Different types of cooling methods or cooling methodologies

employed for lithium-ion batteries

[1] H. Jouhara, “Investigation, development and experimental analyses of a heat pipe
based battery thermal management system,” International journal of thermofluids, vol. 1-
2, 100004, February 2020.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666202719300047.
Design: The module was made up of sixteen prismatic LTO cells, supplied by an industry-
leading cell supplier. The nominal cell capacity and voltage were 23 Ah and 2.3 V, respectively,
and the cells were arranged in a 16s1p configuration (one set of 16 cells in series), resulting in
a nominal module voltage of 36.8 V and a stored energy of 0.85 kWh. LTO cells were chosen
for this application because they are capable of high continuous charging rates (>4C) and long
cycle life (~10,000 cycles),
The module was mounted to the heat mat using L-shaped brackets, glued to the sides of the
module, and a series of studs that were welded along the length of the heat mat’s upper surface,
as shown in Fig. 2. To improve thermal contact between the base of the module and the heat
mat, a 1 mm thick sheet of Laird TflexTM HD300 thermal gap filler was sandwiched between
the two.
Testing of the battery modules and heat mats was conducted using Vantage Power’s in-
house battery testing bench, with the modules set up inside a 2 m x 1.5 m x 0.8 m test enclosure,
as shown in Figs. 3 and 4. The modules were supported by two 50 mm thick blocks of
polystyrene, to insulate the heat mat thermally from the base of the test enclosure. A schematic
of the test bench set-up is shown in Fig. 5. The test bench control, battery management and
data-logging were done using a National Instruments cRIO-9068 chassis, a selection of C-
series I/O modules and custom-developed LabView software. To charge and discharge the
module an EA-PS 8080-340 DC power supply and EA-EL 9080-400 electronic load were used,
both of which were controlled via converter component and could be operated in either power,
current or voltage modes, depending on the requirements of the test. The high-current
connection to the power-supply and load was via a custom-built contactor box, which also
contained an insulation measurement device (IMD) and a high-sensitivity current and voltage
measuring device (IVT). The heat mat condenser was cooled using either chilled water from a
Termotek P312 chiller unit, or R404a refrigerant from an Embraco UDNEK6213GK condenser
unit. The water temperature from the chiller could be set and the water flow rate read out via
an RS-232 connection to the cRIO controller. The water flow rate could only be manually
adjusted by means of a control valve on the top of chiller unit. For all the tests described here,
a water flow rate of 9.5 l/ min was used this was the maximum achievable by the Termotek
unit. The refrigeration condenser unit was modified to include a hotgas bypass, to enable better
control of the heat mat condenser cooling than by simply turning the refrigerant compressor on
and off. The hot-gas bypass was enabled and disabled via relays controlled by digital output
signals.
Results:
[2] J. Zhang, X. Wu, “Experimental and numerical studies on an efficient transient heat
transfer model for air-cooled battery thermal management systems,” journal of power
sources, vol. 490, 229539, 1 April 2021.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378775321000860.
Multiple battery thermal management technologies like air cooling, Liquid cooling,
Phase change material cooling are most popular technologies. But the most extensively used
method is air cooling, which is very cheap, light weight and easy to apply. Pesaran et al. [3]
found that parallel-ventilation systems achieved lower maximum temperature and smaller
temperature difference in battery pack than serial-ventilation ones.
In this paper, an efficient transient heat transfer model for parallel air-cooled BTMSs
with Z-type, U-type and I-type flows is developed. The flow resistance network model for the
BTMS with I-type flow is constructed by mathematical derivation Based on the energy
equations, a transient heat transfer model is derived for calculating the battery cell temperature
in BTMSs. Furthermore, we designed experiments to demonstrate the effectiveness of the
developed models. The widths of parallel channels and divergence/convergence ducts are
optimized according to the models to improve the performance of different parallel air-cooled
BTMSs.
Results:
 Temperature contours of various BTMSs (Q0 = 0.0075 m3 /s).

Comparison of transient heat transfer model results and experimental data.

[3] Zhiguo Tang, Zhijian Zhao, “Orthogonal Optimization of a Liquid Cooling Structure
with Straight Microtubes and Variable Heat Conduction Blocks for Battery Module,”
Journal of Energy Engineering Volume, vol. 148, Issue 3, Jun 2022.
https://ascelibrary.org/doi/full/10.1061/%28ASCE%29EY.1943-7897.0000840.

