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the mixture, giving a uniform appearance to the eye. A heterogeneous mixture contains distinct, observable,
individual components. Solids have a definite volume and a highly ordered arrangement where the particles
are close together, liquids also have a definite volume but have a disordered arrangement of particles that are
close together, and gases have disordered particles that fill the volume of the container and are far apart from
each other.
Solve
(a) Because all the atoms are of the same type, Figure P1.2(a) depicts a pure element. The particles take up a
definite volume and are ordered, so this element is in the solid phase.
1
2 | Chapter 1 Particles of Matter: Measurement and the Tools of Science | 2
(b) Because there is a mixture of blue diatomic molecules and red diatomic molecules, Figure P1.2(b)
depicts a mixture of two elements. Both the blue and red diatomic particles fill the volume of the container
and are highly disordered; the mixture depicted is in the gas phase, and the mixture is homogeneous.
Think About It
Elements do not need to be present as single atoms. They may be diatomic, as in H2 or Br2, or even more
highly associated, as in S8 or P4.
1.3. Collect and Organize

In this question we are to consider whether the reactants as depicted undergo a chemical reaction or a phase
change.
Analyze
Chemical reactions involve the breaking and making of bonds in which atoms are combined differently in the
products than in the reactants. In considering a possible phase change, solids have a definite volume and a
highly ordered arrangement where the particles are close together, liquids also have a definite volume but
have a disordered arrangement of particles that are close together, and gases have disordered particles that fill
the volume of the container and are far apart from each other. It may help to visualize each scenario, as
shown below:
Solve
In Figure P1.3 two pure elements (red–red and blue–blue) in the gas phase recombine to form a compound
(red–blue) in the solid phase (ordered array of molecules). Therefore, answer (b) describes the reaction
shown.
Think About It
A phase change does not necessarily accompany a chemical reaction. We will learn later that the polarity of
the product will determine whether or not a substance will be in the solid, liquid, or gaseous state at a given
temperature.

In this question we are to consider whether the reactants as depicted undergo a chemical reaction (either
recombination or decomposition) or a phase change.
Analyze
Chemical reactions involve the breaking and making of bonds in which atoms are combined differently in the
products than in the reactants. In considering a possible phase change, solids have a definite volume and a
highly ordered arrangement where the particles are close together, liquids also have a definite volume but
have a disordered arrangement of particles that are close together, and gases have disordered particles that fill
the volume of the container and are far apart from each other.
Solve
In Figure P1.4 we see that no recombination of the diatomic molecules occurs. The pure element (red–red)
condenses to a slightly disordered phase, while the other element (blue–blue) remains in the gas phase.
Therefore, answer (a) describes the reaction pictured.
Think About It
Cooling of air in this fashion to different temperatures separates the components of air.

From the space-filling model shown, we are to write the formula for the chemical represented.
Analyze
Based on the Atomic Color Palette (see the inside back cover of the textbook), we see that this model
contains one hydrogen atom bonded to a carbon atom that is bonded to an oxygen atom and to an O–H unit.
Solve
HC(O)OH or CH2O2
Think About It
This model represents formic acid, and the presence of the C(O)OH unit classifies it as a carboxylic acid.

From the ball-and-stick model of isopropanol shown, we are to write the chemical formula.
Analyze
Based on the Atomic Color Palette on the inside back cover of the textbook, we see that this model contains
two CH3 units bonded to a central C atom with both an H atom and OH unit.
Solve
H3CCH(OH)CH3 or C3H8O
Think About It
This model represents isopropanol, and the presence of the O–H unit classifies it as an alcohol. Sometimes
isopropanol is called “rubbing alcohol.”

This question asks us to consider two sets of data and determine whether each set is precise or accurate.
Analyze
Accuracy described how close the measured value is to the true value. In this case, each pill should weigh
3.25 mg, so the masses must be near this value to be accurate. Precision describes how consistent repeated
measurements are with one another.
Solve
Sample A is both accurate and precise. The average of the four masses is near 3.25 mg, and the values appear
fairly close to one another. Sample B is precise but not accurate. While the data points are quite similar to
one another, the average value is closer to 3.10 mg than 3.25 mg.
Think About It
Accuracy and precision can be somewhat difficult to evaluate without a statistical analysis of the data. In
Section 1.10, we discuss how the mean, standard deviation, and confidence intervals can be used to
determine if a true value is near our actual data and how similar data points are to one another.

In this question, we are asked to examine nine depictions of compounds, elements, and chemical reactions
and answer questions about each.
Analyze
A and H are ball-and-stick models, while B, D, and I are space-filling models, and F is a structural formula.
C, E, and G are equations with included depictions of the transformation in the real world. Bonds are broken
or formed as a chemical reaction proceeds, while a physical process involves a change of phase but no
breaking or formation of chemical bonds. Compounds are made from elements and have different types of
atoms in them. Elements are composed of atoms that are all the same.
Solve
(a) C is the only chemical reaction depicted. In this reaction, hydrogen peroxide decomposes to form water
and oxygen gas.
(b) After consulting the Atomic Color Palette on the inside back cover of the textbook, we see that B
contains a central N atom bound to three H atoms, with the molecular formula NH3. The same molecular
formula is depicted in F.
(c) E and G are depictions of physical processes. E depicts the vaporization of N2, the transformation from
the liquid to the gas phase. G depicts the sublimation of I2, the transformation from the solid to the
gas phase.
(d) The pure elements depicted are A (P4, phosphorus), E (N2, nitrogen), G (I2, iodine) and I (O2, oxygen).
(e) The ball-and-stick depiction in H contains three colored spheres, corresponding to hydrogen (white),
carbon (black), and oxygen (red). The molecular formula for this compound is HC(O)H, or CH2O.
(f ) From the molecular formula provided in D (C5H12), we can tell that this molecule contains 17 atoms,
more than any other molecule depicted.
Think About It
C5H12 depicted in D is pentane, a hydrocarbon. The term hydrocarbon is used to describe molecules
containing only the elements hydrogen and carbon.

In this question, we consider how elements and compounds compare.
Analyze
Compounds are made from elements and have different types of atoms in them. Elements are composed of
atoms that are all the same.
Solve
Compounds are different from elements in that they are made up of two or more elements, these elements can
be separated from each other (but elements cannot be separated further), and compounds have chemical and
physical properties different from the elements that compose them. Compounds are commonly found in nature,
but elements rarely are. Compounds are similar to elements in that they are composed of atoms, have definite
physical and chemical properties, and can be isolated in pure form.
Think About It
By combining the different elements with each other, we can arrive at many, many compounds that are used
as fuels, medicines, plastics, and so on.

For this question we are asked to consider what is contained in the space between gas particles.
Analyze
Gases contain individual particles separated by large distances, relative to the size of the particle. All of the
mass of the gas is contained in the particles, so no matter can exist in the space between these particles.
Solve
The space between particles is a gas that contains no matter, so there is only empty space present.
Think About It
If a sample of gas is compressed to a smaller volume, its mass should remain constant. This supports our
claim that the space between gas particles has no mass, and so contains no matter.

This question asks us to determine in which phase of matter particles are able to move the most and in which
phase of matter particles are able to move the least.
Analyze
In general, the closer particles are to one another, the stronger the forces holding them together. Particles that
are held together more tightly move less. A visual inspection of Figure 1.12 allows us to estimate the forces
holding water particles together.
Solve
Particles are most free to move about in the gas phase. Particles in the solid phase have strong attractive
forces between particles, making this the phase in which particles have the least motion.
Think About It
Although liquid particles can be quite close to one another, they are not locked into a regular array (in many
solids this is called a crystalline lattice). Liquids are fluid (they can be poured) because individual particles
may move past one another.

We are to identify the gas contained within bubbles in a pot of boiling water.
Analyze
Few or no bubbles are present in a pot of water before heat is applied. This is a clue that the bubbles are
formed from the water itself. When heated sufficiently, liquid water evaporates to form steam, the gaseous
form of water.
Solve
The bubbles in a pot of boiling water are water vapor.
Think About It
Though small amounts of gases such as oxygen and nitrogen may be present in tap water, there is not nearly
enough to form all the bubbles that are observed when water boils.

We are asked to suggest how a small quantity of snow could disappear without melting.
Analyze
Snow is crystalline water in the solid phase. Solids may undergo a phase change to form a liquid (called
melting) or a gas (called sublimation).
Solve
The snow sublimed to form water vapor.
Think About It
Direct sublimation of water ice to water vapor happens all the time in your freezer. “Freezer-burned” food
items have dried out by losing water in the same manner as the snow in this problem.

For the substances listed, we are to determine which are homogeneous.
Analyze
Homogeneous mixtures have the same composition throughout.
Solve
The gold wedding ring, sweat, bottled drinking water, and compressed air in a scuba tank (a, b, c, and e) are
homogeneous. Human blood (d) is a heterogeneous mixture.
Think About It
A gold wedding ring is made up of an alloy (a solid solution of one metal dissolved in another) of gold with
another metal such as palladium or copper to give the soft gold metal strength and make it less expensive
than 100% gold. Human blood is a mixture containing plasma, platelets, and red blood cells, among other
components.

From the list of properties of sodium, we are to determine which are physical and which are chemical
properties.
Analyze
Physical properties are those that can be observed without transforming the substance into another substance.
Chemical properties are only observed when one substance reacts with another and therefore is transformed
into another substance.
Solve
Density, melting point, thermal and electrical conductivity, and softness (a–d) are all physical properties,
whereas tarnishing and reaction with water (e, f ) are both chemical properties.
Think About It
Because the density of sodium is less than that of water, a piece of sodium will float on water as it reacts.

From the list of properties of hydrogen gas, we are to determine which are physical and which are chemical
properties.
Analyze
Physical properties are those that can be observed without transforming the substance into another substance.
Chemical properties are only observed when one substance reacts with another and therefore is transformed
into another substance.
Solve
Density, boiling point, and electrical conductivity (a, c, d) are all physical properties, whereas the reaction of
hydrogen with oxygen (b) is a chemical property.
Think About It
Because the density of hydrogen gas is lower than that of any other gas, a lightweight balloon filled with
hydrogen will float in air like the more familiar helium balloon.

We are asked to determine which of the given species is not a pure substance.
Analyze
All matter may be classified as either a pure substance or a mixture. If a substance may be separated by
physical means, it is not a pure substance.
Solve
Air may be separated into simpler components, so it cannot be a pure substance. Nitrogen gas, oxygen gas,
and argon gas are all pure elements. Pure sodium chloride contains only NaCl.
Think About It
Air is a mixture of nitrogen gas, oxygen gas, argon gas, and other pure substances.

We are asked to determine which of the given forms of matter is a pure substance.
Analyze
Pure substances cannot be separated by a physical process.
Solve
Sweat, blood, brass, and milk are mixtures of more than one substance. Only sucrose (table sugar) is a pure
compound that cannot be physically separated into simpler components.
Think About It
Sweat, blood, and milk all contain mostly water; the other components are what make them different from
one another. Brass is an alloy, meaning it is a mixture of two solids. Sucrose (table sugar) can only be
separated into other components by chemical means, such as respiration and combustion.

From the given list, we are asked to identify the elements.
Analyze
An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler components by any process.
Solve
Only Cl2 is a pure element. The other species listed are compounds of more than one type of element.
Think About It
The elements are listed in the periodic table of the elements. Some elements, such as chlorine, form diatomic
molecules (like Cl2) in their pure form.

From the given list, we are asked to identify the species that are not elements.
Analyze
An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler components by any process. Any
pure substance that is composed of multiple elements is a compound.
Solve
Iodine (I2) and sulfur (S) are pure elements. ClF is the only substance that is composed of more than one type
of element; it is classified as a compound, not an element. Ozone (O3) contains only one type of element, but
it is not itself a pure element. Pure oxygen gas in its elemental state is a diatomic molecule, O2.
Think About It
Despite containing multiple atoms in their pure elemental state, I2 and S8 are still elements because they
consist of only one type of atom.

We are asked to determine which of the given mixtures is homogeneous.
Analyze
A homogeneous mixture has no visible boundaries and contains a uniform distribution of components. We
should picture each of these items and decide if their components are uniformly distributed.
Solve
Only filtered water is uniformly distributed, and so it is the only homogeneous mixture.
Think About It
All of the other species listed are heterogeneous mixtures since they have components that are visually
different or are not uniformly distributed. Clouds may take many shapes and densities, so they do not exhibit
a uniform distribution.

