect wave-
length 5300 are left unsung. We have not yet reached the practice of
the Laputans, who, “if they would, for example, praise the beauty of
a woman, or any other animal, they describe it by rhombs, circles,
parallelograms, ellipses, and other geometrical terms”. The
materialist who is convinced that all phenomena arise from electrons
and quanta and the like controlled by mathematical formulae, must
presumably hold the belief that his wife is a rather elaborate
differential equation; but he is probably tactful enough not to obtrude
this opinion in domestic life. If this kind of scientific dissection is felt
to be inadequate and irrelevant in ordinary personal relationships, it
is surely out of place in the most personal relationship of all—that of
the human soul to a divine spirit.
We are anxious for perfect truth, but it is hard to say in what form
perfect truth is to be found. I cannot quite believe that it has the form
typified by an inventory. Somehow as part of its perfection there
should be incorporated in it that which we esteem as a “sense of
proportion”. The physicist is not conscious of any disloyalty to truth
on occasions when his sense of proportion tells him to regard a
plank as continuous material, well knowing that it is “really” empty
space containing sparsely scattered electric charges. And the
deepest philosophical researches as to the nature of the Deity may
give a conception equally out of proportion for daily life; so that we
should rather employ a conception that was unfolded nearly two
thousand years ago.
I am standing on the threshold about to enter a room. It is a
complicated business. In the first place I must shove against an
atmosphere pressing with a force of fourteen pounds on every
square inch of my body. I must make sure of landing on a plank
travelling at twenty miles a second round the sun—a fraction of a
second too early or too late, the plank would be miles away. I must
do this whilst hanging from a round planet head outward into space,
and with a wind of aether blowing at no one knows how many miles
a second through every interstice of my body. The plank has no
solidity of substance. To step on it is like stepping on a swarm of
flies. Shall I not slip through? No, if I make the venture one of the
flies hits me and gives a boost up again; I fall again and am knocked
upwards by another fly; and so on. I may hope that the net result will
be that I remain about steady; but if unfortunately I should slip
through the floor or be boosted too violently up to the ceiling, the
occurrence would be, not a violation of the laws of Nature, but a rare
coincidence. These are some of the minor difficulties. I ought really
to look at the problem four-dimensionally as concerning the
intersection of my world-line with that of the plank. Then again it is
necessary to determine in which direction the entropy of the world is
increasing in order to make sure that my passage over the threshold
is an entrance, not an exit.
Verily, it is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle
than for a scientific man to pass through a door. And whether the
door be barn door or church door it might be wiser that he should
consent to be an ordinary man and walk in rather than wait till all the
difficulties involved in a really scientific ingress are resolved.
[49] We can of course solve the problem arising from certain data
without being convinced of the significance of the data—the
“official” scientific attitude as I have previously called it But a
physical world which has only the status of the solution of a
problem, arbitrarily chosen to pass an idle hour, is not what is
intended here.
CONCLUSION
A tide of indignation has been surging in the breast of the matter-of-
fact scientist and is about to be unloosed upon us. Let us broadly
survey the defence we can set up.
I suppose the most sweeping charge will be that I have been
talking what at the back of my mind I must know is only a well-
meaning kind of nonsense. I can assure you that there is a scientific
part of me that has often brought that criticism during some of the
later chapters. I will not say that I have been half-convinced, but at
least I have felt a homesickness for the paths of physical science
where there are more or less discernible handrails to keep us from
the worst morasses of foolishness. But however much I may have
felt inclined to tear up this part of the discussion and confine myself
to my proper profession of juggling with pointer readings, I find
myself holding to the main principles. Starting from aether, electrons
and other physical machinery we cannot reach conscious man and
render count of what is apprehended in his consciousness.
Conceivably we might reach a human machine interacting by
reflexes with its environment; but we cannot reach rational man
morally responsible to pursue the truth as to aether and electrons or
to religion. Perhaps it may seem unnecessarily portentous to invoke
the latest developments of the relativity and quantum theories merely
to tell you this; but that is scarcely the point. We have followed these
theories because they contain the conceptions of modern science;
and it is not a question of asserting a faith that science must
ultimately be reconcilable with an idealistic view, but of examining
how at the moment it actually stands in regard to it. I might sacrifice
the detailed arguments of the last four chapters (perhaps marred by
dialectic entanglement) if I could otherwise convey the significance
of the recent change which has overtaken scientific ideals. The
physicist now regards his own external world in a way which I can
only describe as more mystical, though not less exact and practical,
than that which prevailed some years ago, when it was taken for
granted that nothing could be true unless an engineer could make a
model of it. There was a time when the whole combination of self
and environment which makes up experience seemed likely to pass
under the dominion of a physics much more iron-bound than it is
now. That overweening phase, when it was almost necessary to ask
the permission of physics to call one’s soul one’s own, is past. The
change gives rise to thoughts which ought to be developed. Even if
we cannot attain to much clarity of constructive thought we can
discern that certain assumptions, expectations or fears are no longer
applicable.
Is it merely a well-meaning kind of nonsense for a physicist to
affirm this necessity for an outlook beyond physics? It is worse
nonsense to deny it. Or as that ardent relativist the Red Queen puts
it, “You call that nonsense, but I’ve heard nonsense compared with
which that would be as sensible as a dictionary”.
For if those who hold that there must be a physical basis for
everything hold that these mystical views are nonsense, we may ask
—What then is the physical basis of nonsense? The “problem of
nonsense” touches the scientist more nearly than any other moral
problem. He may regard the distinction of good and evil as too
remote to bother about; but the distinction of sense and nonsense, of
valid and invalid reasoning, must be accepted at the beginning of
every scientific inquiry. Therefore it may well be chosen for
examination as a test case.
If the brain contains a physical basis for the nonsense which it
thinks, this must be some kind of configuration of the entities of
physics—not precisely a chemical secretion, but not essentially
