CIGRE TB671 Connection of Wind Farms To Weak AC Networks

671
Connection of wind farms

to weak AC networks
Working Group
B4.62
December 2016
CONNECTION OF WIND FARMS
TO WEAK AC NETWORKS
WG B4.62
Lead Authors
Nalin Pahalawaththa, Convenor AU
Sebastian Achilles, Secretary US
Katherine Elkington SE
Davor Vujatovic GB
Andrew Isaacs CA
Udaya Annakkage CA
Mark Davies AU
Babak Badrzadeh AU
Charlie Smith US
Contributing Authors
Marian Piekutowski AU Peeter Muttik AU Tony Morton AU

Xu Li Chao AU José Antonio Jardini BR Marcos Tiago Bassini BR
Marco A. Barbosa Horita BR Geethma Dissanayake NZ Victor Lo NZ
Bathiya Jayasekera CA Dharshana Muthumuni CA Hiranya Suriyaarachchi CA
Richard Gagnon CA Yongning Chi CN Junzheng Cao CN
Alvaro Jose Hernandez DE Aramis Schwanka Trevisan DE Jesper Hjerrild DK
John Bech DK Peter Christensen DK Jorge Martinez Garcia ES
Silvia Sanz ES Rafael Portales ES Jako Kilter EE
Antti Harjula FI Tuomas Rauhala FI Koji Temma JP
Hur Kyeon KR Afshin Pashaei GB Jun Liang GB
Tom Gallery IE Fred Huang US Narend Reddy US
Paul Marken US Saeed Kamalinia US Steve Saylors US
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Connection of Wind Farms to Weak AC networks
Connection of Wind Farms to

Weak AC networks
WG B4.62
Table of Contents
GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SPECIAL TERMS .................................... 8
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................... 11
1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................. 16
1.1 Purpose ........................................................................................... 16
1.2 Background ..................................................................................... 16
1.3 Scope .............................................................................................. 16
1.4 Summary of the salient work completed by other working groups .... 17
1.5 Gap analysis .................................................................................... 19
1.6 Structure of the report ..................................................................... 19
1.7 References ...................................................................................... 20
2 TECHNOLOGY SUMMARY .................................................................... 21

2.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 21
2.2 Types of Wind Turbines Based on Speed Control .............................. 21
2.3 Generator Technologies ................................................................... 26
2.4 Wind Turbine Mechanical Control..................................................... 27
2.5 Power Electronic Converters for Wind Turbine Converters ................ 27
2.6 Complementing wind farm technologies .......................................... 30
2.7 Complementing Grid Connection Technologies ................................ 31
2.8 References ...................................................................................... 31
3 ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH WEAK SYSTEMS ........................................... 32

3.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 32
3.2 Overview of WPP Performance Requirements .................................... 32
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3.3 Technical Issues Identified in Weak Grids ......................................... 34

3.4 Additional Challenges Identified in Weak Grids ................................ 36
3.5 Examples......................................................................................... 38
3.6 References ...................................................................................... 41
4 MODELLING SUMMARY ....................................................................... 42

4.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 42
4.2 Power-flow Analysis ........................................................................ 42
4.3 Short circuit Analysis ....................................................................... 42
4.4 Transient Stability Analysis .............................................................. 44
4.5 Small Signal Stability Analysis .......................................................... 46
4.6 Electromagnetic Transient Analysis .................................................. 47
4.7 Islanding Assessment ...................................................................... 48
4.8 Generic and Vendor Specific Models ................................................ 49
4.9 References ...................................................................................... 50
5 ASSESSMENT ...................................................................................... 52
5.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 52
5.2 Benchmark Model for Assessment ................................................... 53
5.3 Generic Model of Type 4 WTG for Fault Recovery Investigation ......... 57
5.4 Impact of the Interaction between WPPs on Fault Ride-through ........ 63
5.5 Small Signal Stability........................................................................ 65
5.6 Possible Mitigation Solutions ........................................................... 69
5.7 A weak AC connected WPP in parallel with VSC HVDC ....................... 78
5.8 A weak AC system with a WPP connected via a LCC HVDC ................ 84
5.9 Summary ......................................................................................... 87
5.10 References ...................................................................................... 88
6 QUANTIFICATION OF THE ISSUES ........................................................ 89

6.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 89
6.2 Short circuit ratio............................................................................. 89
6.3 X/R ratio ....................................................................................... 106
6.4 Voltage sensitivity ......................................................................... 106
6.5 Rate of change of frequency (RoCoF) ............................................. 113
6.6 Available Fault Level - Impact of nearby WPPs and HVDC links ....... 116
6.7 References .................................................................................... 120
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7 GUIDE TO WIND POWER PLANT CONNECTION .................................... 121

7.0 Introduction .................................................................................. 121
7.1 Identification / Assessment of System Capability ........................... 121
7.2 Issues to be Considered for the Identified Level of System Capability128
7.3 Performance Improvement Technology Selection ........................... 138
7.4 Planning Study Summary ............................................................... 142
7.5 References .................................................................................... 145
8 CONCLUSIONS.................................................................................. 146
9 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................. 148
APPENDIX A: GENERIC WIND TURBINE MODELS ........................................ 150
APPENDIX B: CALCULATION OF VOLTAGE SENSITIVITY INDICES ............... 158

B.1 Worked example ............................................................................ 158
B.2 Relation to voltage angle displacement .......................................... 160
APPENDIX C: CASE STUDIES ................................................................... 163

C.1 ERCOT - Actual Operating Experience ............................................ 163
C.2 GE - Operating Experience ............................................................ 170
C.3 Vestas - Weak Grid/Low SCR Interconnection Experience ............... 173
C.4 Enercon - Application Experience .................................................. 175
C.5 State Grid Corporation of China - Experience................................. 182
C.6 WPP Connections in Tasmania, Australia - Experience .................... 190
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GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SPECIAL TERMS

The table below lists the abbreviations used throughout this brochure.
Abbreviation Full Text
AC Alternating Current
AVR Automatic Voltage Regulator
BTB Back to Back
CSCR Composite Short Circuit Ratio
DC Direct Current
DFIG Doubly Fed Induction Generator
DSO Distribution System Operator
EirGrid The electric power transmission operator in Ireland
EMT Electromagnetic Transient
ENTSO-E The European Network of Transmission System

Operators,
ESCR Equivalent Circuit-based Short Circuit Ratio
ERCOT Electricity Reliability Council of Texas
FACTS Flexible AC Transmission Systems
FRRS Fast Responding Regulation Service
FRT Fault Ride-Through
GTO Gate Turn Off Thermistor
GW Giga Watt
H Inertia Constant
HV High Voltage
HVDC High Voltage Direct Current
HVRT High Voltage Ride-Through
Hz Hertz
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
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IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
LCC Line Commutated Converter
LV Low Voltage
ms millisecond
MSC Mechanically Switched Capacitor
MSCR Minimum Short Circuit Ratio
MV Medium Voltage
Mvar Mega Volt Ampere Reactive
MW Mega Watt
NSG Non-Synchronous Generator
PCC Point of Common Coupling
PI Proportional and Integral
PLL Phase Locked Loop
PMU Phasor Measurement Unit
POI Point of Interface / Interconnection
PSCAD© Power System Computer Aided Design
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
PU, pu Per Unit
PV Power - Voltage
QV, Q-V Reactive Power (Q) - Voltage
RES Renewable Energy Sources
RMS Root Mean Square
RoCoF Rate of Change of Frequency
SC Synchronous Compensator
SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
SCC Short Circuit Current
SCIG Squirrel Cage Induction Generator
SCR Short Circuit Ratio
SNSP System Non-Synchronous Penetration
SSSC Static Synchronous Series Compensator
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STATCOM Static Synchronous Compensator
SVC Static Var Compensator
TCSC Thermistor Controlled Series Capacitor
THD Total Harmonic Distortion
TOV Temporary Over-Voltage
TSC Thermistor Switched Capacitor
TSO Transmission System Operator
Var Volt Ampere Reactive
VSC Voltage Source Converter
WG Working Group
WPIF Wind Plant Interaction Factor
WPP Wind Power Plant
WRIG Wound Rotor Induction Generator
WSCR Weighted Short Circuit Ratio
WTG Wind Turbine Generator
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Background
In recent years wind generation has become the fastest growing energy generation sector worldwide. Wind farms,
or more formally wind power plants (WPP), with capacities of 100-1000 MW or more have been constructed both
onshore and offshore. Many of the most economic sites, in particular those onshore locations with favourable wind
speeds and good access to high capacity transmission systems have often been fully utilised. WPP developers must
now focus attention on the less favourable sites, in terms of capacity factor and accessibility to high capacity
transmission. In future, WPPs will more often connect to weaker parts of the power transmission networks, with
longer transmission distances, bringing greater challenges in the maintenance of system and network stability. In
search of suitable sites the developers are also now selecting to develop multiple wind power plants closer to each
other. This increases the risk of adverse interactions among the nearby plants and places added demands on
network operators to manage power system security and supply quality.
The size of individual wind turbines has also grown exponentially, with the new developments now concentrating on
turbine sizes above 5 MW. The use of permanent magnet direct drive generators and full energy conversion using
AC-DC-AC power electronic converters is now becoming common for grid connected wind power plants.
Objective of the Working Group