From the list below, we are asked to identify the species that are heterogeneous mixtures.
Analyze
In a heterogeneous mixture, visible boundaries may be observed, and components are not uniformly
distributed. We should first decide if these items are mixtures or pure substances, then classify the mixtures
as homogeneous or heterogeneous.
10 | Chapter 1 Particles of Matter: Measurement and the Tools of Science |
10
Solve
Muddy river water is the only heterogeneous mixture from this list. While the mixture may appear uniform,
suspended mud particles stick together in an irregular fashion.
Think About It
Air, sugar dissolved in water, and brass are homogeneous mixtures because all components are spread
uniformly throughout the samples. Suspended mud particles will settle from a sample of muddy water if
the sample is allowed to sit undisturbed for long enough. Table salt is a pure substance consisting only of
Na and Cl.

We are to determine which mixtures can be separated into their components by filtering.
Analyze
Filtration is used to separate suspended solids from a liquid or gas; this technique will only work if our
sample is a heterogeneous mixture containing a solid suspended in a liquid or a gas.
Solve
Sand and water may be separated using filtration. The sand will be trapped on the filter, and the water will
pass through.
Think About It
The other mixtures listed in the question are homogeneous and cannot be separated by filtration.

In this question we consider whether filtration would be a suitable method to separate a protein from the
other components of blood plasma.
Analyze
Filtration separates suspended solids from a heterogeneous mixture containing a liquid. Blood plasma is a
solution (homogeneous mixture) containing water and dissolved proteins.
Solve
Filtration will not remove the proteins in blood plasma as individual proteins are too small. We are told that
these proteins are dissolved, not suspended.
Think About It
Filtration is not appropriate because the blood plasma is a homogeneous solution.

From the list of properties of formaldehyde, we are asked to determine which one is a chemical property.
Analyze
Chemical properties are observed when a chemical reaction takes place. We should identify which property
relates to a chemical reaction between formaldehyde and another substance.
Solve
Formaldehyde must react with the air in order to burn. Flammability (c) is a chemical property.
Think About It
Smell, solubility, phase of matter, and color are all physical properties. We can observe these properties
without destroying (reacting) the formaldehyde.

From the list of properties of silver, we are asked to determine which one is a physical property.
Analyze
Physical properties can be observed without transforming one substance into another.
Solve
We may observe that silver will sink in water without converting it into another substance, making this (d) a
physical property.
Think About It
Tarnish forms on silver when it reacts with compounds in the air around it. Tarnishing or other reactions of
silver are chemical events.

We are to explain if an extensive property can be used to identify a substance.
Analyze
An extensive property is one that, like mass, length, and volume, is determined by size or amount.
Solve
Extensive properties will change with the size of the sample and therefore cannot be used to identify a
substance.
Think About It
We could, for example, have the same mass of feathers and lead, but their mass alone will not tell us which
mass measurement belongs to which—the feathers or the lead.

Of the properties listed, we are to choose which are intensive properties and which are extensive properties.
Analyze
An intensive property is not dependent on the size or amount of the sample, while an extensive property does
depend on the size or amount of a sample.
Solve
Of the properties listed, density, the temperature at which a phase change will occur, and the mass of a single
molecule (a, b, and d) are all intensive properties. The mass of water in your body (c) is an extensive property
because the value depends on the size of your body. The rate at which water flows over Niagara Falls (e) is
also an extensive property because the value will vary depending on recent rainfall and even the season.
Think About It
Intensive properties may be used to identify a substance as they will not change based on the size or quantity
of the sample used. Intensive properties are related to chemical interactions between atoms and molecules in
the substance that will not change from sample to sample.

In this question we think about the information needed to formulate a hypothesis.
Analyze
A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for an observation.
Solve
To form a hypothesis we need at least one observation, experiment, or idea (from examining nature).
Think About It
A hypothesis that is tested and shown to be valid can become a theory.
1.30. Collect and Organize and Analyze

In this question we consider how a hypothesis becomes a theory.
Solve
A theory is formed from a hypothesis when the hypothesis has been extensively tested by many observations
and experiments. A theory is the best (current) possible explanation that is extensively supported by
experimentation.
Think About It
A theory, tested over time, may be elevated further to become a scientific law.

We are to consider whether we can disprove a hypothesis.
Analyze
A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for an observation.
Solve
It is possible to disprove a scientific hypothesis. In fact, many experiments are designed to do just that as the
best test of the hypothesis’s validity.
Think About It
It is even possible to disprove a theory (albeit harder to do so) or cause a theory to be modified when new
evidence, a new experimental technique, or new data from a new instrument give observations that are
counter to the explanation stated by the theory.

In this question we are asked why the idea that all matter consists of atoms was described as a philosophy in
ancient Greece, but has been referred to as the atomic theory since the 1800s.
Analyze
The ancient Greeks first proposed that matter was composed of small units called atoms. The term
philosophy refers to a set of beliefs, while in science, a theory describes a proposal that has been validated by
many experiments.
Solve
The key distinction is that the ancient Greeks were not able to demonstrate that their proposal was correct by
conducting scientific experiments. Today, the atomic theory is universally accepted because of the sheer
volume of evidence from various experiments and observations that support the hypothesis that matter is
composed of atoms.
Think About It
In the 1980s, the techniques of scanning tunneling microscopy and atomic force microscopy were developed
to give us indirect “pictures” of atoms and molecules.

We are to define theory as used in conversation.
Analyze
Theory in everyday conversation has a different meaning than it does in science.
Solve
Theory in normal conversation is someone’s idea or opinion or speculation that can easily be changed and
may not have much evidence or many arguments to support it.
Think About It
A theory in science is a generally accepted and highly tested explanation of observed facts.

We consider whether a theory can be proven.
Analyze
Theory in science is the best (current) possible explanation that is extensively supported by experimentation
and observations.
Solve
Theory is nearly equivalent to fact in science, without being the absolute truth. A theory is hard to prove
absolutely but has many, many supporting experiments whose observations strongly support the theory.
Think About It
The results of one experiment that counter the explanation for a phenomenon explained by a theory could
disprove a theory, so theories may be toppled and replaced with new explanations and theories.

We are to compare SI units to English units.
Analyze
SI units are based on a decimal system to describe basic units of mass, length, temperature, energy, and so on,
whereas English units vary.
Solve
SI units, which were based on the original metric system, can be easily converted into a larger or smaller unit
by multiplying or dividing by multiples of 10. English units are more complicated to manipulate. For
example, to convert miles to feet you have to know that there are 5280 feet in 1 mile, and to convert gallons
to quarts you have to know that 4 quarts are in 1 gallon.
Think About It
Once you can visualize a meter, a gram, and a liter, using the SI system is quite convenient.
1.36. Collect and Organize and Analyze

In this question we are to suggest two reasons why SI units are not more widely used in the United States.
Solve
English units instead of SI units are used everywhere in the United States because many of our
manufacturing facilities have been built to make parts in inches or to bottle liquids in gallons. It has also been
difficult for people used to buying and measuring in the English units to convert their thinking so as to visualize
a kilometer instead of a mile or a liter instead of a quart.
Think About It
The only widespread everyday use of an SI unit in the United States is the 2 L soda bottle.

This question asks us to convert a mass in pounds to grams. There are approximately 2 pounds in a kilogram,
so the mass should be just under 1000 grams.
Analyze
We may convert this mass using the following conversion:
453.4 g
1 lb
Solve
453.4 g
1.65 lb´ = 748 g or 7.48´ 102 g
1 lb
Think About It
A gram is a relatively small unit of mass, so it makes sense that 1.65 pounds would contain 748 grams ( just
under one kilogram).

This question asks us to convert a mass in grams to pounds. There are approximately 2 pounds in a kilogram,
so the mass should be just under 2 pounds.
Analyze
We can convert this mass using the following conversion factor:
453.4 g
1 lb
Solve
1lb
765.4 g´ = 1.688 lb
453.4 g
Think About It
Since the gram is a relatively small unit of mass, a relatively large number of grams should only amount to a
few ( just under 2) pounds.

This question asks us to convert a volume in gallons to milliliters. Remember that the prefix milli- can be
−
read as 10 3. There are approximately 4 liters in a gallon, so our value (just under 2.5 gallons) should be
approximately 10 liters, or 10,000 milliliters.
Analyze
We can convert gallons to liters, then liters to milliliters, using the following conversions:
3.7854L 1000mL
,
1 gal 1L
Solve
3.7854L 1000mL
2.44 gal´ ´ = 9.24´ 103 mL
1 gal 1L
Think About It
Since the milliliter is a relatively small unit of volume, it makes sense that a large unit like a gallon would
contain many milliliters. This volume is just under our estimate of 10 liters. You may also have arrived at the
same answer using the conversion
1 mL
1´ 10- 3 L

This question asks us to convert a volume in milliliters to gallons. Remember that the prefix milli- can be
−
read as 10 3. There are approximately 4 liters in a gallon, so our value should be much less than 1 gallon.
Analyze
We can convert milliliters to liters, then liters to gallons, using the following conversions:
1gal 1L
,
3.7854 L 1000 mL
Solve
1L 1gal
108 mL´ ´ = 0.0285 gal = 2.85´ 10- 2 gal
1000 mL 3.7854 L
Think About It
108 mL is approximately 4 fluid ounces, which is significantly smaller than a gallon.

We are asked to compare two lengths, expressed using different units. We should express these values using
the same units to find the larger number.
Analyze
We can convert feet to inches, and then add this value to the 11 remaining inches to determine Peter’s height
in inches. We may then convert inches to centimeters and compare Peter and Paul’s heights on the same
scale. The conversions we will use are
12in 2.54cm
,
1 ft 1 in
Solve
First, we will convert Peter’s height to inches:
æ 1y ÷
2 in ö
ç5 ft´ 1 ft ÷+
ø÷
11 in = 71 in
Peter’s height in centimeters is:
2.54cm
71 in´ = 180 cm = 1.8´ 102 cm
1 in
Peter is slightly taller than Paul.
Think About It
Because their heights are so similar, we can only tell who is taller because of the number of significant
figures in Paul’s height. If we had measured Paul’s height with only two significant figures, the two would
not appear different. You might also convert Paul’s height into inches and find that it is 69.3 in, which is also
slightly smaller than Peter’s height.

We are asked to compare two depths, expressed in different units. After expressing these in the same units,
the larger value will correspond to the deep end of the pool.
Analyze
We can convert inches to centimeters, then centimeters to meters using the following conversions:
2.54 cm 1m
,
1 in 100 cm
Solve
In meters, the depth of the end with a depth of 72 inches is
2.54 cm 1m
72 in´ ´ = 1.8 m
1 in 100 cm
B is the deep end.
Think About It
You could also convert the depth at end A to inches and compare the two values. End A is 44 inches deep.

In this problem we need to use the density of magnesium to find the mass of a specific size block of the
metal.
Analyze
Density is defined as the mass of a substance per unit volume. The density of magnesium is given in
Appendix 3 as 1.738 g/cm3. We have to find the volume of the block of magnesium by multiplying the length
by the height by the depth (the value will be in cm3).
We can then find mass using the following formula:

Mass (g) = density (g/cm3)  volume (cm3)
Solve
The volume of the block of magnesium is:
2.5 cm  3.5 cm  1.5 cm = 13 cm3
Therefore, the mass of the block is
1.738g
13 cm3 ´ = 23 g
1 cm 3
Think About It
The mass of a sample depends on how much there is of a substance. In this case, we have about 23 grams. As
a quick estimate, a block of magnesium of about 10 cm3 would weigh 10 times that of 1 cm3, or about
17 grams. Because we have more than 10 cm3 of this sample and the density is a little greater than 1.7 g/cm3,
our answer of 23 grams is reasonable.

In this problem we need to use the density of osmium to find the mass of a specific size block of the metal.
To find out whether we could lift it with one hand, we may also have to convert it into pounds since that is
the unit we are more closely familiar with in the United States.
Analyze
Density is defined as the mass of a substance per unit volume. In Appendix 3 the density of osmium is given
as 22.57 g/cm3. We have to find the volume of the block of osmium by multiplying the length by the height
by the depth (the value will be in cm3). We can then find mass through the following formula:
Mass (g) = density (g/cm3)  volume (cm3)
We can use the conversion of grams to pounds for the comparison:
453.6 g
1 lb
Solve
The volume of the block of osmium is
6.5 cm  9.0 cm  3.25 cm = 190 cm3
Therefore, the mass of the block is
22.57 g
190 cm3 ´ = 4300 g
1 cm 3
To convert this into the more familiar pounds:
1lb
4300 g´ = 9.5 lb
453.6 g
Think About It
Nearly 10 pounds is fairly heavy, but it could be lifted with one hand. The block of osmium, though, will be
surprisingly heavy because its volume is relatively small.

