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    Sustainable Energy Technolgies and Asesments 41 (2020) 100795 ‘Contents lists avallable at ScienceDirect Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments journal homepage: www.clsevier.comilocate/seta Original article Assessing the life cycle environmental impacts of hydroelectric generation in Ethiopia Belay Teffera”*, Berhanu Assefa°, Getachew Assefa® ig 1 Schaef Chm an Bi rgaering Ads Ababa sate of Telly, Ais Ababa Cert, Add sb, Epa “racy of Chon and Food Pein, Ba Dar nat of Teco, ar Dar Unto, Bar Da, ipa “Sot of Archer, Poin on ang, Cerny of Clery, Camda Introduction Renewable energy sources are considered as promising options for mitigating energy security and ensuring environmental sustainability Hydropower is one of the renewable power generation technologies ‘with considerable potential to reduce net fossl-based greenhouse gas ‘emissions next to solar and biomass [1. Hence, hydropower plays an Important role in renewable poser generation worldwide, According to the 2019 report of the International Renewable Energy Agency (2) and International Hyéropower Association (3], the global total installed hydropower capacity in 2018 was 1292.4 GW, which was 55% of the total renewable power. According to these reports, tae new hydropower capacity put into operation in 2018 was around 21.8 GW where China added the largest capacity (8.5 GW), followed by Brazil (3.9 GW) and Pakistan (2.5 GW. Inthe same year, total hydropower installed capacity in Africa was 36.7 GW, which vas 8.4% higher compared to the year 2017. Ethiopia, South Africa, Angola, Egypt and Congo Democratic Republic have the highest developed hydroelectric povter with an ag _gregated installed capacity of 16.1 GW that represents 43,9% of the installed eapacity ofthe region, ‘The existence of many large rivers chat low from highlands to lowlands endowed Ethiopia 2 huge hydropower potential. Ethiopia is often described as the water tower of northeastern Aftica, The gross, technical and feasible hydropower potentials ofthe country are about 74,45 and 18 GW respectively, which are equivalent to about 954, 286 and 143 TWh electricity per year (4,5). The current hydropovter in stalled capacity has reached 3822 MW [3], which is only 8.5% of the technically feasible hydropower potential. Ethiopia is developing hy: 500 MW). In Ethiopia, there is no official definition that classifies hydropower projects based on their capacities and thus df ferent studies used diferent size classifications, Varun et al. [40] elas sified Ethiopian hydropower plants 10 MW as divide-line for small and large hydropower plants, while Dametew [41] eategorized as small scale (> 40 MW), mediumseale (40-60 MW) and largescale (© 60 MW). For this study, however, TeAé [39} classification criteria have been applied wheee upper limit of power generation eappacies of small-sacle hydropower plants is 25 MW, medium-scale hydropower plants range between 25 and 100 MW and capacities of large hydro: power plants are above 100 MW. Based on water storage facilities, hydropower stations in Ethiopia are predominantly two types: Run-of river and reservoir types. For the fiest look, Awash Hl, Awash Il, Tis Abay U and Gilgel Gibe Il can be considered as run-afriver hydropower plants with or without appre ciable reservoir to store water behind dams, Awash Mand Awash II hhave separate diversion weirs, pressurized tunnels and penstocks. Tis [Ababy II plant hae no divession weir and rather uses unpressurizes surface eannel that feeds water to the two pressurized penstocks con: nected to vertical Francis turbines. Gilgel Gibe I applies a 40 m high concrete weir for daily regulation (wit eapecity of 1.3 Mm") connected {0 26 km concrete tunnel and 1.2 km two steel penstocks leading to powerhouse equipped with 4 pelton turbines. The Koka, Finca, Melka Wakena, Gilgel Gibe I, Tekeze, Beles and Amerti-neshi receive their turbine water from reservoirs and thus they are reservoir hydropower plants. However, many of them are interconnected, For instance, Awash Tl and Ill are eascades of Koka located about 25 km and 28 km re. spectively downstream of Awash River which are linked to about 23.8 m high gravity dam of net volume about 1680 Mm’. Tis Abay ls Jocated on the Abay River about 35 km downstream of Lake Tana which fs the natural reservoir for Beles, thus Tis Abay Il and Beles are thus connected through Lake Tana. Similarly, Gilgel Gibe Il is cascaded from Gibe I which has a reservoir behind a rock-filed dam (ECRD) of net volume around 668 Mm’. The intake of Gigel Gibe I! is located on the Gite river about 2.5 km downstream of the Gilgle Gibe I outlet. Gilgel Gibe I and Gilgel Gibe I! are synchronized so that the daily rated out flow of Gilgel Gibe I reservoir is about 101.5 m/sec. In Fthiopi, those diversion type run-of river