Physical Model
The liquid cooling battery module in which heat conduction blocks with different
contact areas are connected by straight micro tubes is shown in Fig.1(a). Two rows of batteries
are located on both sides of the heat conduction block, and each row has 12, 21700-typelithium-
ion cylindrical batteries with a rated capacity of 4.8 Ah each. The curvature radius of the four
concave surfaces of the heat conduction block is equal to the radius of the battery. The heat
con-duction block is placed in the gap between the adjacent four batteries and is in close contact
with part of the sidewalls of the four batteries. Five straight microtubes are located inside the
heat conduction blocks. Thus, the heat generated by the batteries is transferred sequentially to
the heat conduction blocks, the straight microtubes, and the liquid coolant in the tubes by
convection. The main structural parameters of the module are shown in Fig.1(b). The arc angle
of the concave surface and the height of the heat conduction block are α and h, respectively,
the diameter of the straight microtube is d, and the distance between two adjacent straight
microtubes is l.
 As shown in Fig.1(a), as the liquid coolant flows forward, it continuously absorbs the
heat from the batteries, causing the temperature of the liquid coolant to increase and the
temperature difference between the liquid coolant and the batteries to decrease. Thus, the heat
dissipation by the batteries gradually decreases in the coolant flow direction. In contrast, the
temperature of the batteries gradually increases, leading to a large temperature difference of
the batteries in the module. This study proposes to enhance the heat transfer of the batteries at
the end of the module by increasing the contact area between the batteries and the heat
conduction block in the flow direction of the liquid coolant to improve the temperature
uniformity of the batteries in the module.

[4] Yunhua Gana, LinfengHe, “A numerical study on the performance of a thermal

management system for a battery pack with cylindrical cells based on heat pipes,”
Applied thermal engineering, vol. 179 115740, October 2020.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1359431120332221.
Figure 1: shows the structure of the BTMS which contains 24 cells (Type: 18650), heat
pipes, aluminium sleeves and a cold plate. The surface of battery is covered with a 0.08 mm
PVC film. There are 4 rows of batteries arranged neatly along the Y direction, and each row
includes 6 cells and is covered by an aluminium sleeve. The battery spacing in X and Y
directions are 19 mm and 20.5 mm, respectively. As shown in Fig. 2(a), the heat pipe is bent as
L-shaped and its condenser section is flattened as D-shaped (6.7 mm in height) in order to fit
the system structure. In the condenser section, a D-shaped flattening method is adopted and
only one side of the heat pipe is flattened. So, the flat side of the heat pipe can be attached to
the cold plate. The length of heat pipe condenser section is D. Some geometric parameters of
the heat pipe are shown in Table 1. The evaporator section of heat pipe is placed vertically and
fits with the aluminium sleeve, while the condenser section is set horizontally and contacts the
cold plate with its flat surface. Each row of batteries is sandwiched by 6 heat pipes. The
aluminium sleeves are placed between batteries and heat pipes. Both the contact angle of the
aluminium sleeve with the heat pipe and the battery are 85.7°. The height of aluminium sleeve
is H, and the thickness of aluminium sleeve is 0.8 mm. The cross section of the cold plate is
shown as Fig. 2(b). The diameter of cooling channel is 7 mm and the center distance between
adjacent channels is 15 mm. Thermal grease is adopted to ensure components of the system
contact well with each other. When the battery pack is operating, the heat generated by cells
can be quickly transferred to the cold plate through heat pipes, and finally be taken away by
the cooling water.
[5] Gang Zhao, Xiaolin Wang, “Performance improvement of a novel Trapezoid Air-
Cooling Battery Thermal Management system for Electric Vehicles,” volume of
sustainability, Vol. 14, Issue 9. https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/14/9/4975.
To equalize the heat generations of each design, the cell quantities of the trapezoid and
rectangular design are both 42. The trapezoid battery pack is shown in Figure 1a. he pack
includes two rows of seven cells on one side, three rows of six cells in the middle, and two
rows of five cells on the other side. In comparison, the conventional rectangular battery pack
is shown in Figure 1b. The cell centre distance can be variable from 22 to 36 mm (cell surface
distance from 1 to 15 mm) for the air-cooling BTMS of the cylindrical cells. From the previous
research, the smaller distance usually increases the friction losses along the air channel at the
same volumetric flow rate due to a higher air velocity, indicating a higher energy consumption
[38]. The larger distance could not provide sufficient cooling performance due to low air
velocity at the same air flow rate although it consumes less energy [3]. This research aims to
balance the cooling performance and energy consumption and selects the medium value of 30
mm following some published air-cooling BTMS studies [39,40,41]. The vertical distance
between the cell centres of two staggered columns in the trapezoid design is 15 mm, which is
also the unified vertical distance between staggered columns in all derivative trapezoid designs
in this research.