This problem asks us to determine the conversion factors to convert the given units.
Analyze
The conversions that we need include picoseconds and femtoseconds to seconds, milligrams and kilograms to
grams, and centimeters to meters.
10- 12 s 10- 15 s 1 kg 1g 1m
, , , ,
1 ps 1 fs 1000 g 1000 mg 100 cm
The density of titanium is given in Appendix 3 as 4.54 g/cm3.
Solve
10-y 12
1fs
(a)
s = 1´ 103 fs
1 ps´ ´
1 ps 10- 15 s
1ps
As a conversion factor:
1´ 103 fs
1000g 1000mg
(b) 1 kg´ ´ = 1´ 106 mg
1 kg 1g
1kg
1´ 106 mg
3
103 gTi 1cm 3 æy 1m ö ÷ = 2.20´ 10- 4
(c) 1 kg Ti´ ´ ´ m3
ç
1 kg Ti 4.54 g Ti çè100 cm÷ø
1kgTi
2.20´ 10- 4 m3
Think About It
The density of a substance is an intensive property and will remain constant for that material. Though the
values differ, the density of titanium is the same whether it is expressed in g/cm3 or kg/m3.

This problem asks for a simple conversion of length from meters to miles.
Analyze
The conversions that we need include meters to kilometers and kilometers to miles.
1km 0.6214 mi
,
1000 m 1 km
Solve
1km 0.6214mi
4.0´ 103 m´ ´ = 2.5 mi
1000 m 1 km
Think About It
The answer is reasonable because 4000 meters would be a little over 2 miles when estimated. It is surprising,
though, for a natural piece of silk to be that long.

This problem asks about the total distance along a set of stairs with ten steps.
Analyze
Each step is 6.0 inches higher than the previous step and 5.0 inches deep. A diagram is helpful to visualize
this set of stairs.
The conversion from inches to cm is given by

2.54 cm
1 in
Solve
The total height of the steps is
6.0in
10 steps´ = 60. in
1 step
The total depth of the steps is

5.0in
10 steps´ = 50. in
1 step
The distance along the edge of the steps from the bottom to the top is
60. in + 50. in = 110. in

2.54 cm
110. in´ = 279 cm
1 in
Think About It
We could also have converted the distance to feet by dividing 110. inches by 12 in/ft. This distance would be
9.17 ft.

This problem asks us to determine the volume of a pool in cubic inches.
Analyze
Volume is determined by multiplying the depth, width, and length of the pool.
Since the final units are to be in3, we may begin by converting the given dimensions in feet to inches. The
conversion that we need is
12 in
1 ft
Solve
12in
7.5 ft´ = 90 in
1 ft
12 in
42 ft´ = 504 in (2 sf )
1 ft
12 in
65 ft´ = 780 in (2 sf )
1 ft
Volume = depth  width  length
= 90 in  504 in  780 in = 3.5  107 in3
Think About It
Thirty-five million cubic inches may seem like a large volume of water for a swimming pool, but the units
are somewhat small. We may convert this to a volume of approximately 1.5  105 gallons, a more common
unit for large quantities of liquid.

To compute the runner’s speed we have to use this definition: speed = change in distance/change in time. In
the marathon runner’s case we are given distance in miles and time in hours plus additional minutes. The first
calculation of speed, therefore, in miles per hour will not require any unit conversion. That result will be used
to compute the runner’s speed in meters per second using conversions for miles to meters and hours to seconds.
Analyze
The equation to compute speed is given by
 distance
Speed =
 time
Because the time is given as 3 hours 34 minutes, we will have to convert the 34 minutes into a part of an hour
using the fact that 1 hour = 60 minutes. We can then divide the marathon distance by this time in hours to get
the speed in miles per hour.
To convert this speed to meters per second, we can use the following conversions:
1km 0.6214 mi
and
1000 m 1 km
1min 1h
and
60 s 60 min
Solve
First, the number of hours for the runner to complete the marathon is
æ 1h ÷ö
3 h + ç34 min´ ÷= 3.57 h
60 min ÷
ø
(a) The speed in miles per hour is
26.2 mi
speed = = 7.34 mi/h
3.57 h
(b) Converting this speed to meters per second gives:

mi 1km 1000 m 1h 1min
7.34 ´ ´ ´ ´ = 3.28 m/s
h 0.6214 mi 1 km 60 min 60 s
Think About It
Both of these values seem reasonable. A walking pace is about 3 miles per hour, so running could be
imagined to be twice that fast. Also, 3 meters per second can be run easily by a fast runner.

For this problem we need to convert the distance of the Olympic mile (1500 m) from meters to miles and
then to feet, compare that distance to a U.S. mile using a ratio, and then convert that into a percentage.
Analyze
For converting the distance we can make use of these conversions:
1km 0.6214 mi 5280 ft
, , and
1000 m 1 km 1 mi
To determine the percentage the Olympic mile distance is compared to the U.S. mile, we will use
Olymoic mile distanceinfeet
% distance = ´ 100
5280 ft
Solve
1km 0.6214 mi 5280 ft
1500 m´ ´ ´ = 4921 ft
1000 m 1 km 1 mi
4921ft
% distance = ´ 100 = 93.20%
5280 ft
Think About It
This calculation shows that the Olympic mile is just a little bit shorter than the actual mile.

To find the Calories burned by the wheelchair marathoner in a race, we can first find the number of hours the
race will be for the marathoner at the pace of 13.1 miles per hour. The Calories burned can then be calculated
from that value and the rate at which the marathoner burns Calories.
Analyze
The time it takes for the marathoner to complete the race will be given by
distanceofthemarathon
Time to complete the marathon =
pace of the marathoner
The Calories burned will be computed by

Calories burned
Calories burned = ´ time of the marathon race
hour
Solve
1h
Time to complete the marathon = 26.2 mi´ = 2.00 h
13.1 mi
665Cal
Calories burned = ´ 2.00 h = 1.33´ 103 Cal
h
Think About It
This problem could be solved without touching a calculator! Because it takes the marathoner 2.00 h to
complete the race, the Calories she burns is simply twice the number of Calories she burns in one hour.

This problem involves the conversion of an interstellar distance from light-years to kilometers.
Analyze
The conversions needed are
1year 1d 1h 1min 1km
, , , ,
365.25 d 24 h 60 min 60 s 1000 m
From Appendix 2, the speed of light in a vacuum is 2.99792458  108 m/s. A light year is the distance light
travels in one year’s time.
Solve
One light-year represents a distance of
365.25d 24 h 60 min 60 s 2.99792458´ 10y8 m 1km

1 year´ ´ ´ ´ ´ ´ = 9.5´ 1012 km
1 year 1d 1h 1 min 1s 1000 m
In km, the distance to Proxima Centauri is
9.5´ 101y 2 km
4.3 light-years´ = 4.1´ 10 13 km
1 light-year
Think About It
Interstellar distances are so large that it can be difficult to visualize relative to everyday objects. The same is
true when considering the size of atoms and molecules relative to everyday objects.

To answer this question we need to compute the mass of a copper sample that is 125 cm3 in volume using the
density of copper. Next, we use that mass to find out what volume (in cm3) that mass of gold would occupy.
Analyze
We need the density both of copper and of gold from Appendix 3 to make the conversions from volume to
mass (for copper) and then from mass to volume (for gold). These densities are 8.96 g/mL for copper and
19.3 g/mL for gold. One milliliter is equivalent to 1 cm3, so the densities are 8.96 g/cm3 and 19.3 g/cm3,
respectively. The density formulas that we need are
Mass of copper = density of copper  volume
and
mass
Volume of gold =
density of gold
Solve
Mass of copper = 8.96 g/cm3 ´ 125 cm3 = 1120 g
1120g
Volume of gold = = 58.0 cm3
19.3 g/cm3
Think About It
Because gold is more than twice as dense as copper, we would expect the volume of a gold sample to have
about half the volume of that of the same mass of copper.

We have to consider how much air (in grams) the balloon holds when cool. Then, we can use that mass
combined with the new larger volume of the heated balloon to find the new density.
Analyze
Density is mass per volume, so we can obtain the mass of air in the cool balloon through
Mass = density of air  volume of cool balloon
Then, using this mass we can find the new density through
mass ofair
Density =
volume of heated balloon
Solve
1.20 g
Mass = ´ 1.00´ 106 L = 1.20´ 106 g
L
1.20´ 106 g
Density of heated ballon = = 1.10 g/L
1.09´ 10 6 L
Think About It
Because the volume of the heated balloon is larger than that of the cooled balloon, we would expect that the
density of the air has decreased upon expanding the balloon.

Using the density of mercury, we can find the volume of 1.00 kg of mercury.
Analyze
The density of mercury is given in Appendix 3 as 13.546 g/mL. Because this property is expressed in grams
per milliliter, not kilograms per milliliter, we have to convert kilograms into grams using the conversion:
1000 g
1 kg
Once we have the mass in grams, we can use the rearranged formula for density to find volume:
mass ofmercury(g)
Volume of mercury (mL) =
density of mercury (g/mL)
Solve
1000g
1.00 kg´ = 1.00´ 103 g
1 kg
1.00´ 103 g
Volume of mercury = = 73.8 mL
13.546 g/mL
Think About It
This is a fairly small amount that weighs one kilogram. This is due to the relatively high density of mercury.

For this problem we need to make a comparison of the student’s measurement of the density of her piece of
jewelry to the known density of silver.
Analyze
The density of the piece of jewelry can be calculated by dividing the mass of the piece of jewelry by its
volume according to the formula for density.
Solve
3.17 g
Density of the piece of jewelry = = 10. g/mL
0.3 mL
The density of silver is 10.50 g/mL. Because these densities match very closely, the jewelry could be made of
pure silver.
Think About It
The difference in the densities between the piece of jewelry and pure silver is less than 5%. A better
comparison of densities would require more significant digits for the measurements of mass and volume of
the piece of jewelry.

Given the average density of human blood, we are asked to determine the mass of liquid occupying a volume
of 5.5 L.
Analyze
Given the density in g/mL, we will need to convert the volume from L to mL so that our units cancel. We
will also need to convert the mass in grams to a mass in ounces. The conversion factors we will need are
1000mL 1oz
,
1L 28.35 g
Solve
1000 mL 1.06 g
(a) 5.5 L´ ´ = 5.8´ 103 g
1L 1 mL
1000mL 1.06g 1oz
(b) 5.5 L´ ´ ´ = 2.1´ 10 2 g
1L 1 mL 28.35 g
Think About It
It makes sense that this mass would have a smaller value when expressed in ounces rather than grams.
Ounces are a larger unit of mass than grams. One pound contains 16 ounces and approximately 454 grams.

In this problem we are asked to calculate the Earth’s density in grams per cubic centimeter given the mass in
kilograms (we have to convert to grams) and the volume of the Earth in cubic kilometers (we have to convert
to cubic centimeters).
Analyze
We may convert the units for mass and volume using the following conversion factors:
1000g 1000m 100 cm
, ,
1 kg 1 km 1m
It is important to remember that even though there are 100 cm in 1 m, there are (100 cm)3 or 1  106 cm3 in
1 m3. Both the value and the unit must be cubed to correctly solve this problem. Density is equal to the mass
of the object, divided by the volume that object occupies.
Solve
3 3
m 5.98´ 10 24kg 1000 gæy1km ö÷ æy 1m ö÷
d 5.54 g/cm 3
= = ´ ´ ç ÷´ ç ÷ =
V 1.08´ 1012 km 3 1 kg çè1000 m ø çè100 cm ø
Think About It
Even though the Earth’s surface is mostly covered by water (with a density of approximately 1 g/cm3), the
Earth contains a large quantity of heavier matter such as iron and other metals. A density of 5.54 g/cm3 is a
reasonable value since it is not lighter than water and not hundreds of g/cm3.

In this problem we use the mass of a carat (the unit of weight for diamonds) to find the mass of a large diamond
and then use the density to calculate the volume of that large diamond.
Analyze
We need the fact that 1 carat = 0.200 g and that the density is defined as mass per volume. To find the
volume of the diamond, we can rearrange the density equation to read
mass
Volume =
density
Solve
The mass of the 5.0-carat diamond is
0.200g
5.0 carat´ = 1.0 g
1 carat
The volume of the diamond is then
1cmy3
1.0 g´ = 0.28 cm3
3.51 g
Think About It
For this relatively large diamond in terms of carats, the mass is fairly small (one gram is about one-fifth of
the mass of a nickel); in this case, even though the density is relatively low, the volume is also quite small.