The use of full energy conversion within the wind turbines using AC-DC-AC power electronic converters now make
it possible to synergistically use the experiences and lessons learned in designing, developing and operating high
power HVDC converters for power transmission applications. In particular for addressing the stability issues
associated with connecting WPPs to weak AC systems and mitigating adverse interactions among nearby WPPs.
The objective of this working group has been to: identify the issues associated with connecting WPPs to weak AC
grids, understand the cause-effect relationships and propose solutions for mitigating the potential issues. In this
regard, the working group has also attempted to create a guide for connecting WPPs to weak grids, which highlights:
the assessment of AC network strength, screening for potential issues, and the available solutions for mitigating the
issues.
Quantification Framework
The “strength” of a power system is a metric used to describe the ability of a power system to maintain the core
characteristics through which it interacts with a connection, namely voltage and frequency, as steadily as possible,
under all operating conditions. The “strength” or “weakness” of a power system is a relative concept and needs to
be addressed both in terms of the system characteristics at a given connection point as well as the size of the WPP(s)
to be connected to the connection point. For example, a particular part or point in a power system may be considered
sufficiently strong to connect a WPP of capacity 200 MW but the same part of the power system would be considered
weak and incapable of handling the issues associated with connecting WPP(s) of capacity 2000MW. Hence the
working group has devoted a significant effort in understanding and reporting upon the avenues for quantifying the
“strength” of a power system, so that the issues and solutions can be discussed and presented in the correct context.
Quantification of the “strength” of a power system has been considered in terms of the:
 shared power system impedance seen from the connecting WPPs;

 ability of the power system to transfer power in steady state while maintaining an adequate level of supply
voltage and;
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 resilience of the power system to maintain the supply frequency.
Short Circuit Ratio (SCR) is a commonly used metric for quantifying the relative power system impedance seen from
a connection point. The SCR seen by a generator strongly influences its ability to operate satisfactorily both in steady
state and following system disturbances. While this is a very powerful and simple concept, extending its use to
describe the “shared” impedance seen by multiple WPPs connecting to the same part of a network, electrically close
to each other, or close to other power electronic plant such as HVDC converters, has not been unified across the
industry. The working group has collated and compared the approaches generally used in the industry for using
SCR to: anticipate potential issues, screen WPP technology, and to assess proposed solutions. Other related
indications of transmission system strength, the (X/R) ratio of the system impedance seen from the connection point,
and the concept of available fault level have also been described.
The ability to stably transfer power over a weak transmission system, from a WPP connecting point to stronger parts
of a network (where generally the load is) has been quantified by using the sensitivity of the connection point's voltage
to the active and reactive power outputs of the WPP. The maximum stable power transfer capability has been
derived, providing an insight for WPP designers of the potential issues to be anticipated when power transfer reaches
the maximum transfer limits.
The ability of a power system to maintain steady frequency, as far as possible, under all operating conditions is
characterised by the following metrics: rate of change of frequency (RoCoF), system inertia, provision of synchronous
spinning reserves, and level of penetration of non-synchronous generation.
Issues Associated with Weak Systems

The performance requirements of WPPs are defined by the respective regulatory bodies for power system operation
and are usually described in the form of a grid code. These codes usually define the expected operational ranges of
frequency and voltage, the requirements for reactive power/voltage control and active power/frequency control. The
performance requirements must be complied with under all operating conditions which include: operation and
isolation under islanding conditions, operation during peak/light load periods, and during generator/network outage
conditions. Compliance must be demonstrated both pre and post connection by using adequate simulation studies.
Post commissioning monitoring should also confirm the ability of the plant to operate satisfactorily during and post
disturbances (i.e. the ability to ride through disturbances) and to operate satisfactorily in harmony with the other
connected generators and dynamic plant installed in the network.
The working group has compiled a significant quantity of experiences associated with connection of WPPs to weak
AC grids from a number of utilities, manufacturers and consultants worldwide. The collected experiences confirm
that when connecting WPPs to weak AC systems almost all of the above performance requirements are adversely
impacted. The salient experiences include: failure to ride through disturbances, electro-mechanical instability, control
interaction and operating mode instability, and operation under islanding conditions.
The challenges have been to identify potential issues at the planning stage itself and then implement economical and
effective solutions. Robust planning simulations that: assess the network’s capacity to connect, anticipate potential
issues and verify proposed solutions have been identified as critical in successfully meeting these challenges.
Modelling
The working group has addressed modelling requirements as well as associated issues and challenges in detail.
An application to connect any generator to a high voltage network requires significant simulation effort to assess
generator performance with the connected network under all operating conditions. These simulation studies provide
assurances for the robustness of the investment decision as well as for power system security. The studies define
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the anticipated performance under common operating conditions as well as under conditions which are rare but
stable, where operation of the plant will have a significant bearing on the stable operation of the power system.
In operating WPPs connected to weak AC power systems, the operation of many dynamic components associated
with a WPP is likely to come into play in a significant manner and to closely interact with the other dynamic
phenomena driven by the network and other nearby connected plants. In this regard, the working group has
concluded that accurate, high resolution, time domain modelling of pertinent WPP dynamics is critical. The traditional
"RMS" assessment of plant and power system performance, being unable to provide adequate attention to the fast
acting power electronics converters associated with WPP, would be inadequate.
Hence the selection of the modelling platform and models to adequately and accurately represent the pertinent
dynamic phenomena associated with the WPP is critically important.
The appropriate modelling platforms are required to represent the time variations of electro-mechanical dynamics
and those of individual electrical phases (and not approximations such as RMS variations) and simulate the dynamic
interactions with high time resolution. Hence the preferred modelling platforms would be those commonly used for
electromagnetic transient (EMT) simulations.
Generic WPP models, with adequate representation of all the dynamic phenomena associated with WPP’s power
electronic converters, are adequate for initial assessment and screening studies, but the relevant WPP manufacturer
specific models should be used as soon as possible to confirm expected performance, issues and potential solutions.
Representation of WPPs and other dynamic plants, from different manufacturers, connected to the network in close
vicinity through detailed and accurate models will require significant planning, coordination and effort.
Assessment of Issues and Solutions

The working group has used simulation studies extensively to:
a) confirm the experienced or identified potential issues using appropriate modelling of the operating
conditions under which the issues were encountered;
b) unravel the limitations of the equipment or contributory operating circumstances which cause the
manifestation of the issues; and
c) develop the solutions which may effectively mitigate the issues.
A generic type 4, full AC-DC-AC conversion, WPP model has been used for the simulations. Attention has been
given to modelling and understanding the performance degradation as the SCR of the connection is reduced, toward
its theoretical minimum of unity.
The inability of the power electronic converters within a WPP to follow and work together with the rapidly changing
conditions at the interface with the power system, in particular the changes in power system frequency and the
voltage phase angles, has been found to be the cause of many issues. The resulting performance deteriorations
were seen to be exacerbated with the increasing “weakness” of the connecting power system.
The assessment also covered the identification of potential solutions for mitigating the above issues and confirmed
their effectiveness. The potential solutions considered included in high level, potential improvements to the WTG
controllers as well as the installation of ancillary devices for supporting and enhancing the WPP performance. The
following potential solutions were specifically modelled and assessed:
 Addition of ancillary supporting devices: Synchronous Compensators (SC) and Static Synchronous
Compensators (STATCOM)
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 Stabilising the operation of WTG converter operation by using remote synchronising reference and by
using locally synthesised synchronising reference
The potential for connecting the weak and remote regions of the AC power systems with a high penetration of WPPs
to other regions of the power system was also assessed. The inter-regional connection solutions investigated include
connection of the regions via a Voltage Sourced Converter (VSC) HVDC link in parallel with an AC link, and
connection via a Line Commutated Converter (LCC) HVDC link.
A Guide for Connecting to Weak AC Systems