Figure 1. Battery pack layouts and dimensions: (a) Novel trapezoid design; (b) Conventional
rectangular design.
Figure 3. Model validation: (a) Reference experimental set up (Ref. [38]); (b) 3D validation
model in this research.

Figure 4. Validation results: (a) Temperature contours and air velocity streamlines at 4 m/s 20
°C inlet air during 0.5 C discharging; (b) Comparison between the experimental data in Ref.
[38] and the validation results in this research.
Results give best in trapezoidal air cooling

[6] Haitao Wang, Tao Tao, “Cooling capacity of a novel modular liquid-cooled battery
thermal management system for cylindrical lithium-ion batteries,” Applied Thermal
Engineering, Vol.178, 115599, September 2020.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1359431120330738.
 The 3D model of the battery module was established and meshed by using ANSYS
software package. Fig. 5 showed the water flow direction and location of cells in the
numerical calculation domain. The mesh configurations of spatial discretization were shown
in Fig. 6. It can be seen that structured grid is adopt for the battery cell with unstructured grid
discretizing the other complex geometries such as cooling channels, contact surfaces and so
on.

(b) Parallel cooling

The experimental system includes a battery charging and discharging equipment, a
battery module, the cooling system (low-constant temperature cooling tank, a pump and seven
flowmeters), the temperature acquisition instrument (K-type thermocouples with errors less
than 0.5℃), as shown in Fig. 8 and Fig. 9. Twenty 18650 Li-ion cylindrical cells with the rated
capacity of 2.2Ah are used in the experimental study. Twenty thermocouples are located in the
middle of the contact surfaces between the cells and the cooling module. Water is fed into the
cooling module by a water pump (20-110 ml/min), and the flow rate of each branch is adjusted
by a rotor flowmeter (10-150 ml/min).
Results:
[7] Rui Huang, Zhi Li, Wenhua Hong, Qichao Wu, “Experimental and numerical study
of PCM thermophysical parameters on lithium-ion battery thermal management”,
energy reports, Vol.6, Supplement 7, December 2020, Page 8-19.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352484719303592.

A battery pack with twenty-five 18650 Li-ion cell units is studied, which is shown in
Fig. 1. The cell units are in aligned layout and packed by PCM. The space between the adjacent
cell unit is 10 mm. Therefore, the mathematical model includes two parts: PCM and LIB. For
PCM, the enthalpy method is applied to solve the heat transfer and phase change process.
 In order to produce the heat generation model, the internal resistance of unit cell has
been experimentally tested. Besides, the composite PCM of paraffin/expanded graphene is
prepared and its thermophysical properties are tested considering the low thermal conductivity
of pure paraffin.
Results:
[8] Wen Yang, Fei, “Zhou Thermal performance of cylindrical lithium-ion battery thermal
management system integrated with mini-channel liquid cooling and air cooling,” Applied
Thermal Engineering, Vol.175, 115331, 5 July 2020.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1359431120300958.
 shows the schematic of composite cooling system for cylindrical battery module. It is
clear that the cooling fan is placed on the front side of battery module. The air coolant flows
through uniform flow orifice, stagger-arranged LIBs, and porous wall successively. Water
coolant flow into the battery module through water inlet, and then distributes uniformly in the
battery module through cooling tube after double diversion, eventually flow out through water
outlet. Cooling tubes are made into wavy shapes with the same radius as that of cell for large
heat transfer area, and the connective angle of battery and tube is 90°. Ten cells are placed in a
row along cooling tubes, and the distance between each cell is 23 mm. In order to reinforce the
strength of battery module and prevent the diffusion of coolant leakage, as seen in Fig. 1b,
partition sheets made of polyethylene are used to separate cells. As seen in Fig. 1c, several
cooling tubes are placed on the cell surface along the direction of z. When the tube space is
equal, the space between cooling tube and two poles of cell is half of the distance of each
cooling tubes. As seen in Fig. 1d, the section size of cooling tube is 2 mm × 4 mm, and several
mini-channels are uniformly arranged along the central line of tube. The diameter of mini-
channel is 1 mm, and the cross section of cooling tubes with 1, 2, or 3 mini-channels
respectively. Heat generated in cells is taken away by water coolant flowing through mini-
channels. The spacer made of aluminium or neoprene is pasted on the contact zone between
the cell and the cooling tube in order to control the heat transfer between them. The aluminium
sheet and neoprene sheet are selected as spacer to build different cases, and their thermos-
physical
Temperature measurement of single battery and battery module
In order to measure the heat generation of the real cell, the 18,650Li-ion battery
(Li[Ni0.5Co0.2Mn0.3] O2/C, capacity: 2.0 Ah) is selected, and its thermos-physical properties
are listed in Table 1. The ambient temperature of test chamber (GP/T-50, GUANGPIN TEST
EQUIPMENT Co., Ltd.) is 298.15 K, and the temperature measurement of single cell is carried
out in our previous work [7]. As shown in Fig. 2a, three K-type thermocouples are located at
near positive electrode, middle and near negative electrode of cell respectively, and then the
temperature at three points are monitored. Besides, the battery module composing of four cells
and cooled by four cooling tubes with two mini-channels is selected as shown in Fig. 2b. After
that, the K-type thermocouples at the middle of cell are arranged, and then the temperature of
battery module are measured.
Results: more the flow rate more the cooling is obtained.