There is a small amount of mercury in this lake per liter, but the volume of the lake will be quite large. In this
problem we have to find the volume of the lake and use the concentration of mercury in one liter of the lake
water to find the total amount of mercury in the lake.
Analyze
The volume of the lake can be calculated from the surface area and the average depth. However, we need this
answer in liters since the concentration of mercury is expressed in micrograms per liter. We should first convert
square kilometers to square meters. Then, we can calculate the volume of the lake by multiplying the surface area
by the average depth. We need these conversions and the formula for volume from surface area and depth:
1 km
1000 m
Volume of lake (m3) = surface area (m2)  depth (m)
We then need to convert cubic meters into liters using
1 m3
1000 L
Next, we can use the mercury concentration to find the total mass of mercury in the lake (which will be in
micrograms) and convert that to kilograms:
massofmercury(g)
Mass of mercury in lake (g) = volume of lake (L)´
volume (L)
1g 1kg
Mass of mercury (kg) = mass of mercury (g)´ ´
1´ 106 g 1000 g
Solve
2
2 æ1000 m ö
÷
Surface area of lake (m2 ) = 10.0 km ´ ç 7
= 1.00´ 10 2
m
1 km ÷ø
Volume of lake (m 3 ) = (1.00´ 10 7 m 2 )´ 15.0 m = 1.50´ 108

m3
1000 L
Volume of lake (L) = 1.50´ 108 m3 ´ = 1.50´ 1011 L
1 m3
The amount of mercury in the lake then is computed as
0.33g 1g 1kg
1.50´ 1011 L´ ´ ´ = 50. kg
1L 1´ 10 g 1000 g
6
Think About It
Although the concentration of the mercury is quite low, the entire lake contains a relatively large amount of
mercury.

In this problem we are asked address the number of data points we can eliminate from a data set by applying
Grubbs’ test.
Analyze
Grubbs’ test allows us to identify outliers, or data points that are far away from the mean of a data set. In
order to determine if a data point should be rejected, we must calculate the range of the data and the gap
between the questionable point and the nearest value.
Solve
Only one data point may be identified using Grubbs’ test.
Think About It
If multiple data points are far away from the mean of a data set, it is implied that a significant error in
measurement or experiment has occurred. This data set would not be very precise.

We are asked to describe which confidence interval (50%, 90%, or 95%) represents the largest range of data.
Analyze
Confidence intervals represent the range of values around a calculated mean that we expect to contain the
true mean value. The confidence interval will be largest when the confidence level is higher, as this will
encompass a wider range of data points.
Solve
The 50% confidence interval represents the largest range of data.
Think About It
The confidence interval only describes our certainty that a data point will be near the mean of that data set.
The actual value could be within that range or entirely different, depending on the accuracy of our
measurements.

In this problem we are to determine if the 95% confidence interval or one standard deviation is larger for a
data set with seven data points.
Analyze
The equation for determining the 95% confidence interval is
ts
= x±
n
For a data set with seven data points (n = 7), t = 2.447 at the 95% CI. The standard deviation for this sample
is given by s in the above equation.
Solve
The 95% confidence interval may be expressed as
ts 2.447s
= x± = x± = x ± 0.925 s
n 7
The range described by the 95% confidence interval is thus smaller than the standard deviation, s.
Think About It
The values of t and n change with the sample size, so for smaller data sets (n  6), the standard deviation is
larger than the 95% CI.

We are asked to consider the conditions for rejecting a statistical outlier at the 90%, 95%, and 99%
confidence intervals.
Analyze
A data point must have a Q value larger than that listed in the Table 1.8. By looking at Table 1.8, we can see
that the values of Q for rejecting an outlier are larger for a given sample size as we move from the 90% to
95% to 99% confidence intervals.
Solve
(a) Maybe. If a value cannot be labeled as an outlier at the 95% CI, there is a chance that the Q value could
still be larger than that required to label it as an outlier at the 90% CI. This depends on the size of the gap
between the questionable data point and the nearest data point in the set.
(b) No. If a value cannot be labeled as an outlier at the 95% CI, it will never be larger than the Q value at the
99% confidence interval.
Think About It
The experimental value of Q for the questionable data point will remain constant at the 90%, 95%, and 99%
confidence intervals. The minimum value of Q to reject a data point changes with each confidence interval,
however.

This problem asks which value from the given set contains the fewest number of significant figures.
Analyze
The listed values are a mix of standard and scientific notation. For values expressed using scientific notation,
only the values prior to the exponent are counted as significant. By expressing all the quantities using scientific
notation, we can better compare the number of significant figures.
(a) 5.45  102
−
(b) 6.4  10 3
(c) 6.50  100
(d) 1.346  102
Solve
−3
(b) 6.4  10 contains two significant figures, which is the smallest number of significant figures for this set.
Think About It
The value 6.50 has three significant figures because the zero trailing the decimal is significant.

This problem asks which value from the given set contains the greatest number of significant figures.
Analyze
The listed values are a mix of standard and scientific notation. For values expressed using scientific notation,
only the values prior to the exponent are counted as significant. By expressing all the quantities using
scientific notation, we can better compare the number of significant figures.
(a) 5.45  102
−
(b) 6.4  10 3
(c) 6.50  100
(d) 1.346  102
Solve
The greatest number of significant figures present is four. The quantity with four significant figures is
(d) 1.346  102.
Think About It
Significant figures express our confidence in a number.

This problem asks which value from the given set contains the fewest number of significant figures.
Analyze
These values are all fractions. We should evaluate each fraction and express it using scientific notation to
help determine the number of significant figures.
−
(a) 1/545 = 0.00183 = 1.83  10 3
−3
(b) 1/6.4  10 = 156.25 = 1.6  102
−
(c) 1/6.50 = 0.1538 = 1.54  10 1
−3
(d) 1/1.346  10 = 0.007429 = 7.429  10
2
Solve
The smallest number of significant figures present is two. The quantity with two significant figures is
−3
(b) 1/6.4  10 .
Think About It
The number of significant figures is derived from the denominator of the fraction. Despite the fact that
−
1/6.4  10 3 gives us a number that appears to contain at least three digits before the decimal, we cannot be
−
more confident than we would be in 6.4  10 3, which contains two significant figures.

This problem asks which value from the given set contains the greatest number of significant figures.
Analyze
These values are all fractions. We should evaluate each fraction and express it using scientific notation to
help determine the number of significant figures.
−
(a) 1/545 = 0.00183 = 1.83  10 3
−3
(b) 1/6.4  10 = 156.25 = 1.6  102
−
(c) 1/6.50 = 0.1538 = 1.54  10 1
−3
(d) 1/1.346  10 = 0.007429 = 7.429  10
2
Solve
The greatest number of significant figures present is four. The quantity with four significant figures is
(d) 1/1.346  102.
Think About It
Despite the large number of digits after the decimal that a calculator can generate, the number of significant
figures is determined using the denominator of these fractions.

From the values given, we must identify those that contain four significant figures.
Analyze
Writing all the quantities in scientific notation will help determine the number of significant figures in each.
−
(a) 0.0592 = 5.92  10 2
−
(b) 0.08206 = 8.206  10 2
(c) 8.314
(d) 5420 = 5.42  103 or 5.420  103 (if the 0 is significant)
(e) 5.4  103
Solve
The quantities that have four significant figures are (b) 0.08206, (c) 8.314, and maybe (d) 5420, if the 0 is
significant.
Think About It
Remember that zeros at the end of the number may be significant or they may simply be acting as
placeholders.

From the values given, we must identify those that contain three significant figures.
Analyze
Writing all the quantities in scientific notation will help determine the number of significant figures in each.
(a) 7.02
(b) 6.452
(c) 6.02  1023
(d) 302 = 3.02  102
(e) 12.77 = 1.277  101
Solve
The quantities that have three significant figures are (a) 7.02, (c) 6.02  1023, and (d) 302.
Think About It
Remember that a zero between two other digits is always significant.

We are to express the result of each calculation to the correct number of significant figures.
Analyze
The rules regarding the significant figures that carry over in calculations are given in Section 1.8 in the
textbook. Remember to operate on the weak-link principle.
Solve
(a) The least well-known value has three significant figures, so the calculator result of 17.363 is reported as
17.4 with rounding up to the tenths place.
−
(b) The least well-known value has only one significant figure, so the calculator result of 1.044  10 13 is
−13
reported as 1  10 .
−
(c) The least well-known value has three significant figures, so the calculator result of 5.701  10 23
−
is reported as 5.70  10 23.
−
(d) The least well-known value has three significant figures, so the calculator result of 3.5837  10 3 is
−3
reported as 3.58  10 .
Think About It
Indicating the correct number of significant figures for a calculated value indicates the level of confidence we
have in our calculated value. Reporting too many significant figures would indicate a higher level of precision
in our number than we actually have.

We are to express the result of each calculation to the correct number of significant figures.
Analyze
The rules regarding the significant figures that carry over in calculations are given in Section 1.8 in the
textbook. Remember to operate on the weak-link principle.
Solve
−
(a) The least well-known value has three significant figures, so the calculator result of 1.5506  10 1 is
−1
(b) The least well-known value has three significant figures, so the calculator result of 146.3988 is reported
as 146.
−
(c) The least well-known value has four significant figures, so the calculator result of 2.25857  10 2 is
−2
(d) The least well-known value has three significant figures, so the calculator result of 3.5700  103 is
reported as 3.57  103.
Think About It
Indicating the correct number of significant figures for a calculated value indicates the level of confidence we
have in our calculated value. Reporting too many significant figures would indicate a higher level of
precision in our number than we actually have.

Given the data from three different manufacturers of circuit boards for copper line widths, we can determine
which manufacturers were precise and which were accurate. Using the data provided, we can determine the
mean, standard deviation, and 95% confidence intervals for each manufacturer.
Analyze
The sample mean is given by the equation
x= å i
(xi )
n
The standard deviation for each manufacturer may be obtained by setting up a data table like the one in
Table 1.5. Standard deviations for each manufacturer can be calculated using the equation
s=
å (x - x )
i
i
n- 1
The 95% confidence interval is expressed by

ts
= x±
n
For each manufacturer, five samples were provided, so n = 5, and t = 2.776, as shown in Table 1.6.
By first calculating the range of values for the width of the copper lines from each manufacturer, we can
see which manufacturer has the highest precision. By comparing measured line widths with the specified
width of 0.500 m, we can assess each manufacturer’s accuracy.
Solve
(a) The mean for each of the manufacturers is given by
(0.512 + 0.508 + 0.516 + 0.504 + 0.513)

Manufacturer 1 x = = 0.511 m
5
(0.514 + 0.513 + 0.514 + 0.514 + 0.512)

5
(0.500 + 0.501+ 0.502 + 0.502 + 0.501)

5
The standard deviations are
Manufacturer 1
xi (xi - x ) (xi - x )
−6
2
å (x - x )
i
i s
0.512 0.001 1.  10
−
0.508 −0.003 9.  10 6
−5
0.516 0.005 2.5  10
−
0.504 −0.007 4.9  10 5
−
0.513 0.002 4.  10 6
−5
8.8  10 0.005
Manufacturer 2
xi (xi - x ) (xi - x ) å (x - x )
−
2
i
i
s
0.514 0.001 1.  10 6
0.513 0.000 0
−
0.514 0.001 1.  10 6
−
0.514 0.001 1.  10 6
−
0.512 −0.001 1.  10 6
−6
4.  10 0.001
Manufacturer 3
2
xi (xi - x ) (xi - x ) å (x - x )
2
i
i
s
−
0.500 −0.001 1.  10 6
0.501 0.000 0
−
0.502 0.001 1.  10 6
−
0.502 0.001 1.  10 6
0.501 0.000 0
−6
3.  10 0.001
(b) The 95% confidence interval for each manufacturer is given by
2.776(0.005)
Manufacturer 1  = 0.511± = 0.511± 0.006
5
2.776(0.001)
Manufacturer 2  = 0.513 ± = 0.513 ± 0.001
5
2.776(0.001)
Manufacturer 3  = 0.501± = 0.501± 0.001
5
The 95% confidence interval includes 0.500 m only for Manufacturer 3.

(c) Manufacturer 1 has a range of 0.516 − 0.504 = 0.012 m; Manufacturer 2 has a range of 0.514 − 0.512 =
0.002 m; and Manufacturer 3 has a range of 0.502 − 0.500 = 0.002 m. Manufacturer 3 is both precise and
accurate. Manufacturer 2 is precise, but not accurate. Manufacturer 1 is neither precise nor accurate.
Think About It
In electronic circuit boards, the specifications must be very strictly adhered to, in terms of both precision and
accuracy. The claim of precision, without claiming accuracy, may mislead buyers.

Given the data from five different blood tests, we can determine the mean and standard deviation for the
group of individuals whose blood was tested. By calculating the 95% confidence interval for this data set, we
can determine if the group as a whole is close to the threshold for being considered diabetic.
Analyze
We can calculate the mean and standard deviation for these samples using the equations below and by setting
up a data table like that shown in Table 1.5.
x=
å i
(xi )
, s=
å i
(xi - x ) 2
n n- 1
The 95% confidence interval is given by the equation
ts
= x±
n
For a sample with five data points (n = 5), the value for t is 2.776, as shown in Table 1.6.
Solve
(106+ 99+109+108+105)
(a) x= = 105 mg/dL
5
1å
2
xi (xi - x )1 (xi - x ) (x - x ) i
s
106 i
99 −6 36
109 4 16
108 3 9
105 0 0
62 3.9
2.776(3.9)
(b)  = 105± = 105 ± 4.8 mg/dL
5
120 mg/dL is not contained in the 95% confidence interval for this data set. The maximum value
contained within this confidence interval is 109.8 mg/dL.
Think About It
Notice that we cannot correctly calculate the 95% confidence interval with incorrect values for the mean and
standard deviation.