The final chapter of the working group's technical brochure has been compiled as a guide. The guide summarises:
the issues to be anticipated, the potential solutions available, how to screen a connection for the expected
performance and issues, how to assess the potential issues and solutions, and how to proceed in developing a
connection in consultation with the WPP’s turbine manufacturer.
The following considerations are recommended in support of the thought process when undertaking power system
studies for planning and connection assessment of WPPs:
 For weaker WPP applications (e.g. 3 < SCR < 5):
o Comparison of RMS-type dynamic models against the detailed EMT-type models and confirmation
of the models through field measurements is advantageous;
o Detailed RMS-type models may be used as opposed to generic models; and
o Changes to the plant control system and/or installation of supplementary equipment, e.g.
synchronous condensers, is less likely.
 For very weak WPP applications (e.g. SCR < 3):
o Verification of RMS-type models against the detailed EMT-type models is necessary before
carrying out any detailed connection assessment studies;
o In the event that an acceptable correlation does not exist between the RMS-type and EMT-type
models, either RMS-type models need to be revised, or EMT-type models need to be used for the
connection assessment studies;
synchronous condensers, may be necessary; and
o Any simulation models used for the studies must capture the application specific changes rather
than using an off-the-shelf standard simulation model.
Conclusion
The working group has made the following contributions and added to the body of knowledge in the industry:
 Collation of an almost exhaustive list of issues experienced and to be anticipated in connecting WPPs to
weak AC systems;
 Identification of the metrics suitable for screening of the potential issues in relation to the capacity of the
network considered for connection(s);
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 Definition of a modelling and simulation framework for assessing and confirming the potential issues and
solutions;
 Unravelling the limitations of the equipment or contributory operating circumstances which cause the
manifestation of the issues and development of solutions which may effectively mitigate the issues; and
 Compilation of a summary guide to assist the WPP developers for anticipating the potential issues and for
planning effective and economically efficient WPP connections to the networks.
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1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Purpose
This brochure aims to increase the understanding of the issues which can arise when wind power plants (WPPs)
operate in weak AC systems and information on how to improve the performance of these systems. The results of
the assessment carried out by the working group are presented in the form of recommendations for connection
studies for WPPs connecting to weak AC networks.
1.2 Background
Many countries are experiencing a fast growth of renewable generation in general, and wind based generation in
particular, imposing (significant stresses on transmission grids. It is expected that future wind power developments
are likely to:
 utilise power electronic converters for converting either some or all of the power output from the
generators
 connect to remote and weak parts of the transmission and distribution grids
 load the transmission systems beyond their firm capacities and may be operated closer to short term
ratings of the transmission lines
Presently, there are concerns regarding reliable operation of power electronic driven wind generators in weak AC
networks. These concerns include the fast dynamic response of wind generator converter systems following system
disturbances, and the interactions between wind generator converter systems and any other power electronic driven
network assets (e.g. HVDC links and FACTS devices) in the vicinity. Wind farms connected through or in the vicinity
of series compensated transmission lines or HVDC lines may also be vulnerable to sub synchronous oscillations. For
this reason wind farm developers are looking for either classical (e.g. synchronous condenser) or FACTS based
solutions for addressing expected operational issues.
The Short Circuit Ratio (SCR), the ratio of the short circuit power at a given location in the network to the rating of
the generator connected to that location, is a common analytical indicator used in the industry to quantify system
strength. Low values of SCR indicate risk of insufficient system strength for reliable operation of the connected
generation and transmission plant. There is no industry consensus on the methodology for calculating SCR,
particularly for applications with several adjacent WPPs, or for WPPs adjacent to HVDC terminals.
There are also concerns on the veracity of dynamic models available and on the suitability of presently used tools
and methods, for simulating the performance of wind farms connecting to weak AC networks and assessing the
impacts.
1.3 Scope
This brochure aims to provide education on how wind plants operate in weak AC systems and the issues which can
arise in these systems.
Cigre has initiated a number of working groups which study various aspects of wind generation: WG B4.39, WG
B4.55, JWG C1/C2/C6.18, and WG C4.601. This brochure addresses issues which are not included in these, but
which are specifically related to wind power in weak power systems. Practical experience of such issues is also
related in the document.
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Sub-synchronous torsional interactions and sub-synchronous control interactions can occur with all types of
generation, and are not necessarily related to weak grids, however these issues are often a concern with wind farms,
and therefore references to other work in the area are included in the scope.
Issues which often arise in discussions about wind power connections are not dealt with in this brochure, which
focuses on issues related to both wind power and weak AC systems. Harmonic distortion is related to weak grids,
but not necessarily to wind power. Voltage control and coordination can be related to wind farms, but is considered
a system issue, and therefore out of the scope of this brochure.
The recommendations in this brochure are based on the grid integration of wind farms, but many of the ideas
presented here can also be applied to other types of generation connected via power electronics, such as photovoltaic
generation.
1.4 Summary of the salient work completed by other working

groups
A large quantity of information on the planning, connection, and performance of the WPPs, connecting to AC as well
as DC power systems are already available as a result of the work undertaken by many working groups and
taskforces driven by utilities, peak industry bodies, and professional organisations, such as Cigré and IEEE.
The effects of uncertainties related to wind power generation and similar technologies on power system planning
have been examined by the Cigre WG C1.3 [1]. The working group considered the uncertainty related to the
development of wind power projects, the variable nature of wind generation and technical performance of new
technologies in power systems.
The working group has made suggestions for managing the variability of wind generation over different time scales.
Examples are presented for how WPPs concentrated in small areas give rise to highly correlated wind generation,
whereas WPPs spread out over larger areas have less correlation, due to geo-diversity. Concentrated wind farms
give rise to reduced prediction confidence compared to their widely spread counterparts, because their total output
is more sensitive to wind speed changes. Suggestions are also made for managing technical issues such as voltage
tolerance, frequency tolerance, rate of change of frequency (RoCoF) tolerance, fault tolerance, voltage and frequency
control. The working group considered these can be handled by drawing up a set of grid codes which are suitable
for a particular area. WPPs need to be able to tolerate wider ranges of frequency and RoCoF in cases of small
synchronous networks.
The technical brochure completed by the Cigre working group WG C4.601 provides a detailed summary of the
popular wind turbine generator technologies, including the features of each design and a general discussion of their
controls and dynamics [2]. The conclusion drawn is that in order to comprehensively model characteristics and
performance of WPPs and to assess the technical issues related to connecting wind farms to transmission and
distribution systems, four types of WPPs are needed to be modelled:
 the conventional induction generator

 the wound rotor induction generator (WRIG) with variable rotor resistance
 doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) and
 full converter units
The brochure also includes recommendations on the appropriate level of modelling detail for power system analysis,
and the improvements necessary in existing models. Suitable methods to aggregate wind turbine generators in a
wind farm into a simpler model of the collector system are also described. Relevant issues discussed on the
transmission level are voltage-ride through, reactive power and power factor requirements, voltage control and
regulation, controls interaction, harmonic, power quality and frequency control. Issues for the distribution level include
voltage variations, flicker, power quality and harmonic emissions. Protection requirements are briefly discussed and
but fault level contribution is not dealt in this document.
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The Cigre working group WG B4.39 assessed the issues associated with integrating large scale wind generation with
particular emphasis on the use of HVDC and FACTS devices for improving the performance of the WPPs and the
networks [3].
The benefits of using power electronic components such as SVCs, STATCOMs are presented with regard to
transmission over long distances and, voltage stability and power quality. The benefits of energy storage are also
described. An overview of HVDC systems is also presented, including descriptions of LCC and VSC HVDC systems,
and their applications in connection of WPPs, in particular those sited offshore. Examples of actual wind power
projects using power electronics are provided, as well as a discussion of economic issues related to wind power
projects and associated transmission costs.
Cigré working group WG C6.08 has focused on the technical aspects of connecting wind generation to the grid [4].
It deals with issues of integrating large amounts of wind power in large scale power systems, such as:
 power flow and contingency management

 frequency control and operational reserve requirements
 voltage and transient stability
 reactive power and voltage control
 influence on conventional generation, and
 regulation and support strategies.
The brochure includes a review of different market schemes, as well as a list of FACTS devices which can help to
alleviate congestion. Frequency control in different time scales is presented, including a discussion on inertia in power
systems with wind power. Technical possibilities for frequency control from wind power plants are also described.
The operational reserve requirement is described, and case studies are presented. The effects of wind power on
voltage stability and the effects of different turbines on transient stability are described, and a review on the reactive
power and voltage requirements in different grid codes is presented. Methods to evaluate the influence of wind power
generation on conventional generation in the form of generation displacement are described, and finally a review of
the support strategies in different countries is presented.
Cigre joint working group, JWG C1/C2/C6.18 has surveyed the mechanisms employed for coping with limits for very
high penetrations of renewable energy from 18 countries regarding issues seen with variable non synchronous
renewable generation [5]. Based on these observations, general recommendations are made:
 Power system operators need to develop a broad understanding of the policy objectives that will materially
impact on the operation of the power system. These might include increasing levels of renewable energy,
the introduction of EVs or energy efficiency measures.
 Research examining the impact of high levels of renewable energy sources (RES) appears to be limited.
There is concern that many of the limits to RES integration will be caused by voltage stability, reactive power
and transient stability.
 A strict adherence to grid code provisions is required and enforcement is needed.
 The increasing levels of variable non synchronous renewable generation will fundamentally change the
characteristics of power systems across the world. In order to manage these changes, system operators will
need greater system performance.
 The design of markets needs to consider the technical requirements of the power system (such as flexibility,
ramping, frequency control and storage).
In addition to the above, the working groups also made the following observations:
 Offshore WPPs are becoming more prevalent. This is likely to lead to the development of significant HVDC
grids. The control and interaction of these grids with the power systems is an area that would benefit from
future studies.
 Challenges are emerging in the connection of non-synchronous generation in relatively weak parts of
electricity networks. This is increasing the need for detailed three phase electromagnetic transient studies.
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1.5 Gap analysis

While a large amount of material has been published regarding integration of wind power into power systems, the
salient issues associated with integration of large WPPs in weak AC networks have not received significant attention.
While mitigation of issues using supplementing primary plant, such as fast acting reactive power supply devices such
as SVCs or STATCOMs have been suggested for integration of WPPs into weak AC networks, the use of fast
controllability of the modern WPPs equipped with full converter units, has not been widely considered as a potential
mitigation measure.
Further, the measures used for quantifying the “weakness” of the AC grids has not been harmonised within the
industry, making it difficult to compare the effectiveness of various mitigation measures. The definition of a simple
and agreeable measure of the system “weakness” has been further compounded by the facts that connection of
more than several WPPs in the same vicinity would have to share the available system strength for providing an
adequate performance.
Similarly the issue of weak networks has been discussed extensively regarding the HVDC connections, but not wind
power connections. This brochure aims to fill in this gap.
1.6 Structure of the report