[9] Haikuo Zhou, Chaohua Dai, “Experimental investigation of battery thermal management
and safety with heat pipe and immersion phase change liquid,” journal of power sources,
Vol.473, 228545, 15 October 2020.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378775320308491.

The schematic of the proposed BTMS is depicted in Fig. 1, comprising a battery

sequence, immersion PCL, and HP radiator. The grid-type porous mats (XINUE Ltd, China;
material: polyurethane; porosity: 45 pores per inch, approximately 97% pore volume ratio;
thickness: 3 mm) were sandwiched between each pouch cell of the module— providing liquid
circulation or boiling channels and absorbing energy from external shocks. The HP radiator
acts as a heat exchanger installed between the battery module and environment, transferring
heat from the liquid or gaseous coolant to the external environment. The HP radiator consisted
of aluminium fins and a series of single HPs. The battery module was heavily sealed in a casing
(TONGFU Ltd, China; material: aluminium magnesium alloy, size: 355 × 250 × 180 mm3,
thickness: 3.0 mm, designed service pressure and vapours venting standard ˂ 1.5 atm.)., and
each battery cell was immersed in an insulated, flame retardant, and material-compatible liquid.
Hence, compared to traditional air- and liquid-cooled BTMSs, the above properties of PCL
enable the proposed solution to have better protection against thermal abuse, and insulation
failure induced by coolant leakage. During operation, the different components of the BTMS
act as heat transfer agents. The proposed BTMS mechanism can be described in terms of three
processes—I, II, and III, as shown in Fig. 1, which are explained in detail below.
Process I: fluid–solid coupling and boiling heat transfer.
As described in Fig. 1, PCL is in direct contact with the battery surface, absorbing the
heat generated by the battery. First, this effect is manifested mainly as natural convection, and
the heat generated by the batteries is stored as sensible heat until the surface temperature of the
batteries is equal to that corresponding to the PCL boiling point. When the surface temperature
of the batteries exceeds the boiling point, the boiling heat transfer plays a vital role, and the
heat from the batteries is stored as latent heat.
Process II: Thermal conduction and phase transition.
Similar to the working fluid of HP, gaseous PCL condenses and reflows during the heat
transfer cycle. This can be found in the supplementary video. The volume of liquid PCL does
not change at equilibrium. The evaporator section of HP absorbs the heat transferred by PCL,
thereby creating a pressure gradient. Owing to the pressure difference inside HP, the vaporized
working fluid flows towards the condenser section and releases the latent heat to the outside of
HP.
Process III: Thermal conduction and convection.
The latent heat released by the working fluid of HP in process II is transferred to the fins, and
the heat generated by the battery pack is released outside the module via convective heat
transfer. As an intermediary, the heat transfer capacity of condensation or evaporation exceeds
dramatically that of convection between fins and air. Consequently, based on the lumped
analysis, the heat flow capacity of process III was designed to exceed the heat flow of batteries
to ensure the volume balance of PCL. Given the favourable characteristics of boiling heat
transfer and heat pipe, an energy-saving cooling effect can be realized via forced convection
driven by vehicular movement.
Experimental setup
Li(Ni0.6Mn0.2Co0.2)O2/graphite pouch cells manufactured by LG Chem Ltd were used in
this study. Fourteen cells were connected in series to form a lab-scale HP–PCL module and a
forced air cooling (FAC) module, as shown in Fig. 2(a) and (c), respectively, which were used
for comparative evaluation. As illustrated in Fig. 2(b), three measuring planes located at the
second, seventh, and thirteenth cells were selected to measure and describe the temperature
distribution of the battery module accurately. Each measuring plane comprised six temperature
points. Eighteen points were defined to monitor the battery module temperature. Fig. 2(d)
depicts a few major devices used in this study, which are KT800 recorder, NEWARE BTS60V
200A, temperature chamber, PWM fan, axial fan, and T-type thermocouple, etc. Furthermore,
Fig. 2(e) depicts the internal resistances of battery cell under different SOCs, which are used
to design BTMS parameters.