This problem asks us to consider a data set consisting of six measurements and asks us to determine if the
largest value is far enough away from the rest of the data points that it should be considered a statistical
outlier and discarded.
Analyze
To determine if an outlier is present, we must first calculate the mean and standard deviation of the data set,
then calculate the Z value. Comparing this Z value to the listed reference Z values will allow us to determine
if the data point is an outlier. The sample mean is given by the equation
x= å i
(xi )
n
The standard deviation may be obtained by setting up a data table like the one in Table 1.5. Standard
deviations can be calculated using the equation
2
s=
å (x - x )
i
i
n- 1
The equation for calculating the Z value (Grubbs’ test) is
xi − x
Z=
s
Six data points were provided, so n = 6, and the reference Z value from Table 1.8 is 1.887 at the 95%
confidence level. If our calculated Z value is larger than the reference Z value, the data point is in fact an
outlier.
Solve
The mean for this data set is
(3.15+ 3.03 + 3.09+ 3.11+ 3.12+ 3.41)
x= = 3.15
6
The standard deviation is
2
xi (xi - x ) (xi - x )2 å i
(xi - x ) s
3.15 1 0
3.03 −0.12 0.014
3.09 −0.06 0.004
3.11 −0.04 0.002
3.12 −0.03 0.0009
3.41 0.26 0.068
0.089 0.13
The largest outlier for this dataset is 3.41. For this data point
0.26
Z= = 2.0
0.13
This Z value is greater than the reference Z value of 1.887, so this data point is in fact an outlier and should
be discarded.
Think About It
Even though a data point may appear quite different from the rest of the set, a Grubbs’ test should be
conducted to determine if it may be rejected. In this case, the Z value was relatively close to the minimum
allowable value to discard a point, so a slightly smaller measurement might be valid!

This problem asks us to consider a data set consisting of six measurements and asks us to determine if the
largest value is far enough away from the rest of the data points that it should be considered a statistical
outlier and discarded.
Analyze
To determine if an outlier is present, we must first calculate the mean and standard deviation of the data set,
then calculate the Z value. Comparing this Z value to the listed reference Z values will allow us to determine
if the data point is an outlier. The sample mean is given by the equation
x= å i
(xi )
n
The standard deviation may be obtained by setting up a data table like the one in Table 1.5. Standard
deviations can be calculated using the equation
2
s=
å (x i –x )
i
n –1
The equation for calculating the Z value (Grubbs’ test) is
xi - x
Z=
s
Six data points were provided, so n = 6, and the reference Z value from Table 1.8 is 1.887 at the 95% confidence
level. If our calculated Z value is larger than the reference Z value, the data point is in fact an outlier.
Solve
The mean for this data set is
(61+ 75+ 64+ y65+ 64+ 66)
x= = 66
6
The standard deviation is
2
xi (xi - x ) (xi - x )
2
å i
(xi - x ) s
61 −5 25
75 9 81
64 −2 4
65 −1 1
64 −2 4
66 0 0
115 4.80
The largest outlier for this dataset is 75. For this data point
9
Z= = 1.88
4.80
This Z value is approximately equal to the reference Z value of 1.887, so this data point might be an outlier.
Think About It
Since the Z value is approximately the same as the reference Z value for n = 6 at the 95% confidence level, it
is about 95% likely that the data point is a statistical outlier.

This question asks if a temperature in Celsius would ever equal the temperature in Fahrenheit. We have to
make use of the conversion equation between Celsius and Fahrenheit degrees.
Analyze
The equation converting between the temperatures is given as
5
C = (F- 32)
9
To find the temperature at which these temperature scales meet (C = F in the above equation) substitute C
for F:
5
C = (C- 32)
9
Solve
Rearranging this equation and solving for C gives
5
C = (C- 32)
9
9
(C )= (C- 32)
5
9
(C)- C = - 32
5
4
(C) = - 32
5
C = - 40C = - 40F
Think About It
Because the intervals between degrees on the Celsius scale are larger than the degrees on the Fahrenheit
scale, the two scales will eventually meet at one temperature. This solution shows that they meet at −40.

In this question we define the absolute temperature scale.
Analyze
The Kelvin scale is the absolute temperature scale, and its lowest temperature is 0 K.
Solve
The absolute temperature scale (Kelvin scale) has no negative temperatures, and its 0 value is placed at the
lowest possible temperature.
Think About It
Because the Kelvin scale has no negative temperatures, it will often be used in equations when using a
negative temperature (in Celsius) would result in a nonsensical answer.

Given the freezing and boiling point of a radiator coolant, we are to convert these temperatures from the
Celsius scale to the Fahrenheit scale.
Analyze
The relationship between Celsius and Fahrenheit temperature scales is given by
5
C = (F- 32)
9
This will have to be rearranged to find F from C.

5
F = (C)+ 32
9
Solve
The freezing point of this coolant in degrees Fahrenheit is
9
F = (- 39.0C)+ 32 = - 38F
5
The boiling point of this coolant in degrees Fahrenheit is
9
F = (110C)+ 32 = 230F
5
Think About It
In computing the freezing point of this coolant in degrees Fahrenheit, notice that the result is nearly the same
as the freezing point in degrees Celsius. This is because the two temperature scales do share a temperature
value (see P1.80).

This question asks for the conversion of two melting points from Celsius degrees to Kelvin.
Analyze
We need only adjust the values for the temperature according to the following equation:
K = C + 273.15
Solve
For the melting point of silver
K = 962C + 273.15 = 1235 K
For the melting point of gold
K = 1064C + 273.15 = 1337 K
Think About It
The two melting temperatures should remain the same number of units apart (102) because the Kelvin is the
same magnitude as the Celsius degree.

We are asked to compare the critical temperature (Tc) of three superconductors. The critical temperatures,
however, are given in three different temperature scales, so for the comparison, we will need to convert them
to a single scale.
Analyze
It does not matter which temperature scale we use as the common one, but since the critical temperatures are
low, it might be easiest to express all of the temperatures in Kelvin. The equations we will need are
5
K = C + 273.15 and C = (F- 32)
9
Solve
The Tc for the first material is already expressed in Kelvin, Tc = 93.0 K.
The Tc of the second material is expressed in C and can be converted to K by
K = −250.0C + 273.15 = 23.2 K
The Tc of the third material is expressed in Fahrenheit degrees. To get this temperature in Kelvin, first convert
to Celsius degrees, then to Kelvin:
5
C = (- 231F- 32)= - 146.2C
9
K = - 146.2C + 273.15 = 127.0 K

The superconductor with the highest Tc is expressed in F with a Tc of 127.0 K.
Think About It
The superconductor with the lowest Tc is the second material with a Tc of 23.2 K, more than 100 K lower
than the Tc of that with the highest Tc.

Based on the boiling points for N2, O2, and Ar, we can determine which gas condenses first as air is cooled.
Analyze
The boiling point of the liquids from Appendix 3, Table A3.2 are as follows:
b.p. N2 = −195.8C
b.p. O2 = −182.95C
b.p. Ar = −185.9C
Solve
As air is cooled, the gas with the highest (least negative) boiling point will condense first. Oxygen, therefore,
will condense first.
Think About It
The second gas to condense is argon, followed by nitrogen.

We are asked in this problem to convert from Kelvin to degrees Celsius.
Analyze
The relationship between the Kelvin temperature scale and the Celsius temperature scale is given by
K = C + 273.15
Rearranging this gives the equation to convert Kelvin temperatures to Celsius:
C = K −273.15
Solve
C = 4.2 K − 273.15 = −269.0C
Think About It
Because 4.2 K is very cold, we would expect that the Celsius temperature would be very negative. It should
not, however, be lower than −273.15C since that is the lowest temperature possible.

This question asks us to convert a Celsius temperature into Kelvin.
Analyze
Though temperatures on each scale have different values, the difference between temperatures on the Kelvin
and Celsius scales is the same. We can easily convert between scales by adding or subtracting the difference
between the two scales at absolute zero, as shown in the figure:
The relationship between the Kelvin temperature scale and the Celsius temperature scale is given by
K = °C + 273.15
Solve
K = - 253°C + 273.15 = 20. K
Think About It
This is a low temperature for the Celsius temperature scale. It is still above the lowest possible temperature
(0 K or −273.15C); it has to be!

This question asks us to convert a temperature in Fahrenheit degrees to a temperature in Celsius degrees.
Analyze
The relationship between the Celsius and Fahrenheit temperature scales is given by
5
C = (F- 32)
9
Solve
5
C = (102.5F- 32)= 39.2C
9
Think About It
This temperature makes sense because it is higher than the normal body temperature, 37C.

This question asks us to convert a temperature in Celsius degrees to a temperature in Fahrenheit degrees.
Analyze
The relationship between the Celsius and Fahrenheit temperature scales is
5
C = (F- 32)
9
This will have to be rearranged to find F from C:

9
F = (C)+ 32
5
Solve
9
F = (37.0C)+ 32 = 98.6F
5
Think About It
In humans, this temperature is considered normal body temperature.

This question asks us to convert the coldest temperature recorded on Earth from Fahrenheit to Celsius and Kelvin.
Analyze
Since the Celsius and Kelvin scales are similar (offset by 273.15 degrees), once we convert from Fahrenheit
to Celsius, finding the Kelvin temperature will be straightforward. The equations we need are
5
C = (F- 32)
9
K = C + 273.15
Solve
5
C = (- 128.6F- 32) = - 89C
9
K = - 89.2C + 273.15 = 183.9 K
Think About It
This temperature is cold on any scale!

This question asks us to convert the hottest temperature recorded on Earth from Fahrenheit to Celsius and
Kelvin.
Analyze
Since the Celsius and Kelvin scales are similar (offset by 273.15 degrees), once we convert from Fahrenheit
to Celsius, finding the Kelvin temperature will be straightforward. The equations we need are
5
C = (F- 32)
9
K = °C + 273.15
Solve
5
C = (134F- 32)= 56.7C
9
K = 56.7C + 273.15 = 329.8 K
Think About It
Remind yourself about the expected range for temperatures in the Celsius scale. While 56.7C is quite warm
for a human, it is still below the boiling point of water; a cup of coffee at this temperature would seem tepid
and unpalatable!

In this problem we need to express each mixture of chlorine and sodium as a ratio. The mixture that is closest
to the ratio for chlorine to sodium will be the one with the desired product, leaving neither sodium nor
chlorine left over.
Analyze
First, we must calculate the ratio of chlorine to sodium in sodium chloride. This is a simple ratio of the
masses of these two substances:
massofchlorine
= ratio of the two components
mass of sodium
We can compare the ratios of the other mixtures by making the same calculations.
Solve
In sodium chloride the mass ratio of chlorine to sodium is
1.54gchlorine
= 1.54
1.00 g sodium
Repeating this calculation for the four mixtures, we obtain each ratio of chlorine to sodium:
17.0g 12.0g
= 1.55 for mixture a = 1.8 for mixture c
11.0 g 6.5 g
10.0g 8.0g
= 1.5 for mixture b = 1.2 for mixture d
6.5 g 6.5 g
Both mixtures a and b react so that there is neither sodium nor chlorine left over.
Think About It
Mixture c has leftover chlorine and mixture d has leftover sodium after the reaction is complete.

For this problem we try to identify which cylinder is made of aluminum and which is made of titanium by
comparing experimentally determined densities with the actual known densities.
Analyze
It may help to picture what we are asked to determine in each part.
(a) To calculate the volume of each cylinder from its dimensions, we will have to use the equation for the
volume of a cylinder:
2
Volume of cylinder = height of cylinder´ ´ (radius)
1
where radius = ´ diameter.
2
(b) To calculate the volume from the water displacement method, we need only find the difference in water
volume for each cylinder from the diagram in Figure P1.90.
(c) To determine the method with the most significant figures, we will compare the answers in parts (a)
and (b).
(d) To compute the density for each cylinder we use the equation for density:
mass
Density =
volume
Solve
(a) Volumes of the cylinders from their measured dimensions:
Volume of Cylinder A = 5.1 cm    (0.60 cm)2 = 5.8 cm3
Volume of Cylinder B = 5.9 cm    (0.65 cm) = 7.8 cm
2 3
(b) Volume of cylinders from water displacement measurements:

Volume of Cylinder A = 30.8 mL- 25.0 mL = 5.8 mL
Volume of Cylinder B = 32.8 mL - 25.0 mL = 7.8 mL
(c) Neither. As seen in the above calculations, both the volume measurement from the water displacement
method and from the cylinders’ dimensions have two significant figures for the volume calculation.
(d) From part (a) and part (b) we obtain answers with two significant figures for the density:
15.560g
Density of Cylinder A = = 2.7 g/mL
5.8 mL
35.536g
Density of Cylinder B = 4.6 g/mL
7.8 mL
=
Think About It
How we make measurements is very important to the values we can report for those measurements. In this
problem, neither method provided more significant figures for the calculation. By comparing the calculated
densities to known values, we see that cylinder A is aluminum, and cylinder B is titanium.