In order to describe the issues associated with connecting wind farms to weak AC networks, the brochure begins by
describing the types of wind farms which will be considered. The turbines which comprise the wind farms and their
controls are described as well as the controllers for the farms themselves. Supplementary equipment which may be
present to support a wind farm, such as FACTS, and connection alternatives such as HVDC, are also described.
In Chapter 1 – Introduction (this chapter), the previous works, by the Cigre working groups, associated with the
subject of WPP connections have been briefly reviewed and the gaps in relation to connection of WPPs to weak AC
system have been highlighted.
In Chapter 2 - Technology Summary, different wind turbine technologies control schemes and power electronic
components used in WPPs are described, for the purpose of understanding the ways in which wind turbines interact
with weak AC networks
In Chapter 3 – Issues Associated with Weak Systems, the experiences associated with connection of wind generators
onto weak AC networks are summarised and potential issues are identified. A distinction is made between the issues
associated with operation and dynamics of wind farm equipment, operation and dynamics of network, and dynamic
interaction of other nearby transmission equipment.
Chapter 4 - Modelling Summary, reviews the modelling and simulation requirements of wind power plants and power
system for examining the different types of issues identified in Chapter 3. The components of the WPPs which need
to be modelled for different studies, and their level of detail, are discussed with particular consideration of the
connection of WPPs to weak power systems.
In Chapter 5 - Assessment, modelling and simulation studies carried out for confirming the issues identified in Chapter
3 are reported. Potential solutions for mitigating the issues have been investigated, their effectiveness have been
assessed, and reported.
In Chapter 6 – Quantification of Issues, the indices suitable for quantifying the weakness of a power system with a
high penetration of wind power are presented. Indices are considered for the assessment of both local and system
wide issues. These indices include X/R ratio, short circuit ration (SCR) and its derivatives, system inertia and the rate
of change of frequency (RoCoF).
Chapter 7 – Guide to Wind Power Plant Connection, addresses the application of engineering considerations for
interconnection of a wind power plant to a weak AC system, by applying the information from the first six chapters in
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practical situations. The chapter deals with different aspects of system capability, issues to be considered, and
various technology options to address these issues, and examples are provided throughout.
Chapter 8 presents the results obtained in the working group in the form of recommendations, and potential future
work that could contribute to enhancing the knowledge in this subject has been identified.
Appendix A provides a detailed description of WPP models. The discussion on voltage sensitivity of connections in
section 6.4 is further extended and clarified in appendix B. Appendix C summarises the experiences of a number of
utilities and manufacturers in connection of WPPs to weak AC networks.
1.7 References
[1] WG C1.3, "Electric power system planning with the uncertainty of wind generation," Cigre Technical
Brochur3 293, April 2006.
[2] WG C4.601, "Modelling and dynamic behaviour of wind generation as it relates to power system control
and dynamic performance," Cigre Technical Brochure 328, August 2007.
[3] WG B4.39, "Integration of large scale wind generation using HVDC and power electronics," Cigre Technical
Brochure 370, February 2009.
[4] WG C6.08, "Grid Integration of wind generation," Cigre Technical Brochure 450, February 2011.
[5] WG C1/C2/C6.18, "Coping with Limits for Very High Penetrations of Renewable Energy," Cigre, 2013.
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2 TECHNOLOGY SUMMARY
2.1 Introduction
The technologies used for electricity generation and control within WPPs as well as complementing technologies
used within the wind-farm and in the connecting grid for supporting the operation of the WPPs have a significant
bearing on the ability to stably connect and operate WPPs in “weak” grids. In this chapter, the presently implemented
WPP technologies as well as the supporting technologies implemented within the wind-farm and connecting grids
are summarised.
There are two main types of wind turbines: horizontal and vertical axis. The wind flows over the turbine blades which
are connected to a shaft, causing rotation. The shaft turns the generator; depending on the turbine design, there may
be a gear box to adjust the rotational speed. The generator produces electricity and sends it into the power grid.
Horizontal shaft, three-blade turbines are the most common today. Figure 2.1 schematically shows the main
components of the modern horizontal axis wind turbine.
Figure 2.1 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine Constituent Parts [1]
The modern wind turbines are also equipped with several key elements that support to improve their controllability
and efficiency. Inside the Nacelle (or head) is an anemometer, wind vane, and controller that read the speed and
direction of the wind. As the wind changes direction, a motor (yaw motor) turns the nacelle so that the blades are
always facing the wind. The power source also comes with a safety feature; in case of extreme winds, the turbine
has a brake that can be applied to inhibit any damage to the turbine.
2.2 Types of Wind Turbines Based on Speed Control
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In recent literature, the available wind turbine technologies are classified into five principal types mainly based on
their ability or the mechanisms used for their speed control [2]. While these are commonly referred to as Type 1 –
Type 5, they may be sometimes referenced by different names or abbreviations in the literature.
Type 1: Fixed Speed
Wind turbines constituted of squirrel-cage induction generators (SCIG) connected directly to grid via step-up
transformers are usually classified as a Type 1 WTG. Figure 2.2 shows a schematic representation of a Type 1 WTG.
Figure 2.2 Type 1 Wind Turbine
The turbine speed is fixed (or nearly fixed) to the electrical grid’s frequency, and generates active power (P) when
the turbine shaft rotates faster than the electrical grid frequency creating a negative slip. While there is a bit of
variability in output with the slip of the machine, Type 1 turbines typically operate at or very close to a rated speed.
A major drawback of the induction machine is the reactive power that it consumes for its excitation field and the large
currents the machine can draw when started. To mitigate these effects the turbine typically may employ a soft starter
and discrete steps of capacitor banks within the turbine.
Type 2: Limited Variable Speed
Type 2 WTGs generally refers to wound rotor induction generators (WRIG) whose stators are connected directly to
the grid via a step-up transformer in a fashion similar to Type 1 WTGs, but also include a mechanism for controlling
the speed of the machine, connected externally to the rotor via slip-rings. The speed control is achieved via control
of resistors (either mechanical and/or power electronic controlled) connected to the rotor windings. Alternatively, the
resistors and power electronics can be mounted on the rotor, eliminating the slip rings. The resistance connected to
the rotor circuit can be controlled and varied and hence in turn can control the rotor currents quite rapidly. Figure 2.3
shows a schematic representation of a Type 2 WTG.
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Similar to the Type 1 WTGs, the turbine speed is fixed (or nearly fixed) to the electrical grid’s frequency, and
generates active power (P) when the turbine shaft rotates faster than the electrical grid frequency creating a negative
slip.
However, by adding resistance to the rotor circuit, the “torque – speed” curve of the generator can be “stretched”
making the rotor rotate faster to create the same output power. This allows some ability to control the speed, together
with the blades’ pitching mechanisms and allows the turbines operation to move to a better tip speed ratio (ratio of
tip speed to the ambient wind speed) to achieve the best energy capture. It is typical that speed variations of up to
10% are possible, allowing for some degree of freedom in energy capture and self-protective torque control.
Ability to rapidly vary rotor current resistance makes it possible to control the power output at set values, even during
gusting conditions, and can influence the machine’s dynamic response during grid disturbances.
Type 3: Variable Speed with Partial Scale Power Electronics Converters
Type 3 WTGs generally represent the WTGs constituted of induction generators known commonly as the Doubly
Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) or Doubly Fed Asynchronous Generator (DFAG). While similar to Type 2 WTGs, in
Type 3 WTGs the wound rotor of the generator is connected to a variable frequency AC source (instead of simply
resistance). The additional rotor excitation is supplied via slip rings from a voltage-source converter which is in-turn
connected back-to-back with a grid side converter and exchanges power directly with the grid as required. Figure
2.4 shows a schematic representation of a Type 3 WTG.
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The voltage source converter connected to the rotor can adjust the rotor currents’ magnitude and frequency nearly
instantaneously. The ability to change the rotor current frequency, make the rotor speed not fixed to the stator
frequency (i.e. unlike Type 1 or Type 2 WTG), and hence provides a wider freedom for rotor speed control.
A small amount of power injected into the rotor circuit through the rotor-converter can effect a large control of power
in the stator circuit. This is a major advantage of the DFIG: a great deal of control of the output is available with the
presence of a set of converters that typically are only 30% of the rating of the machine. In addition to the active power
that is delivered to the grid from the generator’s stator circuit, power is delivered to the grid through the grid-connected
inverter when the generator is moving faster than synchronous speed. When the generator is moving slower than
synchronous speed, active power flows from the grid, through the converters, and from rotor to stator. These two
modes, made possible by the four-quadrant nature of the two converters, allow a much wider speed range, both
above and below synchronous speed by up to 50%, although narrower ranges are more common. The greatest
advantage of the DFIG, is that it offers the benefits of separate active and reactive power control, much like a
traditional synchronous generator, while being able to run asynchronously.
Type 4: Variable Speed with Full Scale PE Converters
Type 4 WTGs represent connection of rotating generators to the grid via AC-DC-AC converters. Figure 2.5 shows a
schematic representation of a Type 4 WTG.
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The Type 4 turbine offers a great deal of flexibility in design and operation as the speed of operation of the generator
is not coupled with the grid frequency. The turbine is allowed to rotate at its optimal aerodynamic speed. In addition,
the gearbox may be eliminated, such that the machine spins at the slow turbine speed and generates an electrical
frequency well below that of the grid. The rotating machines of this type have been constructed as wound rotor
synchronous machines, permanent magnet synchronous machines, or as squirrel cage induction machines.
Advances in power electronic devices and controls in the last decade have made the converters both responsive and
efficient. The converters in type 4 turbines also offer the possibility of reactive power supply to the grid, with or without
the generator in operation. However, the power electronic converters have to be sized to pass the full rating of the
rotating machine, plus any capacity to be used for reactive compensation.
Type 5: Variable speed with Mechanical Transmission
Type 5 WTGs represent the WTGs where a variable speed turbine is coupled to a fixed speed synchronous
generator, via a mechanical, variable ratio torque/ speed converter. Figure 2.6 shows a schematic representation of
a Type 5 WTG.
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The torque/ speed converter changes the variable speed of the turbine rotor shaft to a constant output shaft speed.
The closely coupled synchronous generator, operating at a fixed speed (corresponding to grid frequency), can then
be directly connected to the grid through a synchronizing circuit breaker. The synchronous generator can be designed
appropriately for any desired speed (typically 6 pole or 4 pole) and voltage (typically medium voltage for higher
capacities). This approach requires speed and torque control of the torque/ speed converter along with the typical
voltage regulator (AVR), synchronizing system, and generator protection system inherent with a grid-connected
synchronous generator.
2.3 Generator Technologies