[10] Wei Li, Xiongbin Peng, “Multi‐objective design optimization for mini‐channel cooling
battery thermal management system in an electric vehicle,” International Journal of Energy
Research, Vol.43, Issue 8, 25 June 2019, pp-3368-3680.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/er.4518.
The schematic diagram of the liquid‐based cooling system is illustrated in Figure 1. A battery
module has five battery cells and four cold plates. Each cold plate is sandwiched between two
battery cells. The heat generated from the battery transfers into the contact surface of the cold
plate. Then heat is taken away by the liquid in the mini‐channel. Figure 1B27 elaborates the
structure of an individual battery cell. The battery cell is rectangular. The cold plate is made of
aluminum by three‐dimensional (3D) printing since the size of mini‐channel is too small, so
the cold plate cannot be obtained by traditional machining methods. Water is utilized as coolant
since it is easy to obtain in actual operation. Some necessary thermo‐ physical parameters of
the cold plate, water, and battery used in this work are given as shown in Table 1. ρ, Cp, k, and
μ represent density, heat capacity, thermal conductivity, and viscosity, respectively.
 methodology that is used for facilitating the optimization of the liquid cooling system.
The proposed methodology is mainly divided into four parts: the design of the liquid cooling
system and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis, the design of experiments (DoE)
and surrogate models, formulation of optimization model, and multi‐objective optimization for
selection of the optimum scheme of the liquid cooling system.