This problem asks us to compute the percentages of the two ingredients in trail mix as manufactured on
different days. Given these percentages, we are asked to determine the mean, standard deviation, and 90%
confidence intervals for each component. With this data, we can determine if the trail mix contains the ideal
composition of 67% peanuts and 33% raisins.
Analyze
Each day has a total of 82 pieces (peanuts plus raisins), so the percentage of the mix in peanuts for each day
is calculated by the equation
numberofpeanutsinmix
% peanuts = ´ 100
82
Since the trail mix contains only two components, the percentage of raisins is simply 100% − % peanuts. The
mean and standard deviation may be calculated using the following equations:
å (xi ) å (xi - x ) 2
i i
x= , s=
n n- 1
The 90% confidence interval is given by the equation
ts
= x±
n
For a sample with four data points (n = 4), the value for t is 2.353, as shown in Table 1.6.
Solve
(a) For each day, the percentage of peanuts and raisins is
50 peanuts
Day 1 ´ 100% = 61% peanuts
82 pieces
100% - 61% = 39% raisins
56 peanuts
Day 11 ´ 100% = 68% peanuts
82 pieces
100% - 68% = 32% raisins
48 peanuts
Day 21 ´ 100% = 59% peanuts
82 pieces
100% - 59% = 41% raisins
52 peanuts
Day 31 ´ 100% = 63% peanuts
82 pieces
100% - 63% = 37% raisins
We may calculate the mean and standard deviation for each component.
(61+ 68+ 59+ 63)

Peanuts x = = 63%
4
xi (xi - x ) (xi - x ) å (x - x )
i
i
2 2
s
61 −2 4
68 5 25
59 −4 16
63 0 0
45 3.9
(39+ 32+ 41+ 37)

Raisins x = = 37%
4
xi
39 (xi - x−2
) (xi - x ) 4 å (x - x )
2
i
i
s
32 5 25
41 −4 16
37 0 0
45 3.9
2.353(3.9)
(b) Peanuts  = 63± = 63± 4.6%
4
2.353(3.9)
Raisins  = 37 ± = 37 ± 4.6%
4
Yes, the 90% confidence interval contains the percentages for the desired composition of 67% peanuts and
33% raisins.
Think About It
On Days 1, 21, and 31, too few peanuts were in the trail mix.

For this problem we have to calculate the volume that each liquid takes up from their known density values
and add those volumes together. We then have to use that volume to determine the height of the liquid in the
cylinder.
Analyze
To find the volume of each liquid from the given mass we can use the density equation:
mass
Volume =
density
The volume of each liquid should then be added together to find the total volume. Rearranging the equation
describing the volume of a cylinder as shown, we can calculate the height of the two liquids in the cylinder:
Volume of cylinder (V ) = πr 2 h
V
h=
πr 2
We have to be careful to watch for consistent units. Knowing that 1 cm3 = 1 mL should help.
Solve
1mL
Volume of gasoline = 34.0 g´ = 47 mL
0.73 g
1mL
Volume of water = 34.0 g´ = 34.0 mL
1.00 g
Total volume = 47 mL + 34.0 mL = 81 mL
Using the above equation with V = 81 mL or 81 cm3 and the fact that the radius is half the diameter
(3.2 cm/2 = 1.6 cm) gives the height of the liquids in the cylinder.
81 cm 3
h= = 10. cm
´ (1.6 cm) 2
Think About It
This is a reasonable value for the height of the liquids in the cylinder considering that their combined volume
is about 81 mL.

We are told that the same force is used to stretch two springs. The stronger spring will stretch less than the
weaker spring, so we are looking for which spring will experience a smaller percentage increase in length.
Analyze
We can find the percentage length increase in spring A by considering the length when stretched (lstretched) and
the natural length (lnatural). We can determine the percentage increase in length using
lstretched - lnatural
% length increase = ×100%
lnatural
Solve
5.4 cm- 4.0 cm
% length increase = ´ 100% = 35%
4.0 cm
Spring A’s length increases by 35%, while spring B’s length only increases by 15%. Spring B is stronger.
Think About It
If we assume that spring B was also 4.0 cm in its natural state, a 15% increase in length corresponds to a final
length of 4.6 cm. This is much shorter than spring A when stretched, supporting our answer above.

This question asks us about a total distance traveled in both miles and kilometers, given a time and a series of
speeds. A speed expressed as 1.6 mi/h is equivalent to saying “travels 1.6 miles in one hour.”
Analyze
We can multiply each speed by the time the class traveled each day, eight hours, to determine the number of
miles traveled each day. By adding these numbers, we can determine the total distance traveled on the field
trip. The daily speeds we need are given in the question:
1.6 mi 1.4 mi 1.7 mi
, ,
1h 1h 1h
Solve
æ 1y .6 mi ö æ
÷ 1y÷ .4 mi ö æ÷ 1y .7 mi ö
ç8 h´ 1 h ÷+ 8 h´
ø ç
÷ 1h
÷+ çç8 h´
÷
ø è 1h ø÷÷= 38 mi
é 1.6 mi 1.4 mi 1.7 mi ù 1.6093km

8h 8h 8h 61 km
æ ö÷ æ ö÷ æ ö÷
êç ´ ÷+ ç ´ ÷+ ç ´ ÷ú´ =
ê 1 h ø çè 1 h ø çè 1 h ø÷ú 1 mi
ë û
Think About It
For a three-day hike, 38 miles seems like a reasonable distance. The class hikes nearly a half-marathon
(13.1 miles) each day!

From the given mass of fluoride per gram of toothpaste and given that NaF is 45% fluoride by mass, we are
to calculate the mass of NaF in an 8.2-oz tube of toothpaste.
Analyze
First, we will convert the weight of the toothpaste in the tube from ounces to grams using 1 oz = 28.35 g.
From that we can calculate the mg of F− in the toothpaste using 1.00 mg F−/g of toothpaste. Finally, because
45% of the mass of the active ingredient in toothpaste (NaF) is F−, we multiply the result by 100/45 to obtain
the mass of sodium fluoride (NaF) in the toothpaste.
Solve
28.35 gtoothpaste 1.00 mgF-y 100 mgNaF
8.2 oz´ ´ ´ = 5.2´ 210 mg NaF
1 oz 1 g toothpaste 45 mg F-
Think About It
Some toothpastes use sodium monofluorophosphate (Na2PO3F) as the active ingredient instead of sodium
fluoride. Sodium monofluorophosphate has a much smaller percentage of fluoride, so a larger mass is
required to deliver the same quantity of fluoride in toothpaste.

Given the amounts of recognition molecule, capture molecule, and detector molecule along with the amounts
of each needed for one HIV assay plate, we are to determine whether we have sufficient amounts for
96 assay plates.
Analyze
To calculate the amount of each molecule required for the 96 assay plates, we first multiply the required
amounts of each molecule by 96. We then subtract this amount from the quantity of each molecule that is
available to determine if there are sufficient amounts of each molecule.
Solve
(a) Amount of recognition molecule needed:
0.550 mg  96 = 52.8 mg
This is less than the amount of recognition molecule available.
100.00 mg − 52.8 mg = 47.2 mg left over
Amount of capture molecule needed:
1.200 mg  96 = 115.2 mg
This is more than the amount of recognition molecule available.
100.00 mg − 115.2 mg = −15.2 mg (deficit)
Amount of detector molecule needed:
0.450 mg  96 = 43.2 mg
This is less than the amount of detector molecule available.
50.00 mg − 43.2 mg = 6.8 mg left over
(b) We can make only the number of plates that use up the amount of capture molecules.
100.00mg
= 83 plates
1.200 mg
Think About It
At most we could prepare 83 plates. Practically speaking, however, we might expect that we would be able to
prepare slightly fewer than 83 plates because it is likely that some material would be lost during weighing
and transfer of the capture molecule sample.

In this problem we have to calculate the number of tablets of vitamin C to take to reach a dosage level of
1.00 g given the amount of vitamin C in a 500.0 mg tablet.
Analyze
First, we have to calculate the amount (in grams) of vitamin C in each 500.0 mg tablet:
Mass of vitamin C in tablet = mass of tablet´ percentage of vitamin C in tablet
Next, we determine the number of tablets that would comprise 1.00 g of vitamin C:
amountofvitaminCdesired
Number of tablets =
amount of vitamin C in one tablet
Solve
1g
500.0 mg´ ´ 0.20 = 0.10 g of vitamin C in each tablet
1000 mg
1.00gvitaminC
= 10 tablets
0.10 g of vitamin C/tablet
Think About It
This does not seem to be an extraordinary number of tablets to take. This is because the tablets themselves
are fairly large (0.5 g) and contain a good portion of vitamin C (20%).

Given the low and high measured temperatures for three thermometers, we can choose the best one to use.
Analyze
The best thermometer will be the one that is most accurate for the range of temperatures.
Solve
Thermometer A deviates from 0C by −0.8C and from 100C by +0.1C. Thermometer B deviates from 0C
by +0.3C and from 100C by −0.2C. Thermometer C deviates from 0C by +0.3C and from 100C by
+0.3C. Only for Thermometer C is the temperature scale linear, as it deviates from the melting and boiling
points of water by the same amount (−0.3C), so it will be the “best” thermometer to use because it will be
the most precise.
Think About It
To accurately use Thermometer C you must subtract 0.3C from each measured value.
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THE FIR.
The Fir and the spruce are readily distinguished from the pine by
their botanical characters and by those general marks which are
apparent to common observers. They have shorter leaves than the
pine, not arranged in fascicles, but singly and in rows along the
branch. The cones of the American species are smaller than those of
the pine, and they ripen their seeds every year; their lateral branches
are smaller and more numerous, and are given out more
horizontally. They are taller in proportion to their spread, and more
regularly pyramidal in their outlines. The principal generic
distinction between the Fir and the spruce is the manner in which
they bear their cones; those of the Fir stand erect upon their branch,
while those of the spruce are suspended from it. Botanists have lately
separated the spruce from the Fir, which they describe under the
generic name of Picea. As my descriptions of trees are
physiognomical rather than botanical, I shall have no occasion to
adopt or to reject this innovation. The spruces, however, are always
described by travellers as firs. Whenever they speak of Fir woods,
they include in them both the Fir and the spruce.
THE BALSAM FIR.
This tree is the American representative of the silver fir of Europe,
but is inferior to it in all respects. The silver fir is one of the tallest
trees on the continent of Europe, remarkable for the beauty of its
form and foliage, and for the value of its timber. The American tree is
inferior to it in height, in density of foliage, in longevity, and in the
durability of its wood. Both trees, however, display the same general
characters to observation, having a bluish-green foliage, with a
silvery under surface, closely arranged upon the branches, that curve
gracefully upward at the extremities. The secondary branches have
the same upward curvature, never hanging down in the formal
manner of the Norway spruce. There is an airiness in its appearance
that is quite charming, and to a certain extent makes amends for its
evident imperfections. When the Balsam Fir is young, it is very neat
and pretty; but as it advances in years it becomes bald, and displays
but little foliage except on the extremities of the branches. This is a
remarkable defect in many of this family of trees. European writers
complain of it in the silver fir. It is observed in the hemlock, except in
favorable situations, and in the black spruce, but in a less degree in
the white and Norway spruces.
THE SPRUCE.
The Spruce, which is indigenous in New England, comprehends