Presently, the generator types used in the WTGs include induction generators with either squirrel cage or wound
rotor construction and synchronous generators with either wound-rotor or permanent magnet construction.
2.3.1 Squirrel Cage Induction Generator

The primary advantage of the squirrel cage induction generators is their rugged brushless construction without a
need for separate rotor field excitation. These machines are very economical, reliable, and are available in the ranges
of fractional horse power (FHP) to multi megawatt capacity. Also, unlike synchronous machines, induction machine
operating speeds can be varied. In many WPPs the squirrel cage induction generators are connected to and driven
by a wind turbine through a gear box.
A major drawback of the squirrel cage induction machine is the reactive power that it consumes. At the nominal
operating point, the reactive power consumption is typically in the region of 70% of the active power.
2.3.2 Wound Rotor Induction Generator

A wound rotor induction generator is equipped with a three phase rotor winding, whose terminals are brought out via
slip rings and brushes.
This makes it possible to alter the performance of the generator, either by simply adding resistors external to the
rotor or by controlling the rotor currents via power electronic devices. By changing the rotor circuit resistance or
controlling the rotor currents, the operating speed, power factor, starting current and torque can be controlled.
Increased rotor resistance, will allow operation at higher speeds, reduce reactive power demand and reduce the
starting current.
The doubly fed WTGs make use of the flexibility to change the generator performance characteristics by changing
the frequency, phase and magnitude of the rotor current through power electronics.
2.3.3 Wound Rotor Synchronous Generator

A wound rotor synchronous generator consists of a three phase stator winding and a DC exited rotor winding. While
the rotor field is fixed (with respect to the rotor), the rotor rotates synchronously at the synchronous speed of the
machine.
The rotor winding terminals are brought out of the rotor via slip rings and brushes and normally connected to an
external DC source.
The advantages of wound rotor synchronous machines are the controllability of the generation voltage and reactive
power output by changing the field current.
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2.3.4 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator

In permanent magnet synchronous generators, the DC excitation field is provided by permanent magnets mounted
on the rotor and hence require no field excitation supplied from an external voltage source.
They typically have a long air-gap, and hence show linear magnetic characteristics, low reactance, and are compact
and efficient, compared to wound rotor machines.
2.4 Wind Turbine Mechanical Control

For the purposes of this brochure, a three-bladed, horizontal-axis, pitch controlled wind turbine, as illustrated in Figure
2.1 is considered.
The aerodynamic torque on the wind turbine rotor results from the local action of wind on blades. The contribution of
each blade to the rotor torque depends on the rotor speed, the actual blade pitch, the yaw error, the drag error, and
any other motion due to elasticity of the wind turbine structure. Except for aeroelastic effects, each of the other
contributing inputs to aerodynamic torque (rotor speed, pitch, yaw and drag) may be monitored by specific control
systems. All wind turbines are equipped with yaw drives that monitor yaw error and with supplementary devices that
are used to modify rotor drag.
In the case of variable speed wind turbines, these installations can operate at different speeds or equivalently at
variable tip-speed ratios. Pitch-regulated wind turbines are controlled by modifying the blade orientation with respect
to the direction of incident wind.
2.5 Power Electronic Converters for Wind Turbine Converters
2.5.1 Two-Level Power Converter (2L-BTB)

Two-Level Power Converter (2L-BTB) with pulse width modulation-voltage source converter with two level output
voltage (2L-PWM-VSC) is the most frequently used three-phase power converter topology so far in WPPs. Figure
2.7 shows the schematic connection of the 2L-BTB converter.
This type of converter can be used as the power electronic converter controlling the rotor winding currents in type 3
WPPs or as the full scale power electronic converter for type 4 WPPs. As the interface between the generator and
grid in the WPP, two 2L-PWM-VSCs are usually configured as a back-to-back structure (2L-BTB) with a transformer
on the grid side, as shown in the Figure 2.7.
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Figure 2.7 Two level pulse width modulation -voltage source converter
A technical advantage of the 2L-BTB solution is the relatively simple structure and few components, which contributes
to a well-proven robust and reliable performance.
However, as the power and voltage range of the wind turbine are increasing, the 2L-BTB converter may suffer from
larger switching losses and lower efficiency at high power levels. The available switching devices also need to be
connected in parallel and/or in series in order to obtain the required power and voltage of WPPs, which may lead to
reduced simplicity and reliability of the power converter. Another problem in the 2L-BTB solution is the two-level
output voltage. Having only two voltage levels introduces relatively higher dv/dt stresses to the generator and
transformer. Bulky output filters may be needed to limit the voltage gradient and reduce the THD.
Multilevel Power Converters are used more and more as the power capacity of WPPs climbs, and it becomes more
and more difficult for a traditional 2L-BTB solution to achieve acceptable performance with the available switching
devices. Generally, multilevel converters can be classified into three categories: neutral-point diode clamped
structure, flying capacitor clamped structure, and cascaded converter cells structure. In order to get a cost-effective
design, multilevel converters are mainly used in the variable speed full-scale power converter wind turbines with the
power range of several MW. Several possible multilevel solutions are presented in the following figures.
2.5.2 Three-Level Neutral-Point Diode Clamped Back-To-Back Topology (3L-NPC

BTB)
Three-level neutral-point diode clamped topology is one of the most commercialized multilevel converters on the
market. Similar to the 2L-BTB, it is usually configured as a back-to-back structure in wind turbines, as shown in Figure
2.8 below, which is called 3L-NPC BTB for convenience.
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Figure 2.8 Three-level neutral-point diode clamped topology
It achieves one more output voltage level and less dv/dt stress compared to the 2L-BTB, thus the filter size is smaller.
The 3L-NPC BTB is also able to output the double the voltage amplitude compared to the two-level topology with
switching devices of the same voltage rating. The midpoint voltage fluctuation of the DC bus used to be a drawback
of the 3L-NPC BTB. However, this problem has been extensively researched and is considered improved by the
controlling of redundant switching status. However, it is found that the loss distribution is unequal between the outer
and inner switching devices in a switching arm, and this problem might lead to underutilised converter power capacity.
2.5.3 Three-Level H-Bridge Back-to-Back Topology (3L-HB BTB)

The 3L-HB BTB solution is composed of two H-bridge converters which are configured in a back-to-back structure,
as shown in Figure 2.9 below. It can achieve output performance similar to the 3L-NPC BTB solution, but the unequal
loss distribution and clamped diodes are eliminated. More efficient and equal usage of switching devices as well as
higher designed power capacity can be obtained.
Figure 2.9 Three-level H-bridge back-to-back topology
Moreover, as only half of the DC bus voltage is needed in 3L-HB BTB compared to the 3L-NPC BTB, there is less
series connection of capacitors and no midpoint DC bus, thus the size of DC link capacitors can be further reduced.
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However, a 3L-HB BTB solution needs an open-winding structure in the generator and transformer in order to achieve
isolation between each phase. This feature has both advantages and disadvantages: on one hand, an open-winding
structure enables relatively isolated operation of each phase, and a potential fault-tolerant ability is thereby obtained
if one or even two phases of the generator or the generator side converter are out of operation. On the other hand,
an open-winding structure requires double cable length and weight in order to connect with the generator and the
transformer. Extra cost, loss, and inductance in the cables can also be major drawbacks. The open-winding impacts
on the loss/weight of the generator and the transformer.
High level modelling of the power electronic converters in WPPs and their control strategies are discussed in
Chapter 4.
2.6 Complementing wind farm technologies

The complementing technologies, generally employed at the wind farms for improving the WPP performance include,
static and/or dynamic reactive power support devices such as, mechanically or thyristor switched capacitors, SVCs,
STATCOMs and synchronous condensers.
2.6.1 Thermistor Switched Capacitors (TSCs)

A TSC consists of a shunt capacitor in series with two thyristor switches in antiparallel. The thyristors are used only
for switching on or off the capacitors.
TSCs provide almost instantaneous controllability of the reactive power support provided, and are usually used as
an integral part of the SVCs.
2.6.2 Static Var Compensators (SVCs)

An SVC comprises a combination of shunt connected Thermistor Controlled Reactor(s) (TCR), filters and in some
cases Thermistor Switched Capacitors (TSC) or Mechanically Switched Capacitors (MSC). The technology, based
on TCR is mature.
The TCR consists of a shunt reactor in series with a thyristor controller with two thyristor switches in antiparallel.
Each of the two parallel thyristor switches conduct for a period of up to one half period of the reactor current. By
controlling the trigger instant of the thyristor switch, the reactor current, and thereby the reactive power absorbed
from the AC grid, can be controlled continuously between zero and rated power. In the simplest design, a capacitor
bank produces a fixed amount of reactive power and the TCR adjusts its absorption, thereby performing reactive
power control or voltage control at the connection point.
2.6.3 Static Compensator (STATCOM)

Static synchronous compensators (STATCOMs) are Voltage Sourced Converters (VSC) used solely for reactive
power absorption or generation. Unlike thyristor based solutions (TSC and SVC), VSC power electronic systems are
based on IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) or GTO (Gate Turn Off Thermistor) technology, which intrinsically
enables a faster response than thyristors. The VSC uses the semi-conductors to switch a DC capacitor to the three
AC terminals at high speed, such that a sinusoidal fundamental frequency voltage (after filtering) appears to the AC
network behind a large reactor (the converter reactor). By controlling the phase angle between the converter AC
voltage source and the network voltage, the active power flow is limited to that which is required to keep the DC
capacitor voltage to a desired value. By controlling the amplitude of the converter AC voltage relative to the network
voltage, the flow of reactive power from the converter can be controlled. The reactive power flow is determined by
the difference between the two voltages and the impedance between the converter and the network.
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2.7 Complementing Grid Connection Technologies