[11] Maan Al-Zareer, “Novel thermal management system using boiling cooling for high
powered lithium-ion battery packs for hybrid electric vehicles,” Journal of Power Sources, Vol.
363, (2017) pp. 291-303
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S097308262030257X.
The main components of the HEVs are the fuel tank, battery pack, battery thermal
management system, combustion engine with an electric generator, electric motor, and AC to
DC converter. Fig. 1 shows a schematic diagram of the HEVs in which the proposed battery
thermal management system is to be used. The liquid propane which is the fossil fuel part of
the HEV is used first for cooling then for combustion to produce electrical power that either
charges the batteries or drives the vehicle. The propane tank helps to maintain the specified
propane height in the battery pack to ensure the continuous availability of the cooling effect.
The evaporated propane, which becomes slightly superheated, passes to a collection tank-
pressure regulator as shown in Fig. 1. When the propane reaches a specified pressure that is
compatible with the vapor propane injector in the combustion engine, it flows to the engine,
which produces electrical energy with the help of the electric generator. The produced electrical
energy from the propane vapor combustion engine is used either to drive the vehicle through
the electrical motor or to charge the batteries. Note that the propane is injected to the
combustion chamber in the form of slightly superheated vapor, which provides an advantage
over the conversion of fossil fuels to electrical energy by increasing the overall efficiency of
the combustion process based on the Rowley invention. Rowley proposed and analyzed
experimentally injecting fuel in the vapor phase to fuel injection engines He determined that
feeding the engine gasoline vapor or propane vapor can increase the engine efficiency from
12.8 to 18.3 km per litter of fuel (30-43 miles per gallon of fuel).
In HEVs the batteries are grouped in battery packs. Fig. 2(a) shows the schematic
diagram of the propane based thermal management system proposed in this paper. The
cylindrical batteries are arranged in an array format where part of the cylindrical batteries are
submerged in the liquid propane. The thermal energy generated by the cells is transferred to
the propane, which cools the batteries in the pack. The thermal energy generated by the cells is
removed by the surrounding propane in two heat transfer modes. The first mode involves
boiling the liquid propane, where the level of the propane in the battery pack is maintained by
the propane tank in the HEV. The propane in the vapor phase, which results from boiling of the
liquid propane produces an upward flow due to the buoyancy force and the pressure difference
made by the propane injectors, which inject the vapor propane into the combustion chambers
of the electrical generator in the HEV. Before the propane injectors there is a regulator tank that
stores the propane vapor before sending it to the injectors. The upward flow of the vapor
propane in the battery pack cools the reaming part of the batteries that are not submerged in the
liquid propane. There are a total of nine batteries in the battery pack considered in this paper.
Fig. 2(b) gives the dimensions of the battery pack and the Li-ion batteries, where the
batteries are separated by a distance equal to the battery radius and the surrounding walls of
the battery pack are one radius away from the surface of the outer batteries in the pack. The
cylindrical 18650 lithium-ion battery shown in Fig. 2(b) consists of a cylindrical rod in the
center of the battery around which the sheets of electrodes and the electrolytes are wrapped to
form the battery active material. The active battery material is covered by a steel canister of
0.25 mm thickness, and the connecter to the positive terminal of battery is 3 mm high and 3
mm in radius. The structure of the active material layers is presented in Fig. 3(a) and
information on the chemistry and dimensions of the electrodes is provided in Table 2.
Only half of a single battery with its surrounding is considered due to the selection of
symmetric boundary conditions as shown in Fig. 2(b) and Fig. 3. The flow derives from boiling
the liquid propane and the propane vapor rises due to two forces: buoyancy and the pressure
difference. Due to the vertical motion of the propane vapor, all the batteries in the pack are
expected to have the same temperature distribution. Liquid and vapor propane thermophysical
properties are a function of temperature and they are available in COMSOL library. Further
descriptions of Fig. 3, including the selection of the boundary conditions and the working
principle, are presented next in the next section, which describes the numerical model.
[12] Amirhosein Sarchami, “Experimental study of thermal management system for cylindrical
Li-ion battery pack based on nanofluid cooling and copper sheath,” international journal of
thermal sciences, Vol. 171, 107244, January 2022.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1290072921004051.
(a) indicates the diagram of the liquid cooling system used in the 18650 Li-ion battery pack.
The pack includes four sub domains which are six 18650-type LIBs, wavy channel, stair
channel, and copper sheath. First, the commercial 18650-type LIB (model number N18650CL,
weighing 47.0 g with an internal resistance smaller than 35 mΩ) was selected for this study.
This includes a NCA (nickel-cobaltaluminium) cathode. The 18650-type LIBs were tested with
a capacity of 3.0 Ah. The battery included a foil made of copper used as an anode current
collector, an anode electrode with graphite, a separator, a nickel-cobalt-manganese cathode
electrode (Ni–Co–Mn), and a foil made of aluminium used as a cathode current collector; a
cylindrical shape was made from the frame. The separator, anode and cathode electrode had a
porous nature. The holes in them were then filled with electrolytes. The physical characteristics
of the LIBs are listed in Table 1. Six LIBs are positioned in a staggered arrangement and they
are in a copper mould. Also, the copper plate was placed at the top of the batteries. The copper
mould around the batteries aims to transfer the heat generated by the lateral surfaces of the
LIBs to the wavy channel. Also, the copper plate at the top of the batteries is put due to the
transfer of the heat generated by the upper surfaces of the LIBs to the stair channel. To properly
regulate the cooling operation, the space between the LIBs and Channels was filled with
materials with suitable conduction properties. Also, the stair channel is situated at the topmost
of the pack to absorb the heat generated from the batteries. Water flows inside the battery pack
and then circulates using the wavy channel and stair channel. Nanofluid or water coolants flow
distribute through channels after multiple diversion, finally, flow out through the water outlet.
Therefore, the liquid cooling system cools down the battery cells indirectly and there is neither
any contact between the coolant and the cells nor any leakage to cause a short circuit. Fig. 1
(b) and (c) indicates the two-dimensional CFD models of wavy and stair channels, respectively.
The wavy and stair channels are made of aluminium.
Fig. 1 (b) and (c), the diameter of mini-channels are 5 mm, and the hydraulic diameter
of inlets and outlets for both channels were selected 4 mm. As exhibited in Fig. 1 (c), in the
stair channel, the height and width of the stairs are 2 and 5 mm, respectively. The structures of
the beginning of the channels were designed to develop the fluid flow throughout the channels.
The copper mould thickness was chosen 1 mm and the height of them were same as LIBs. The
copper plate dimensions are 43 mm × 70 mm, and the plate thickness is 1 mm. The copper
sheath mentioned above were used owing to their high thermal conductivity.