hydropower plants are dependent somehow fn the reservoir hydropower plants that sizes of hydropower plants are ‘more important than water storage facilities for the classification of hydropower plants. Awash Il and Il are modeled as easeaded from Koka hydropower plant and Gilgel Gibe I! is cascaded from Gilgel Gibe 15 Toes cca Sutra nergy Teles an Asean 4 2020) 100795 ‘Table2 lasifction and typeof hydropower plans under sty. Power stains Sea Type enaks matin ™ Reset ‘ie rckied dam Net ees volume ~ 969 Ma? Head = 87 Ts ateyn) ™ Divenion ‘ie canal to dver water fom Aby River es t Reservoir “kes tubine wate on Lake Ta Ge ibe b Resevoir poy okie dam Net reserve vole = 668 Mn®; Head = 228 ‘uel ibe b Diveson asad frm ibe sig a mas conc weit eke kena tL ero Uns tose da, Net eerie = 606 Mm Head = 297 m cia i kone ‘Ue cone sity dam. et serv ome = 1680 Me NBM = medium, L = Lange. It hydropower plant. Accordingly, hydropower plants in Ethiopia con sist of medium- and large scale hydropower plans. n the base year, ‘meadum and large scale hydropower plants generated an average of 381 and 7427.4 GWh electricity respectively. ‘Another classification of hyéropower plants is based on thir loca- tions as topical, non-tropical or alpine hydrpower plants, because greenhouse gas emissions from reservoirs depend on climatic conditions (of particular region [42]. Although Ethiopia is found in the tropical ‘zone, It has different climatic zone due (othe difference in altitude; namely hot zone, temperate zone and cool zone (locally known as klla, ‘woina deg and dega respectively). The hot zone consists of areas lower ‘than 1500 m above sea level; the temperate zone encompasses regions ‘with altitede between 1500 and 2500 m in elevation and the cool zone consists of areas where altitude ig above 2500 m.The cool zone i fu ther divided into ewo subzones consisting of areas between 2500 and '3000 m (known as dege) and areas above an elevation of 3000 m ‘Gmnown as cold highlands or wirch zone). The loeal classifications as kell, woina dega, dega and wirch can be interpreted as “tropical”, “subtropical “temperate” and “alpine” regions [43,44]. Based on the average elevations, Tekeze reservoir (about elevation of 1010 m as.) in tropical climate, koka (EL 1592 m as) and Gilgel Gibe 1 (1660 m asi) reservoirs are in subiropieal climate, Melka Wakena reservoir {about 2327 m a.sD, Finchaa reservoir (2225 mas.) and Amerti-neshi (2210 m asl) are in temperate climate. Research method LCA has been used to evaluate environmental impacts associated to Inydropower generation in a holistic perspective. Regarding. system configuration, the attributional type LCA model has been applied for deseribing all processes and environmental impacts attributed to ana lyzed hydropower stations. The input and output flows of identified processes are the basis of data collection. More information can be found about attributional LCT modeling in [34,45,46] and process: based LCI compilation in [47,48). The structure and format of ‘alloca tion, default unit’ system provided by SimaPro LCA software is em- ployed to link unit proceses related to the analyzed system, In add tion, the paper is organized following the principles and basic structure ‘of 150 Standard 14,040 LCA framework which comprises of four es semtal phases: namely goal and scope definition, life cycle inventory (Lch, impact assessment (LCIA) and interpretation. A sensitivity ana- Iysis is conducted as part ofthe interpretation phase, Goal and scope definition ‘This paper presents average environmental impacts of hydropower ‘generation systems in Ethiopia. The main objective of the study is 10 ‘estimate the average environmental impacts of existing 11 hydropower schemes developed since 1960 s that constitutes about the 96% of clectricty to central grid. The intended aim is to contribute for availabilty of CI and LCA data for Ethiopian electricity which may be ‘used to perform LCA of other economically significant products in Ethiopia. The expected target users include academia, LCA pract- tioners, facility operators and poliey makers in the energy sector. Sytem, function and funcional unit ‘The studied hydropower plans consist of diversion weirs or dams, pressure headraces, penstocks, powerhouses and tallraes with excep. tion that Tis Abay Il has concrete canal connected to penstocks, res size pipes and a powerhouse, Electricity generation is considered as sere function of all schemes although some dams (eg. Koka, Finchaa, ‘Amerti:neshi dams) are multipurpose type providing water to Irigation fields downstream. For this study, the functional unit is generation of 1 MWh of electricity System boundaries and cutoffs Defining system boundaries involves identifying life cycles and processes involved in che analyzed system. Ii also used to specify the spatial and temporal aspects ofthese