The technologies that support the performance of WPPs in connecting to AC grids include:
 Reactive power devises such as capacitors, SVCs and STATCOMs installed in the network in electrical
proximity to the WPPs
 Series compensation of the AC transmission lines
 Connection of the windfarms via HVDC transmission lines
Series compensation of the AC transmission lines connecting the wind farms, improve the WPP performance by
providing an increasing level of reactive compensation when the power transferred through the line is increased, and
hence improving the ability for the control of the WPPs.
Connection of windfarms via HVDC transmission lines have been increasingly used for connecting the offshore wind
farms with the onshore grids. Long length of the submarine cables required for the connection makes the use of
HVDC to be the most economic and preferred technology for connection.
This brochure does not cover the connection technologies, series compensated transmission lines or HVDC
transmission lines, but the readers are referred to the relevant publications.
2.8 References
[1] North American Offshore Wind Project Information, http://offshorewind.net/
[2] IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group: "Characteristics of Wind Turbine
Generators for Wind Power Plants", IEEE, 2009
Page 31
3 ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH WEAK SYSTEMS
3.1 Introduction
This chapter is intended to provide an overview of typical requirements imposed by regulatory authorities upon all
generators, including power electronic based generation such as wind power generation. In light of these
requirements, a number of issues associated with weak systems that impede wind generation from performing as
required are presented, along with several examples of how these issues have impacted real wind interconnection
projects.
3.2 Overview of WPP Performance Requirements

Wind power plants (WPP) interconnected to high voltage transmission networks are expected to provide energy
without negatively impacting the ability of transmission providers to serve their load in a safe, reliable, and cost
effective fashion. In addition, they are increasingly expected to provide basic support functions which contribute to
the overall good performance of the electric system. To ensure that wind plants and other equipment to be connected
to power systems effectively support these two targets, network operators set performance requirements in their
network connection codes (or "grid codes" or "connection requirements"). As network connection codes are an
inherent part of the network planning criteria and practices, they may vary between synchronous areas and regions
within synchronous areas, dependent also upon historical approaches that have been used as bases for robust
network designs. Local phenomena affecting the transmission network performance (due to specific network
topologies and generation characteristics, for example) may significantly affect the content of the network connection
codes. Although connection codes may vary in specific details, on a more general level most codes address the
following:
 Frequency and voltage operation range

 Reactive power and voltage control
 Active power and frequency control
 Capability to ride through disturbances
In addition to these main areas of technical performance requirements, connection codes typically address areas
that are relevant for network planning and operation. For example, from a network planning perspective, essential
areas include modelling requirements and requirements related to documentation of technical information.
One of the inherent challenges related to requirements set for WPPs is that they are subjected to technology
development cycles which may be faster than the rate at which interconnection standards can be updated and
applied. Issues related to connection points with relatively low short circuit capacity are a prime examples of grid
connection related issues that may have been recognized in their full extent only late in the interconnection process,
either at the stage of highly detailed grid connection studies or even after the power plant has been connected to
network. In these cases interconnection standards may have been inadequate to predict the problems and correctly
plan for the interconnection implementation procedures.
The following sections provide examples of the technical performance requirements that have been recognized to
require special attention when the SCR at the connection point of the WPP is low. This is not a comprehensive list
of grid code requirements, but a selection of issues impacted by weak systems.
3.2.1 Capability to ride through disturbances
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Capability to ride through disturbances, or fault ride-through (FRT) requirements as commonly referred in the grid
codes, normally state in some form that:
1. The WPP should not be tripped in the event of normally cleared system faults. Fault ride through is a
requirement where wind generators are required to stay connected to the grid during and after the clearance
of a system fault. Following the clearance of the fault, the WPP should be able to provide active and reactive
power to the grid. This will assist to maintain angle and voltage stability of the system.
This requirement may be more critical in weak systems because of the following reasons:
 Local reactive power support to maintain system voltages is more critical in weak systems.
 Active power deficiencies as a result of WPP tripping may not be easily compensated by other
generators in the local area requiring power transfer over long distances.
 Tripping of a significant generator is more likely to result in undesirable poorly damped power oscillations
in weak system compared to a strong system.
2. The wind plant should be able to control active and reactive power injection during the fault recovery. A
typical requirement of a weak grid during a fault is curtailment of active power and boosting of reactive power
injection to support voltage. Power electronics based wind generation has this inherent capability. This is
achieved through fast control of active and reactive currents. However, active power and reactive power
injection should be coordinated within the equipment rating limitations. Grid code may require fast ramping
of active power in the fault recovery period. This requirement is difficult to meet in weak grids as reactive
power requirements to meet voltage recovery limits the active power ramping rate.
3. In situations where WPPs are required to absorb reactive power for maintaining the grid voltages below their
maximum allowable limits, a failure of an WPP to ride through a disturbance and subsequent disconnection
from the grid would likely to increase the grid voltage above permissible limits. Depending on high voltage
ride through (HVRT) capability of WPPs, operation of wind plant overvoltage relays may occur following a
grid disturbance, especially in regions dominated by inverter based generation, with very little load or
conventional generators. Loss of a wind plant through HVRT protection can potentially lead to overvoltage
cascading, as the system voltage rises further when generation trips.
3.2.2 Appropriate disconnection due to an unintentional electric island

Large generation facilities must quickly disconnect themselves from the system if they are inadvertently left in an
electric island together with load to prevent uncontrolled behavior and damage to equipment. This is normally a
natural occurrence, since an imbalance between the size of the load and the size of the generator causes the power
frequency to quickly rise or fall beyond protection thresholds. Likewise, system voltages often quickly deviate from
nominal values and the generators tend to protect themselves. However, care must be taken in cases where a
load/generation balance is close, and the plant is not quickly disconnected. The system in these cases may be left
in an uncontrolled state (lacking a system reference and any form of frequency control), and power electronic devices
may oscillate, drive voltages to damaging levels, or otherwise degrade power quality. In cases where inadvertent
islanding is of concern, direct transfer trip schemes are normally employed.
Although these disconnection concerns apply equally in weak systems and strong systems, cases lending
themselves to islanding tend to be more remote from the bulk electric system, and this issue often is raised along
with weak system concerns.
3.2.3 Stable coordination of dynamic controllers

Generators are expected to operate in a stable manner, and to avoid interfering with the controls of neighboring
equipment. Modern power electronics based wind generators are equipped with numerous control systems
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performing numerous control functions. These control functions can interact with nearby power electronic based
dynamic devices with comparable control system time constants. This can lead to detrimental dynamic oscillations.
The potential of such oscillations is greater when the devices are connected to a weak grid.
3.2.4 Stable performance during weak or outage conditions

Generators are expected to operate in a stable manner during varying system conditions, including following outages
which may significantly weaken the connection strength. For power electronic based generation, it may be
challenging to have a single set of control parameters to meet grid requirements under all conditions. Adaptive control
parameters may be required.
3.2.5 Sufficient contribution to network voltage support

Generators are expected to contribute to voltage support and control of the bulk electric system. This includes
reactive power available to regulate voltage (fast and slow support). For modern power electronic based generation
such as wind power generation, these types of support are typically achievable through special controls. Additional
reactive power devices may be required in some cases to meet steady state and dynamic performance requirements.
In strong systems, this may be achieved by using mechanically switched shunt devices. In weak systems, dynamic
devices such as SVCs and STATCOMs or even SCs (synchronous compensators) may be required to meet dynamic
performance criteria.
3.2.6 Frequency Support

Wind power plants in some cases are expected to contribute to control system-wide frequency. For wind this may
be accomplished over short time periods (up to several seconds) as a type of "inertial control" or over longer
timeframes depending on the ability of the plant to increase or reduce power based on its operating point and control
capabilities.
3.3 Technical Issues Identified in Weak Grids

The following issues have been identified in existing bulk electric systems:
3.3.1 Failure to ride through disturbances

As discussed in section 3.1.1 above, in weak systems, wind plants may be unable to adequately meet ride-through
criteria as defined by regulatory agencies. This can manifest in several ways, but failure of the plant to regulate its
terminal voltage adequately as the plant recovers its active power following a disturbance can cause the plant
protections to operate inappropriately and fail to "ride-through". Further, when connected to weak AC systems, the
ability of the controllers to adequately follow the connection point system frequency and phase immediately after a
fault, reduce significantly causing the disconnection of the WPPs from the system.
Over compensation for ride through during transmission faults, may lead to exceeding the connection point voltage
following the clearance of the fault. Depending on high voltage ride through (HVRT) capability of individual wind plant
designs compared to others, operation of wind plant overvoltage relays may occur upon outage conditions, especially
in regions dominated by inverter based generation types like wind, with very little load or conventional generators.
Loss of a wind plant through HVRT protection can relieve loading on the high voltage circuits exporting the power,
causing the voltage to rise further, and potentially leading to overvoltage cascading, as the system voltage rises
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further when generation trips. Overvoltage tripping can be minimized through a combination of system strength
enhancements and better HVRT capability of wind generation projects. System collapse caused by overvoltage
cascading presents a significant reliability risk and suggests a need for wind generation projects to comply with HVRT
requirements.
3.3.2 Electromechanical oscillatory stability
In power systems several phenomena are known to cause undamped or growing oscillations. One common mode of
instability is the oscillations of the generator rotors with respect to each other, with energy transfer form one group of
machine to another group of machines taking place over the electricity transmission system. The typical frequency
range of electromechanical oscillations is 0.2-0.8 Hz (i.e. period time of oscillation varies from 1.3s to 5s).
Although fast voltage control of synchronous machines, in particular those are equipped with high gain, fast voltage
controller may contribute the damping of electromechanical oscillations, wind generators do not often participate in
these electro-mechanical oscillations. The participation has been mostly limited to Type 1 and Type 2 WPPs.
It is worth recognizing, however, that both the wind power plants located to close to the units participating in the
oscillations and the units located along the long and often relatively weak tie-line connecting the two system may
affect the power transmission constraints, set due to consideration of the small signal stability limits.
3.3.3 Control interactions and instability