the White and the Black Spruce and the Hemlock. The etymology of
this word is worthy of notice. Evelyn says, “For masts (speaking of
firs), those from Prussia, which we call Spruce, and Norway are the
best.” The word seems to be a corruption of “Pruse,” meaning
Prussian. I have formerly thought that the name was applied to this
tree to distinguish it from others of the same family which display
less of this formal symmetry; but the fir proper is certainly more
spruce in its shape than the more flowing Spruce Fir.
THE WHITE SPRUCE.
The White Spruce is less common as an ornamental tree than the
Norway spruce, which is preferred as more rapid growing and
stately. But the points of difference seem to me very much in favor of
the White Spruce. We may distinguish them by the following marks.
The White Spruce is not so tall as the European tree, and its cones
are very much smaller, though both are pendent. But what is most
remarkable is their different mode of branching. The principal
branches of each are given out at right angles, with this apparent
difference only, that the whorls are more widely separated in the
Norway spruce, the distance seeming to be proportional to the
comparative length or height of the trees. The leaves of the Norway
spruce grow only on the top and two sides of the branch, those of the
American spruce cover its whole circumference, being almost
cylindrical.
But the most remarkable difference is observed in the disposition
of the secondary branches. The Norway spruce suspends them
almost perpendicularly from its horizontal boughs. Those of the
American tree are tufted, not pendulous, but merely drooping a little
at their extremities. This gives the whole mass a more sturdy
appearance, and takes away some of that formality which is so
tiresome in the Norway spruce. For we should bear in mind, that,
although hanging foliage is supposed to be less formal than the
opposite, it is not invariably so. The drooping foliage of the elm and
the hemlock is graceful, but that of the Norway spruce resembles an
artificial arrangement, and reminds me of garments hanging upon a
patent clothes-line. I think the tufted mode of growth of the
American spruces would be generally preferred to the formal
drooping foliage of the Norway spruce and European larch.
THE BLACK SPRUCE.
The Black Spruce is a taller and larger tree in its native forest than
the white spruce; but the latter, when planted in pleasure-grounds,
makes a more beautiful standard than the other, which is apt to grow
scraggy and defective, like the balsam fir. There is some difficulty in
distinguishing the two American species, until they have been
repeatedly examined and compared, though they do not differ from
each other so obviously as they both differ from the Norway spruce.
In the white spruce the trunk tapers more rapidly, the bark of the
recent branches is lighter colored, the cones are smaller and more
elongated, the leaves have more of a glaucous hue, they are also
longer and less numerous, and do not form so perfect a cylinder by
closely surrounding the branch, as in the Black Spruce.
Notwithstanding their similarity, it is the Black Spruce alone that
produces the essential oil for the manufacture of beer. This species is
also much more valuable for its timber. Emerson remarks that the
leaves and scales of all the pine family, in which are included the
spruce and the fir, are so disposed as to form spirals in two
directions.
THE NORWAY SPRUCE.
The Norway Spruce is very favorably known in this part of the
country as an ornamental tree. It is described by European writers as
the tallest tree of the European forest, except the silver fir. In this
country no trees of this species have attained any great altitude,
having been all planted within a space of fifty years. Occasionally we
behold a solitary individual that may have attained about half of its
possible height, but the most do not exceed twenty or thirty feet. In
certain situations no man could help admiring the beauty and
majesty of these trees, when, for example, they border an extensive
field, dividing it, as it were, from the roadside, as may be seen on the
southern borders of the Observatory ground in Cambridge. But as a
boundary for a garden or enclosure the trees of all this family are too
gloomy. The Norway Spruce would be more valuable to plant for its
timber than our native species, because it is more rapid in its growth
and would produce a greater length of shaft in a given number of
years. But the two American spruces are more beautiful trees, as
would be apparent to any one who should compare them when
growing together.
THE NORTHERN CYPRESS.
The Northern Cypress, or White Cedar, is a more stately tree than

the juniper, but it is never seen by our waysides; it will thrive only in
swampy soils. This is the tree that covers those extensive morasses
known as cedar swamps, which are, perhaps, the best examples
extant of the primitive forest. The White Cedar is not often called the
Cypress in New England, and in general appearance, and especially
in the style of its foliage, bears but little resemblance to the Southern
Cypress; but its similarity to the juniper is very striking. It is a taller
tree than the European Cypress. By some botanists it is classed with
the arbor-vitæ.
This tree is not confined to inland moors, but is often found upon
marshes which are overflowed by the tide of the ocean. Cedar
swamps are common in all the maritime parts of the country. In
many of them in New England the trees are so closely set that it is
difficult to traverse them. Their wetness presents another obstacle to
the traveller, except in winter, when the water is frozen, or in the
driest part of summer. In these swamps there is a covering, in some
parts, of bog-moss, from six inches to a foot deep, always charged
with moisture, in which are embedded several half-parasitic plants,
such as the white orchis. The White Cedar constitutes with the
southern cypress the principal timber of the Great Dismal Swamp,
and is the last tree, except the red maple, which is discovered when
travelling through an extensive morass.
Michaux remarks that in the Southern swamps which are occupied
by the Northern and Southern Cypress, the former “are observed to
choose the centre of the swamps, and the southern cypresses the
circumference.” In the region of the southern cypress the cedar
swamps are skirted by the tupelo and the red maple. There is but
little superficial resemblance between the two cypresses. The foliage
of the Northern tree is evergreen. “Each leaf,” says Michaux, “is a
little branch numerously subdivided, and composed of small, acute,
imbricated scales, on the back of which a minute gland is discovered
with the lens. In the angle of these ramifications grow the flowers,
which are scarcely visible, and which produce very small rugged
cones of a greenish tint, that change to bluish towards the fall, when
they open to release the fine seeds.”
THE SOUTHERN CYPRESS.
We have read more perhaps of the Southern Cypress than of any
other American tree; but what we have read relates to some of its
peculiarities, such as the stumps that grow up among the perfect
trees, and of which, in the economy of nature, it is difficult to
discover the advantages. We have read also of the immense gloomy
swamps that are shaded by trees of this species; of the long mosses,
called the “garlands of death,” that hang from their branches,
rendering the scene still more gloomy. But from all our reading we
should not discover what is immediately apparent to our
observation, when we see this tree, that it is one of the most beautiful
of the forest.
The Southern Cypress is beginning to be prized here as an
ornamental tree, and the few standards in the enclosures of
suburban estates will convince any one that no species has been
brought from the South that surpasses it in elegance and beauty. The
larch, which is a favorite ornamental tree, will not compare with it,
though there is some superficial resemblance between it and the
American larch. They are both deciduous; and their foliage is
brighter in the summer than that of other conifers. The leaves of the
deciduous Cypress are of the most delicate texture, of a light green,
and arranged in neat opposite rows, like those of the hemlock, on the
slender terminal branches.
Michaux remarks that the banks of the Indian River, a small
stream in Delaware, are the northern boundary of the deciduous
Cypress. He says it occupies an area of more than fifteen hundred
miles. The largest trees are found in the swamps that contain a deep,
miry soil, with a surface of vegetable mould, renewed every year by
floods. Some of these trees are “one hundred and twenty feet in
height, and from twenty-five to forty feet in circumference at the
conical base, which, at the surface of the earth, is always three or four
times as large as the continued diameter of the trunk. In felling them
the negroes are obliged to raise themselves upon scaffolds five or six
feet from the ground. The base is usually hollow for three quarters of
its bulk.” The conical protuberances for which this tree is remarkable
come from the roots of the largest trees, particularly of those in very
wet soils. “They are,” says Michaux, “commonly from eighteen to
twenty-four inches in height, and sometimes from four to five feet in
thickness. They are always hollow, smooth on the surface, and
covered with a reddish bark like the roots, which they resemble also
in the softness of their wood. They exhibit no signs of vegetation, and
I have never succeeded in obtaining shoots by wounding their
surface and covering them with earth. No cause can be assigned for
their existence. They are peculiar to the Cypress, and begin to appear
when it is twenty or twenty-five feet in height. They are made use of
only by the negroes for beehives.”
The leaves of the Cypress seem like pinnate leaves, with two rows
of leaflets. Their tint is of a light and very bright green, which gives
the tree a liveliness, when in full foliage, that is displayed but by few
other trees. But as the foliage is deciduous, and as the branches in its
native swamps are covered by long tresses of black moss, when it has
shed its leaves nothing in nature can present a more gloomy
appearance. In a dense wood, the foliage is very thin, giving rise to
the name of the Bald Cypress, so that it is only on the outside of the
forest that the tree can be considered beautiful. Its spray is of as fine
a texture as the leaves. When the tree is young it is pyramidal, but
the old trees are invariably flattened at the top.
The wood of this tree, though soft, is very durable, fine grained,
and of a reddish color, and is extensively used for the same purposes
for which the wood of the white pine is employed.
THE JUNIPER.
The Juniper is an historical tree, and has been the subject of many
interesting traditions,—supposed by the ancients to yield a shade
that was injurious to human life; the emblem of faith, because its
heart is always sound; the bearer of fruit regarded as a panacea for
all diseases, and a magic charm which was thrown on the funeral pile
to protect the spirit of the dead from evil, and bound with the leaves
to propitiate the deities by their incense. It is not improbable that the
superstitious notions respecting the power of its fruit to heal diseases
gave origin to the use of it in the manufacture of certain alcoholic
liquors; and it is a remarkable fact that universal belief in its virtues
as a panacea should have attached to a plant which is now used for
no important medical purpose whatever save the flavoring of gin!
The Juniper, very generally called the Red Cedar, and known in
many places as the Savin, is well known to all our people, and is
associated with the most rugged scenery of our coast. On all our
rocky hills which have been stripped of their original growth the
Juniper springs up as if it found there a soil congenial to its wants.
On the contrary, the soil is very poorly adapted to it, for the tree
never attains a good size in these situations. Its presence there may
be attributed to the birds that feed in winter upon its fruit, and
scatter its seeds while in quest of dormant insects among the sods. As
we journey southward, we find this tree in perfection in New Jersey
and Maryland; and in all the Atlantic States south of Long Island
Sound the Junipers are large and thrifty trees.
On our barren hills, near the coast, where they are so common as
to be the most conspicuous feature of certain regions, they display a
great variety of shapes and grotesque peculiarities of outline. Yet the
normal shape of this tree is a perfect spire. When it presents this
form, it is, in the true sense of the word, a beautiful object. Even its
rusty-green foliage gives variety to the hues of the landscape, and
heightens by contrast the verdure of other trees. This effect is the
more remarkable at midsummer, when the green of the different
trees has become nearly uniform in its shades. At this time the
mixture of the duller tints of the Juniper is very agreeable.
The Juniper is very full of branches, irregularly disposed at a small
angle with the trunk, forming an exceedingly dense mass of foliage. A
singular habit of this tree is that of producing tufts of branches with
foliage resembling that of the prostrate Juniper, as if a branch of that
shrub had been ingrafted upon it. The berries, which are abundant in
the fertile trees, are of a light bluish color, and afford a winter repast
to many species of birds, particularly the waxwing. The branches,
when their extremities are brought into contact with the soil, readily
take root. Hence we sometimes find a clump of small trees gathered
like children around the parent tree.
The trunk of this tree diminishes so rapidly in size as to lose its
value for many purposes to which the wood is adapted; but this rapid
diminution in diameter is one of its picturesque properties, and the
cause in part of that spiry form which is so much admired in this
tree. The lateral branches, always inserted obliquely, diminish in size
proportionally with the decrease of the trunk. The Juniper is first
discovered on Cedar Island in Lake Champlain, and, south of this
latitude, extends all along the coast to the Cape of Florida, and along
the shores of the Gulf of Mexico.
THE ARBOR-VITÆ.
The American Arbor-Vitæ is a small tree growing very much in the