processes, Regarding t lifecycle stages this study considers raw materials extraction and processing, ‘manufacturing of components and equipment, construction and op. cation and maintenance of hydropower plants and end-of-life waste management. The construction stage of hydropower plant includes ‘building works like dams, waterways and powerhouses and installation of equipment such as generators, turbines, transformers and switchgear vices like breakers and different switches. Most of components and equipment as well as reinforcing and structural steels were manu factured outside Ethiopia. Data about material compositions and ‘weights of these components and equipment were taken from technical ravings and specifications, The transportation stage involves the transport of equipment and construction materials to the plant sites. As stated above, all equipment and the construction materials such as structural and reinforcing stels were purchased and transported from abroad. Sea and road mode of transports were calculated using online distance ealcuators. It is assumed that cement is purchased directly from local industries, while sand and gravels were produced from local {quarries and water from local water sources which are about Ska from the plant st In the operation and maintenance stage, unlike conventional fssil fuel power plants, no dicect combustion emissions are derived from hydro-turbine operation, Therefore, the environmental Impacts of this sage are mainly astciated withthe upstream production and mans facturing of materials for repair and replacement, Although studies suggest 30-40 years for mechanical and electrial parts (491, during Ste visit, ts noticed that most structures, machines and equipment are ‘operational for the last 40-50 years with limited replacement of eom- ponents and only few complete replacements. For instance, records in power stations show that one transformer at Koka and one turbine at Walkena plants were fully replaced due to fire accident n this study, 100% replacement rates of clectro-mechanical, hydro-mechanical, 15 Tf cea power transformers and switchgear equipment are assumed in 100 years of sevice. In addition, some amount of greenhouse gases are emitted to the atmosphere from reservoirs, which depends on the age land location of the reservoirs as well asthe biomass covered by and ‘entering into the reservolrs (50-52). AS discussed in Section “Class cation of hydropower plants”, Ethiopia exhibits all climatic conditions: hot, cold and very cold conditions, Existing Ethiopian hydropower re servoir are predominantly situated in subtropical and temperate areas ue to unavailability of local data, the average global hydropower re servoits emissions of 85 gCOs/kWh and 3 gCH/kWh are used in this study (50. GHG emissions in SimaPro for non-lpine and tzopeal re gions are low compared to recent literature values (50,52,53].The sel supplied internal electrieity consumption was subtracted from the total clectricity generated and the average annual net output is used in LCL land LCA models, Tn the waste management phase, itis assumed that metal scraps are ‘generated during maintenance and rehabilitation of hydro-mechanical structures, generators, transformers, switchgear devices (eg. breakers) and different cranes. At end of design period, its assumed that all civil structures including dams and waterway seuctures (e.. pipes and ‘gtes) will remain in place because itis recognized that removal of these structures could cause major environmental impacts than the construction itself (28,33). In this study, itis assumed that 90% of metal seraps from replaced components and equipment would be re cycled; polymers and plastics are incinerated; and porcelain and rc inforced glasses are sent to the nearby landfil for disposal based on assumption in wind projects [54,55] Spatial boundaries. From inputs perspective, the system boundary of this study can be considered global. With the exception of locally produced construction materials (eg. cement and aggregate), most ‘components and materials inputs ofthe analyzed hydropower schemes ‘were imported, mainly from Europe and China. Fig. show that the foreground system covers transportation of equipment and materials, the construction and operation and maintenance processes requiring some local data in Ethiopia that may justify the need for this study, Temporal boundaries. In terms of temporal boundaries, the analysis is divided in four phases: transportation, construction and installation, ‘operation and maintenance and waste management. The construction phase included building of civil works and placing mechanical and clectrical equipment. Regarding lifetime of hydropower plants there are diferent assumptions. In order to define atime boundary for LCI ‘purposes, Varun et al [40] considered 20 years lifetime for canal-based run-ofsiver