The possibility of interaction between devices is very broad. Power electronic based generators may interact with
each other, or they may interact with other power electronic devices such as HVDC ties, FACTS devices such as
SVCs or STATCOMs, or even with non-power electronic based devices such as series capacitors, switched shunt
devices and conventional generators.
Control instability can occur due to the interaction of the fast, high gain controllers of WPPs (in particular Type 3 and
Type 4) with the power system, with other nearby plants such as HVDC converters, SVCs or STATCOMs, or with
the other nearby WPPs.
The weaker the system is in relation to the controlled devices, the more impact each of the devices has on the others.
In general the open loop gain as experienced by the interacting controllers is higher when they are connected and
operated in weak AC systems, making them more susceptible to control instability.
The device controller interactions to be expected are similar to the HVDC and SVC controls interactions is explored
and reported by Cigre WG 14.28.
3.3.4 Cycling between turbine control modes

A problem which may be observed if the system is too weak to support a turbine, depending on control
implementation, is cycling between turbine control modes. Wind turbines often have dedicated controls intended to
govern performance during severe events (such as faults), and to refrain the plant from tripping to protect itself.
When these ride-through modes are operational, WPP level reactive power orders may be ignored to allow all the
reactive power capability to be used to support local turbine terminal conditions. Gains and time-constants may be
adjusted, PLL controls may be changed, and active power may be reduced as required by the application.
If the system is very weak, the WPP may have difficulty transitioning from a reduced-power ride-through mode into
its normal full power operation. The transient caused by the plant recovery and shift from control modes may be
sufficient to cause the plant to re-enter its ride through mode, causing a major transient to occur in a periodic manner.
This is generally unacceptable, as the transients can be severe and can ultimately lead to plant tripping.
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Although synchronous compensators are a valuable tool in providing system inertia to stabilize power electronic
converter controls, care must be taken to ensure that the synchronous compensator itself does not introduce new
instability concerns. These are more likely to occur in weakened systems separated by some distance from a strong
angular reference.
3.3.5 Islanding issues

The risk of a wind plant creating a local island is typically higher for wind power plants that operate with low SCRs
because their connection point is often remote from strong grid mesh points. Study must be undertaken to ensure:
 the anti-islanding protection (if fitted) functions correctly

 other network users are not exposed to insecure operating conditions
 the wind power plant's design ratings are not exceeded, i.e. the WPP remains within its safe operating limits
3.4 Additional Challenges Identified in Weak Grids
3.4.1 Initial estimation of feasibility of connection and screening of issues

Short circuit calculations (in simplified form as described in chapter 6) are currently being used to estimate the ability
of power electronic based generation to connect to a weak transmission system and operate correctly.
While this is a useful technique, incorrect application can result in serious underestimations of system strength
performance. In other words, using assumptions for wind turbine SCC calculation which are conservative for breaker
duty calculations may be optimistic for SCR calculations, disguising the requirement for system strength to be shared
among several wind plants.
Conventional powerflow studies are often used to evaluate VAR adequacy in periods following a fault, and these
studies often assume the full VAR range capability claimed by the turbine manufacturers. It is possible for wind
plants to support the voltage across a system, but in practice these controllers may not be configured to operate in
the fast timeframes required to prevent voltage collapse in the few seconds following a fault, and the controllers may
not be available if the wind plants are out of service, or the wind is not blowing. A mix of network based voltage
support and wind power plant voltage support is desirable, and special care is required in conventional planning to
ensure sufficient VARs are available in the immediate post-fault timeframes as well as the extended simulation
timeframes typically examined in power flow studies.
3.4.2 Limitations of simulation tools and models

Most of the presently available transient stability simulation tools are meant for simulating the phenomena which are
symmetrical and can be represented as slow varying dynamics (with respect to a synchronously rotating reference
frame). While they are capable of simulating phenomenon such as synchronous machine stability and fault ride-
through of the WPPs, they may not be used for modelling power electronic controls in the wind generators in sufficient
detail to represent their behavior under weak conditions (e.g. adequate modelling of operation of the PLL). This can
result in either over or underestimation of control stability leading to planners making inaccurate or uninformed
decisions based on system impact study results.
Conventional tools that could model transient stability alone are not suitable to perform wind integration studies under
weak system configurations. In very weak networks, transient stability studies usually need to be supplemented with
modelling of fast acting power electronic controllers and assessment of the stability of their operation, using a suitable
simulation platform, such as an electromagnetic transient simulation tool.
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The assessment of the stability of WPPs connected to weak transmission systems also requires accurate modelling
and representation of the behavior of the WPP.
In some rare cases, generic models may be used, but in most cases the generic models do not adequately and
accurately represent the detailed control and protection functions associated with the wind turbine.
The models which can accurately represent those functions are highly detailed and often include detail information
on proprietary controls, in some cases utilizing actual firmware or software code found in the real equipment. Because
the value of intellectual property embedded within these models are very high, equipment manufacturers are
understandably cautious and anxious to control model distribution. They may also be reluctant to release the models
without complete control of the disclosure and distribution (requiring time-consuming and sometimes onerous non-
disclosure negotiations and agreements).
A significant support is often required from manufacturers for understanding and familiarization of the proprietary
models and for interpretation of the simulation results depicting the performance of the WPP. This type of support
requires special expertise, which is limited in many organizations. Additionally, the end-users of these models also
require significant training and experience to use the models. Without these, the support burden on the model
developers becomes even more onerous.
The modelling of WPPs connected to weak transmission systems are further explored in chapter 4.
3.4.3 Challenges in transmission network planning

Integration of WPPs has presented new challenges to traditional transmission network planning processes for
reasons that may vary significantly between different jurisdictions and transmission networks.
Renewable generation in general has caused very different challenges for different network planning processes. In
those parts of the world where large scale integration of the wind power has been occurring, the main challenges
from planning perspective are related to adjustment of the technical requirements and the network planning practices
so that the wind integration is possible without endangering system security and reliability. As result the technical
requirements have evolved quickly, and they have taken even in some extent the role of the technology driver.
A prime example of a new challenge is the connection of WPPs to connection points with low SCR. After the initial
round of wind power integrations has utilized the optimal locations in the existing infrastructure, such as good access
roads and straightforward grid connections, the next round of connections would likely to be farther from the existing
infrastructure, and will require more attention. The decreasing short circuit ratio of the connection points brings new
issues to the tables of the transmission planners:
 The type of phenomenon to be simulated and studies required

 The adequacy and suitability of the available simulation tools
 The adequacy and suitability of the available models of the network, including the connected WPPs
 The criteria for accepting the acceptable level of performance
It is worth recognizing that although these questions were originally raised by the wind power plants located far from
the bulk transmission network, the same issues are starting to appear also in some parts of the network where the
SCR ratios have traditionally been high. This happens especially in areas where wind power penetration has become
relatively high compared to the connected synchronous generation. On those areas the SCR may significantly vary
depending on operational situations as under good wind conditions, the synchronous generation will be displaced by
the wind generation. This emphasizes not only the importance of relevant wind power plant models for the system
operational planning, but also the availability of knowledge and relevant models of existing power system equipment.
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The time required for engineering, procurement and construction of a WPP is comparatively short and hence the
planers face the additional pressure in identifying, analysis and resolving the above challenges within a short time
frame.
3.4.4 Grid-Code and Connection Agreement Challenges

Through the existing Grid Codes and Connection Agreements WPPs are asked to support the grid and to provide
ancillary services. Although these codes may differ from each other on some specific aspects depending on the area
they are covering, in general they are all addressing relevant performance requirements needed for the stable,
reliable and efficient operation of the system.
As described in the previous sections of this chapter, in the case of an interconnection to a weak system, a WPP
might be confronted with some challenges associated with these types of systems. Furthermore, some of these
challenges may only be recognized in their full extent late in the interconnection process.
In order to achieve successful grid integration considering all these challenges, the implementation of a non-standard
technical solution may be necessary. The non-standard solutions can represent relevant controller changes at WTG
level and/or at WPP level for normal and fault-ride-through operation, the need of extra equipment or a combination
of these, depending on the project. Although non-standard, specific solutions should still satisfy the original aim of
the grid-codes and connection agreements namely the stable, reliable and efficient operation of the system.
Grid Codes and Connection Agreements are normally not specifically addressing weak grids and not specifying the
minimum level of system strength at which they are valid. As a consequence, a potential issue may arise when the
standard requirements are not physically applicable in the case of weak systems. Furthermore, one may also face
the case where the designed non-standard technical solution does not conform to all standard requirements and/or
original connection agreements.
Hence, further efforts will be necessary in order to find acceptable technical, economical, and commercial solutions
for the identified issues. Therefore close cooperation between all parties involved in projects in weak systems is
mandatory in order to achieve successful grid integration.
3.4.5 Economic Challenges