different from that kind of product. It is as though when my brain
says 7 times 8 are 56 its machinery is manufacturing sugar, but
when it says 7 times 8 are 65 the machinery has gone wrong and
produced chalk. But who says the machinery has gone wrong? As a
physical machine the brain has acted according to the unbreakable
laws of physics; so why stigmatise its action? This discrimination of
chemical products as good or evil has no parallel in chemistry. We
cannot assimilate laws of thought to natural laws; they are laws
which ought to be obeyed, not laws which must be obeyed; and the
physicist must accept laws of thought before he accepts natural law.
“Ought” takes us outside chemistry and physics. It concerns
something which wants or esteems sugar, not chalk, sense, not
nonsense. A physical machine cannot esteem or want anything;
whatever is fed into it it will chaw up according to the laws of its
physical machinery. That which in the physical world shadows the
nonsense in the mind affords no ground for its condemnation. In a
world of aether and electrons we might perhaps encounter
nonsense; we could not encounter damned nonsense.
The most plausible physical theory of correct reasoning would
probably run somewhat as follows. By reasoning we are sometimes
able to predict events afterwards confirmed by observation; the
mental processes follow a sequence ending in a conception which
anticipates a subsequent perception. We may call such a chain of
mental states “successful reasoning”—intended as a technical
classification without any moral implications involving the awkward
word “ought”. We can examine what are the common characteristics
of various pieces of successful reasoning. If we apply this analysis to
the mental aspects of the reasoning we obtain laws of logic; but
presumably the analysis could also be applied to the physical
constituents of the brain. It is not unlikely that a distinctive
characteristic would be found in the physical processes in the brain-
cells which accompany successful reasoning, and this would
constitute “the physical basis of success.”
But we do not use reasoning power solely to predict
observational events, and the question of success (as above
defined) does not always arise. Nevertheless if such reasoning were
accompanied by the product which I have called “the physical basis
of success” we should naturally assimilate it to successful reasoning.
And so if I persuade my materialist opponent to withdraw the
epithet “damned nonsense” as inconsistent with his own principles
he is still entitled to allege that my brain in evolving these ideas did
not contain the physical basis of success. As there is some danger
of our respective points of view becoming mixed up, I must make
clear my contention:
(a) If I thought like my opponent I should not worry about the
alleged absence of a physical basis of success in my reasoning,
since it is not obvious why this should be demanded when we are
not dealing with observational predictions.
(b) As I do not think like him, I am deeply perturbed by the
allegation; because I should consider it to be the outward sign that
the stronger epithet (which is not inconsistent with my principles) is
applicable.
I think that the “success” theory of reasoning will not be much
appreciated by the pure mathematician. For him reasoning is a
heaven-sent faculty to be enjoyed remote from the fuss of external
Nature. It is heresy to suggest that the status of his demonstrations
depends on the fact that a physicist now and then succeeds in
predicting results which accord with observation. Let the external
world behave as irrationally as it will, there will remain undisturbed a
corner of knowledge where he may happily hunt for the roots of the
Riemann-Zeta function. The “success” theory naturally justifies itself
to the physicist. He employs this type of activity of the brain because
it leads him to what he wants—a verifiable prediction as to the
external world—and for that reason he esteems it. Why should not
the theologian employ and esteem one of the mental processes of
unreason which leads to what he wants—an assurance of future
bliss, or a Hell to frighten us into better behaviour? Understand that I
do not encourage theologians to despise reason; my point is that
they might well do so if it had no better justification than the
“success” theory.
And so my own concern lest I should have been talking nonsense
ends in persuading me that I have to reckon with something that
could not possibly be found in the physical world.
Another charge launched against these lectures may be that of
admitting some degree of supernaturalism, which in the eyes of
many is the same thing as superstition. In so far as supernaturalism
is associated with the denial of strict causality (p. 309) I can only
answer that that is what the modern scientific development of the
quantum theory brings us to. But probably the more provocative part
of our scheme is the rôle allowed to mind and consciousness. Yet I
suppose that our adversary admits consciousness as a fact and he
is aware that but for knowledge by consciousness scientific
investigation could not begin. Does he regard consciousness as
supernatural? Then it is he who is admitting the supernatural. Or
does he regard it as part of Nature? So do we. We treat it in what
seems to be its obvious position as the avenue of approach to the
reality and significance of the world, as it is the avenue of approach
to all scientific knowledge of the world. Or does he regard
consciousness as something which unfortunately has to be admitted
but which it is scarcely polite to mention? Even so we humour him.
We have associated consciousness with a background untouched in
the physical survey of the world and have given the physicist a
domain where he can go round in cycles without ever encountering
anything to bring a blush to his cheek. Here a realm of natural law is
secured to him covering all that he has ever effectively occupied.
And indeed it has been quite as much the purpose of our discussion
to secure such a realm where scientific method may work
unhindered, as to deal with the nature of that part of our experience
which lies beyond it. This defence of scientific method may not be
superfluous. The accusation is often made that, by its neglect of
aspects of human experience evident to a wider culture, physical
science has been overtaken by a kind of madness leading it sadly
astray. It is part of our contention that there exists a wide field of
research for which the methods of physics suffice, into which the
introduction of these other aspects would be entirely mischievous.
A besetting temptation of the scientific apologist for religion is to
take some of its current expressions and after clearing away
crudities of thought (which must necessarily be associated with
anything adapted to the everyday needs of humanity) to water down
the meaning until little is left that could possibly be in opposition to
science or to anything else. If the revised interpretation had first
been presented no one would have raised vigorous criticism; on the
other hand no one would have been stirred to any great spiritual
enthusiasm. It is the less easy to steer clear of this temptation
because it is necessarily a question of degree. Clearly if we are to
extract from the tenets of a hundred different sects any coherent