hydropower plant in India, Zhang et al. (27) assumed a Stuns Eeey Tea nd Ae lifespan of 50 years for 44 MW capacity reservoir hydropower plant connected to rocked dam and 100 years for a reservoir hydropower plant (3600 MW) with conerete gravity dam. Wang et al [13) also usd a lifespan of 50 years for 252 MW hydropower in China, Dut their system boundary did not show that maintenance and replacement of components have been modeled during the operation phase. On other hand, Flury and Frischknecht (49] established a time horizons of 80 and 180 years for run-ofrver and reservoir hydropower plants respectively. For this study a lifespan of 100 years were considered for all hydropower plants, which assumes complete replacement of s power plant through reinvestments. The baseline time period for data collection was between 2013 and 201710 calculate average realized electricity generation and consumption of mineral all ‘The analysis considered a 100-year time horizon for global warming potentials (WP). Allocation Although some of dams of analyzed hydropower generation systems known to provide additional services such as fishing, irrigation and water supply, the no allocation procedure was used. Thus, the present study allocated all impacts of hydro power projects to the electricity ‘generation function which is a conservative consideration, Life yee imventory ata types and sources In LCA stucies, data collection isthe most laborious and time con- suming activity because huge amounts of ICI data are required for describing a given real system, In this study, LCL data collection process followed three consecutive steps: the first step is identification of struetures, equipment and processes used during the construction, transportation, operation and waste disposal phases of the analyzed system. The Second step is collection of data and information on amount of resource consumption and emissions associated to these ‘components and processes, The last step is about estimating the life cyele burdens ofeach input materials using Ecoinvent database version 3.01. AS shown in Table 3, technieal drawings and specifications of, ‘machines and equipment, commissioning reports and local database of Ethiopian Electric Power (EEP) were sources of most primary data for caleulating the type and amount of materials sed inthe manufacturing of diferent components and construction of the hydropower plans Complementary information is obtained from site visits of all hydro: power plants and personal communications with the staff in charge of the hydropower operation. Fnergy consumption during manufacturing ‘and construction phases was obtained from secondary sources mainly ig 1. Systam boundaries for she life eee assessment (LCA) of hydropower plans 15 Tea cca Sutra nergy Teles an Asean 4 2020) 100795 ‘ables 16 datatypes ad the sources. ae cyte sage Dat coleted a wu ‘Gnarveon ‘ypesand weigh of mates sd oconstrctel wees such dans waterways Teenie dawns ad speetons, common ‘nd powerhouse, wel acd, nena and ei strand repr, se oberon and personal commune ‘upnnt ke gtes,pensios, trie, ptestas and overeat cranes ‘ype and welgts of ater for vasforers ad Switchgear devies the cult Supple tela wings nd secitetos an (5657) Irene tet transfers, volage ransom, csonnectig switches nd et date formated ng forthe manag of i ected hyo. eines tbe vesan 2.0 in Smaro stware ‘land ler eensampion bed ale 27,010) and report 6) (once ie dese Pied ale 8 on factor fl ombation tec a) Tranpenaon Sipe inlornatin emepatey, awinge and cone docamets itunes fife teprt moder Online eaiston: pens datancsors! Operon aad maitenaace Day eases potacon {EP informntion des i eeasanpton ‘Bis aden pa ses Land eguiemens| easily and HA epee df ie age Ct dts for met eras ap ter waste ihe pts ad ae) “Ecsnvet 20 dla in Sar trae version sectoral reports and published article Inventory analysis results Based on the data collected and shown in Table , the aleulated life cycle inventory results for 1 MWh electricity production from medium (25-100 MW) and large (= 100 MW) capacity hydropower plants are presented in Table 4, The total consumption for cement to construct ‘medium and large-scale hydropower plants was 5.08 and 1.08 kg re- spectively. Icon and steel are other important material inputs during construction and maintenance phases, In the operation and main- tenance phase, products made of iron and steel are used to repair and ‘or replace components and pars. The life eyele consumption for re Inforeing steel, Iow-alloyed steel, cast iron and chromium steel of ‘medium-scale hydropower plants were 0.63, 0.19, 6.51*10~" and, 7.65*10~* kg per IMWh cleetrcity produced respectively. The corre: sponding valves for large plants were 0.16, 0.17, 4.47*10~* and, 1.96*10~ respectively. The result shows that the medium scale hy

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