spiry form of the juniper, but narrower in the lower part. It is like the
juniper also in its numerous and irregularly disposed branches. It is
not seen in the woods near Boston; and it is rare even in cultivated
grounds, where the Siberian Arbor-Vitæ, on account of its superior
foliage, is preferred. The American tree grows abundantly in high
northern latitudes. It is remarkable, with its kindred species, for the
flattened shape of its leaves; and in its native woods it is hardly ever
without a mixture of yellow and faded leaves interspersed with the
green and healthy foliage. The terminal branch invested by the
leaflets—resembling scales, and not a true leaf—constitutes this fan-
like appendage, resembling the frond of a fern. The leaves have the
flavor and odor of tansy.
In Maine the Arbor-Vitæ, next to the black spruce and hemlock, is
more frequent than any other of the evergreens. It delights in cold,
damp soils, and abounds on the rocky shores of streams and lakes. It
sometimes constitutes a forest of several acres, with but a slight
intermixture of other trees, predominating in proportion to the
wetness of the soil. In the driest parts of these bogs we find the black
spruce, the hemlock, the red birch, and, rarely, a few white pines.
THE YEW.
In Great Britain the Yew is one of the most celebrated of trees, the
one that is generally consecrated to burial-grounds, and that most
frequently overshadows the graves of the dead. It is a tree of second
magnitude, and remarkable for its longevity. The American Yew is
seldom anything more than a prostrate shrub, resembling branches
of fir spreading over the ground. It is said, however, that although it
is a creeping shrub on the Atlantic coast, it becomes a tree on the
coast of the Pacific; in like manner the alder, which is a shrub here,
becomes a tree in Oregon and California.
In New England, the Yew is a solitary tree, growing among
deciduous trees as if it required their protection. It never constitutes
a forest either here or in Europe. It seems to love the shade, and
when it is not under the protection of trees, it is found on the shady
sides of hills, and in moist, clayey soils, but never on sandy plains. I
shall not speak of the romantic customs associated with the
European Yew; but the absence of this tree deprives us of a very
romantic feature in landscape.
THE WHITE PINE.
The pines in general have not the formality that distinguishes the
fir and the spruce. They seldom display so much of a pyramidal
shape as we observe in a symmetrical fir. Their leaves are longer, and
their branches not so regularly given out in whorls. They are also
more generally round-headed when old; their leaves are in small
fascicles, containing from two to five, while those of the fir are
arranged singly along the branch or round it. The pine contains a
greater quantity of turpentine than any other family of resinous
trees, and many of the species are of the highest value in the
mechanic arts. In the New England States three species only are
known, and of these two only are common.
The most remarkable of this family of trees, and the one that
comes nearest the fir in symmetry and formality, is the White Pine.
But though like the fir in symmetry, it resembles it the least in all
other qualities, having the most flexibility of foliage of all the pines,
and bearing its leaves in fives. The White Pine, according to
Michaux, “is the loftiest and most valuable of the productions of the
North American forest. Its summit is seen at an immense distance,
aspiring to heaven, far above the heads of the surrounding trees.”
At first sight of a full-grown and well-proportioned White Pine we
are struck with its evident adaptedness to all purposes of shade and
shelter, in its wide-spread, horizontal branches, and in its silken
tufted foliage. It is not impenetrable to sunshine, but admits it in
constant flickering beams of light; and we perceive immediately that
there is no other tree in whose shade it would be more agreeable to
recline on a hot summer’s day, or under whose protection we might
obtain a greater amount of comfort in winter. The uniform
arrangement of its branches in whorls, forming a series of stages one
above another, its tasselled foliage in long, silky tufts at the ends of
the branches, and its symmetrical outline, constitute in the most
obvious sense a beautiful tree. These tufts, though not pendulous,
have none of the stiff bristling appearance of the other pines; and
their verdure is of a sober, not a sombre tint, though rather dull in
lustre.
The symmetry or formality which some writers condemn in the
style of this tree is not of a disagreeable kind, like that of the Norway
spruce. It is combined both with majesty and grace, and increases
the grandeur of its appearance, like the architectural proportions of a
temple in which grandeur could not be produced without symmetry.
This tree has much of the amplitude so remarkable in the cedar of
Lebanon. Hence the look of primness, which the firs always retain, is
counteracted by its nobleness and altitude. It is combined also with a
certain negligent habit of its leafy robes, that softens its dignity into
grace, and causes it to wear its honors like one who feels no
constraint under their burden.
The White Pine has no legendary history. Being an American tree,
it is celebrated neither in poetry nor romance. It is associated with no
classical images, like the oak, nor with sacred literature, like the
cedar of Lebanon. It has no poetic history and no reputation save
what it may have derived from the easy motion of its foliage, the
gentle sweep of its smaller branches, its terebinthine odors, and its
pleasant, romantic shade. It has no factitious charms, but depends
on its own intrinsic merits for the pleasure it affords either the sight
or the mind. In New England, the White Pine contributes more than
any other evergreen to give character to our scenery. It is seen both
in large and small assemblages and in clumps, but not often as a
solitary standard. We see it in our journeys projecting over
eminences that are encircled by old roads, shading the traveller from
the sun and protecting him from the wind. We have sat under its
fragrant shade, in our pedestrian tours, when weary with heat and
exercise we sought its coolness, and blessed it as one of the guardian
deities of the wood. We are familiar with it in all pleasant, solitary
places; and in our evening rambles we have listened underneath its
boughs to the notes of the green warbler, who selects it for his abode,
and has caught a plaintive tone from the winds that sweep through
its long sibilant leaves.
The White Pine is a tree that harmonizes with all situations, rude
or cultivated, level or abrupt. On the side of a hill it adds grandeur to
the declivity, and yields a sweeter look of tranquillity to the green
pastoral meadow. It gives a darker frown to the projecting cliff, and a
more awful uncertainty to the mountain pass or the craggy ravine.
Over desolate scenery it spreads a cheerfulness that detracts nothing
from its power over the imagination, while it relieves it of its terrors,
by presenting a green bulwark of defence against the wind and the
storm. Nothing can be more picturesque in scenery than the
occasional groups of White Pines on the bald hills of our New
England coast, elsewhere too often a dreary waste of homely bush
and brier.
Such are its picturesque characters. It may also be regarded as a
true symbol of benevolence. Under its outspread roof, numerous
small animals, nestling in the bed of dry leaves that cover the
ground, find shelter and repose. The squirrel feeds upon the kernels
obtained from its cones; the hare browses upon the trefoil and the
spicy foliage of the hypericum, which are protected in its shade, and
the fawn reposes on its brown couch of leaves, unmolested by the
outer tempest. From its green arbors the quails are often roused in
midwinter, where they feed upon the berries of the michella and the
spicy wintergreen. Nature, indeed, seems to have designed this tree
to protect her living creatures both in summer and winter.
The geographical limits of the White Pine are not very extensive. It
is confined to northern regions, but does not extend so far north as
the red pine or the fir. In the Southern and Middle States it is seen
only in the Alleghany range; but it constitutes the principal timber of
the pine forests of Canada and the New England States, which
Loudon says are “the most extensive in the world.” The débris of
granite affords the best soil for the coniferous trees, but the White
Pine is seldom found in marshes. The tree that bears the nearest
resemblance to it is the Lambert pine of California, to which our tree
approximates in size. Michaux measured two trunks near the banks
of the Kennebec, one of which was one hundred and fifty-four feet in
length, and fifty-four inches in diameter; the other, one hundred and
forty-two feet in length, and forty-four inches in diameter.
THE PITCH PINE.
The Pitch Pine differs very widely in its style of growth from the
white pine, and displays fewer of those points that excite our
admiration. Its leaves form larger and more diffusive tufts, and are
more bristling and erect from their superior rigidity. It is remarkable
for its rough and shaggy appearance; hence its Latin name, rigida.
Indeed there is not a tree in our forest that equals it in the roughness
that is manifest in every part of it and in every stage of its growth.
This is one of the most common trees in the Southern “pine barrens”;
and some of the ancient pine woods in New England were made up
principally of this species. Such was that extensive wood near
Concord, N. H., known by the poetic appellation of “Dark Plains,”
and in the early part of the century occupying a wide flat region in
the valley of the Merrimack River.
This species does not give out its branches horizontally, nor in
regular whorls. They run up at rather a wide angle with the stem,
forming a head that approaches more nearly to a globular shape than
that of any other of the American conifers. The branches have
frequently a tortuous shape; for when crowded in a dense wood they
do not so easily perish as those of the white pine, but turn in various
directions to find light and space. They are likewise often bent
downwards at their terminations, with a very apparent curvature.
There is no conifer that displays so few straight lines in its
composition; and, having no exact symmetry in its proportions, it
may be mutilated to a considerable extent without losing its normal
characters of beauty.
In young trees of this species the whorls of branches may be
plainly distinguished; but as the tree increases in size, so many
members of the whorl become abortive that all regularity of staging
in their arrangement is destroyed. As these branches are numerous,
with but little space between the original whorls, they seem to project
from every part of the trunk. This tree displays very little primness in
its shape, or of a spiry form, save when it is a very young tree. A
peculiar habit of the Pitch Pine is that of producing little branchlets
full of leaves along the stem from the root upwards, completely
enveloping some of the principal boughs. These are rarely anything
more than tufts of leaves standing out as if they had been grafted into
the bark of the tree. It seems to be stimulated to produce this
anomalous growth by the loss of its small branches. It then soon
covers itself with this embroidery, and thus garlanded presents a
picturesque appearance more interesting than that of the perfect
trees.
I have seen very beautiful Pitch Pine trees of an abnormal shape,
caused by the loss, when young, of the leading shoot. The lateral
branches next below this terminal bud, being thus converted into
leaders, produce two and sometimes three leading branches, giving
the tree some of the characters of the deciduous species. The white
pine is not improved by a similar accident, as it loses thereby the
expression of grandeur that comes from the length and size of its
lateral branches, which are always diminished by coming from two
or more leading shafts. Michaux remarks that when Pitch-Pines
“grow in masses, the cones are dispersed singly over the branches,
and they shed their seeds the first autumn after they mature. But on
solitary trees the cones are collected in groups of four or five, or even
a larger number, and will remain on the trees, closed, for several
years.”
The Pitch Pine abounds all along the coast from Massachusetts to
the Carolinas; but it is rare in the northern parts of Maine and New
Hampshire and north of these States. It is said to have been very
abundant in the southern part of New England before the eighteenth
century, but large forests of it were consumed in making tar for
exportation to Great Britain. The Pitch Pine woods of the present day
consist of small stunted trees, showing by their inferior thrift that
they stand upon an exhausted soil.
The trees of this species, for the most part too homely and rough to
please the sight, are not generally admired as objects in the
landscape; but there is a variety in their shapes that makes amends
for their want of comeliness and gives them a marked importance in
scenery. We do not in general sufficiently estimate the value of
homely objects among the scenes of nature, though they are indeed
the groundwork of all charming scenery, and set off to advantage the
beauty of more comely objects. They give rest and relief to the eye,
after it has felt the stimulus of beautiful forms and colors, that would
soon pall upon the sense; and they leave imagination free to dress
the scene according to our own fancy.
Hence I am led to prize many a homely tree as possessing a high
value, by exalting our susceptibility to beauty, and by relieving
nature of that monotony which is so apparent when all the objects in
a scene are beautiful. We see this monotony in all dressed grounds of
considerable extent. We soon become weary of their ever-flowing
lines of grace and elegance, and the harmonious blending of forms
and colors introduced by art. This principle explains the difficulty of
reading a whole volume written in verse. We soon weary of luxuries;
and after strolling in grounds laid out in gaudy flower-beds and
smooth shaven lawn, the tired eye rests with tranquil delight upon
rude pastures bounded by loose stone-walls, and hills embroidered
with ferns and covered with boulders.
The pines are not classed with deciduous trees, yet they shed their
leaves in autumn with constant regularity. Late in October you may
see the yellow or brown foliage, then ready to fall, surrounding the
branches of the previous year’s growth, forming a whorl of brown
fringe, surmounted by a tuft of green leaves of the present year’s
growth. Their leaves always turn yellow before they fall. In the arbor-
vitæ there is a curious intermixture of brown leaves with the green
growth of the past summer; but, before November arrives, all the
faded leaves drop, and the tree forms a mass of unmingled verdure.

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Full Download pdf of Solution Manual for Chemistry The Science in Context, 5th edition, Thomas R Gilbert, Rein V Kirss, Natalie Foster, Stacey Lowery Bretz, Geoffrey Davies all chapter

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Solution Manual for Chemistry The

Science in Context, 5th edition, Thomas

Test Bank for Chemistry The Science in Context, 5th

Instructor Manual For Chemistry: The Science in Context

Solution Manual for Chemistry An Atoms-Focused

Test Bank for Chemistry An Atoms-Focused Approach, 3rd

Test Bank for Chemistry The Science in Context, Fourth

Solution Manual for The Context of Business:

Test Bank for Chemistry in Context Applying Chemistry

Solution Manual for Chemistry: The Central Science,

1.3. Collect and Organize

1.4. Collect and Organize

1.5. Collect and Organize

1.6. Collect and Organize

1.7. Collect and Organize

1.8. Collect and Organize

1.9. Collect and Organize

1.10. Collect and Organize

1.11. Collect and Organize

1.12. Collect and Organize

1.13. Collect and Organize

1.14. Collect and Organize

1.15. Collect and Organize

1.16. Collect and Organize

1.17. Collect and Organize

1.18. Collect and Organize

1.19. Collect and Organize

1.20. Collect and Organize

1.21. Collect and Organize

1.22. Collect and Organize

1.23. Collect and Organize

1.24. Collect and Organize

1.25. Collect and Organize

1.26. Collect and Organize

1.27. Collect and Organize

1.28. Collect and Organize

1.29. Collect and Organize

1.30. Collect and Organize and Analyze

1.31. Collect and Organize

1.32. Collect and Organize

1.33. Collect and Organize

1.34. Collect and Organize

1.35. Collect and Organize

1.36. Collect and Organize and Analyze

1.37. Collect and Organize

1.38. Collect and Organize

1.39. Collect and Organize

1.40. Collect and Organize

1.41. Collect and Organize

1.42. Collect and Organize

1.43. Collect and Organize

We can then find mass using the following formula:

1.44. Collect and Organize

1.45. Collect and Organize

1.46. Collect and Organize

1.47. Collect and Organize

The conversion from inches to cm is given by

The total depth of the steps is

60. in + 50. in = 110. in

1.48. Collect and Organize

1.49. Collect and Organize

(b) Converting this speed to meters per second gives:

1.50. Collect and Organize

1.51. Collect and Organize