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II. THE UNIVERSAL PROCESS APPROACH

III. THE OPERATIONAL APPROACH

W. Edwards Deming introduced concepts such as employee participation and continuous

WINDOW ON THE WORLD

IV. THE BEHAVIORAL APPROACH

ETHICS: Character, Courage and Values

C. Lessons from the Behavioral Approach

V. THE SYSTEMS APPROACH

C. New Directions in Systems Thinking

Lessons from the Systems Approach

Green Management: Toward Sustainability

VI. THE CONTINGENCY APPROACH

VII. THE ERA OF MANAGEMENT BY BEST SELLER: PROCEED WITH CAUTION

C. Putting What You Have Learned to Work

END OF CHAPTER FEATURES

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Mitchell Gold + Bob Williams

Kaoru Ishikawa who advocated quality by focusing on prevention. He also introduced

2. What responsibility should a company have to their employees’ quality of

will help managers to provide the appropriate level of challenge and

6. From an employee recruitment and retention perspective, what benefits,

7. One of the five overarching changes mentioned in chapter 1 was

CLOSING CASE: SIX GENERATIONS HAVE FINE TUNED GUITAR MAKER

ADDITIONAL DISCUSSION/ESSAY QUESTIONS

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE AND CONTEXT; MANAGEMENT

VIDEO CASE SYNOPSIS

VIDEO CASE DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTED

3. How might the systems approach be applied to this managerial environment?

The behind-the-scenes workings of a casino can definitely be described as a system. Students

The M.B.B.S. Syndrome

BONUS PROJECT ASSIGNMENT

Management Literature Resources

We are the music-makers

World-losers and world-forsakers,

Significance and Values. When we think of the sparkling waves as

The isle is full of noises,

So far as broader characteristics are concerned we see in Nature

Conviction. Through fourteen chapters you have followed with me

Mystical Religion. We have seen that the cyclic scheme of physics

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