Many of the issues identified above can be solved, either through careful analysis and control tuning, or through the
addition of supporting equipment or new transmission infrastructure, or through reduction of generator output.
However, as systems become very weak, the economics of enabling the generation to connect and perform
satisfactorily can become onerous, and can affect project feasibility. As the system becomes very weak, and
especially as the limits of technical feasibility are approached, the costs can rise exponentially.
3.5 Examples
3.5.1 Issues masked by limitations of the assessment tools

A large wind power plant connecting into a weak system in the Northeast USA was nearing completion of all required
studies. Transient stability analysis showed stable results, however a final check using EMT tools revealed that the
plant would be unlikely to operate due to control instability in the weak system. A synchronous compensator was
added late in the project development, however the severe delay and requirement for subsequent restudy (among
other factors) caused the project considerable expense, and the utility performing the studies was severely
inconvenienced. This project caused a change in utility practice to move to EMT type studies earlier in the study
process when warranted.
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3.5.2 Issues due to control incompatibilities and interactions

A small wind power plant connecting into a weak radial system in the Northeast USA was nearing completion of all
required studies. The project was located very near a second project which was larger in size and already in service
(different turbine manufacturer). Again, transient stability analysis showed stable results, however a check using
EMT tools revealed that a fault near the system source side of the radial connection would cause the smaller plant
to consistently trip and fail to ride through. Detailed investigation using EMT tools showed that the control
philosophies used for the WPPs were incompatible and the smaller WPP would usually trip during a fault. The
inability of one wind turbine manufacturer to look at the model of the other manufacturer made coordination of the
control issue nearly impossible, and the ultimate delay caused the smaller project application to be withdrawn, and
the project was not built. This highlights some of the serious issues surrounding the proprietary nature of EMT type
models outlined in section 3.4.3.
3.5.4 Solutions – augmentation of the transmission system with series capacitors

The transmission capability of Finnish transmission network is stability restricted when power is either imported or
exported to Scandinavia. To limit the stability related restrictions a number of different approaches to improve the
transfer capability has been taken by Fingrid, the Finnish transmission system operator, during last 15 years.
One of these approaches has been series compensation of the tie-lines connecting the main transmission paths
connecting South Finland to North Finland as well as the paths connecting Finland and Sweden (see Figure 3.1).
Series compensation has greatly improved the transfer capability of Finnish transmission network considering both
the voltage stability phenomena restricting the import capability from North Finland to South and the damping of
electromechanical oscillations restricting the export capability from South Finland to North and further down to South
Scandinavia via North Sweden. New series compensated lines are under construction to accommodate the new wind
power generation. [1]
Figure 3.1 Location of main wind power areas in Finnish transmission system
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As the main transmission network of Finland is strongly meshed and the target level of wind integration rather modest
as compared with the overall generation capacity, the identified issues with low SCR are related mainly to special
operational situations like windy summer nights when most of the minimum system load could be covered by wind
generation and HVDC import. Similarly, special outages as well as grid restoration have been determined as
situations, when the SCR on certain regions may become low or very low. Whereas the situations where low SCR is
prevailing under most or all the operational situation present obviously the main technical challenge, these situations
that may prevail only few hours each year present different challenge for system planning. It is not only the effort
required by system planning that increases significantly if the low SCR issues are properly addressed, but taking into
account these special operational conditions e.g. in tuning the power plant controllers may result into less optimal
control performance during the normal operation conditions prevailing most of the year. Tuning the controls to solve
the low SCR situation issues can lead in poor performance from perspective of transient voltage stability or damping
of electromechanical oscillations.
As shown in Figure 3.1 the wind power is located along the long and series compensated AC transmission path
between Finland and the rest of the Nordic synchronous system. Therefore also the effect of the wind power plant
control performance on the voltage stability and the damping of electromechanical oscillations as well as sub-
synchronous control interaction shall be taken into account in the system planning.
3.5.5 Solutions – tuning of controllers

The ERCOT Panhandle grid is remote from both synchronous generators and load centers. It requires long distance
power transfer from the Panhandle region to the load centers in ERCOT. Under weak grid conditions, voltage control
will be very difficult because of the high voltage sensitivity of dV/dQ, in other words, a small variation of reactive
support results in large voltage deviations.
Large amounts of wind generation with advanced power electronic devices are expected to be installed in Panhandle
grid and the dynamic response in the area will be dominated by power electronic devices (WPPs, SVC, etc.)
The effect of weak system strength on the WPP voltage control performance can be best demonstrated with a recent
event where an existing WPP connected to a weak system in ERCOT experienced undesirable un-damped voltage
oscillations under weak grid conditions.
The WPP is connected to the ERCOT grid through two transmission lines. When one line was taken out of service,
the WPP experienced un-damped voltage oscillations, which were recorded by Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs).
The investigation of the event showed that the key cause for the oscillatory response was the plant level voltage
control of the WPP was not suitable for a weak grid condition. The calculated SCR at POI after losing one line is
less than two. The event was simulated with the WPP represented with a detailed dynamic model to re-create the
oscillatory response; simulation results are presented in Figure 3.2 The voltage oscillation is effectively damped when
potential system strength improvements that increase the SCR are modelled, \ as shown in the purple color curve.
Tuning the voltage controller gains based on the lower SCR value also improved the oscillatory response as shown
in the green color curve.
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Figure 3.2 Voltage Response at WPP's Point of Interconnection
3.6 References
[1] Cigre WG 14.07, IEEE WG 15.05.05 “Guide for Planning DC Links Terminating at AC systems Locations
having Low Short-Circuit Capacities”, June 1992.
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4 MODELLING SUMMARY
4.1 Introduction
This chapter reviews the modeling requirements of the WPPs and the power system network for assessing their
performance when operating under different operating conditions.
In assessing the performance, the analysis studies that require undertaking include power-flow analysis, short circuit
analysis, transient stability analysis, small signal stability analysis and fast control interaction analysis. The
components of the wind integrated power system that need to be modeled and the level of detail to be modelled are
discussed under each study type with particular reference to any modeling requirements specific to weak power
systems. Please note that a classification of weak systems based on the short circuit ratio (SCR) is recommended in
Chapter 7 of this brochure.
4.2 Power-flow Analysis

The purpose of a power-flow study is to determine the impact of the generation connection on the operation of the
power system. The assessed impacts would include:
a. adequacy of the network to accommodate the connected generation together with the existing generation
under various operating conditions
b. the anticipated voltage profile of the transmission network with the new generation connected to the network
and the voltage control performance required of the new generation to minimize any voltage issues in the
network
The studied operating conditions need to represent the state of the power system under various contingencies and,
present and future, generation and demand scenarios. There are no special issues to be considered with regards to
connecting wind power plants to weak networks. It is sufficient to model the WPP as a constant PQ (for type 1 and
type 2) or PV (with Q limits, for type 3 and type 4) nodes. Also, aggregated model of the wind power plant is adequate
in a power flow study.
4.3 Short circuit Analysis

In weak power systems, the short circuit current become comparable to the operating currents expected under peak
demand periods, and fault discrimination has been considered to be an issue.
The purpose of a short circuit study is mainly to determine the circuit breaker duty and to design and coordinate the
relevant protection systems.
Although evaluation of SCC level should be a significant aspect of WPP studies to ensure the proper coordination of
system protection, it is also challenging for protection engineers to properly set all of the protection relay settings and
maintain the system especially because conventional industry practices for short circuit analysis do not accurately
represent the wind turbines.
Contribution from a wind farm for short circuit current is dependent on the technology used. Assessment of the
contribution of wind power plants to a short circuit current is reported in [1]. Mathematical models are presented for
the four types of wind power plants.
In Type 1 wind power plants the Squirrel Cage Induction Generator (SCIG) produces power with the constant turbine
speed. A characteristic of the Type 1 and a detailed operation procedure is described in [1]. Accordingly, the Type 1
Wind Turbine Generator (WTG) contributes the highest short circuit current (SCC) among four types and it is
approximately six times the rated current or even higher. The fault current contribution is given by:
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√
sin 1 sin ω (4.1)
In Eq. (4.1), α presents the voltage phase angle, ′ the stator transient reactance, and and the stator
and rotor time constants. The parameter is the leakage factor and it is defined in terms of stator, rotor, and stator-
rotor mutual inductances as = 1 - /( ). Detailed procedure of parameter calculations is illustrated in [1] –
[3].
The configuration of Wound Rotor Induction Generator (WRIG) of a Type 2 WTG is similar to that of a Type 1, but
the difference is the connection of variable external resistance to the rotor. High external rotor resistance significantly
reduces the fault current, and secures the turbine from serious damage. However, if the external rotor resistance is
shorted, the fault current level is similar to that of Type 1. The maximum SCC contribution from Type 2 is modeled
as:
∆ ∆
√
1 . (4.2)
In Eq. (4.2), ∆ is the duration between the moment of fault and the first peak. The rotor time constant , is
computed with the external resistance taken into account. For Type 2 WTG, the maximum value is computed
when the external resistance is zero.
The Type 3 WTG have the ability to control the speed of the generator by controlling the rotor currents using back to
back converters connected between the rotor winding and the grid side. This allows the manipulation of active and
reactive power independently and rapidly. The highest fault current peak from a Type 3 plant is around 3 per unit for
three phase and line-line-ground faults, and approximately 2 per unit of rated current is yielded from a single line to
ground fault. The SCC rapidly decreases to zero in a short period, since the terminal voltage, which maintains a
constant air gap flux, collapses. The equation for the maximum SCC value from Type 3 WTG is given by:
∆ ∆
√
1 . (4.3)
In Eq. (4.3), , denotes the rotor transient time constant computed with the crow bar resistance taken into account.
For the maximum fault current the crow bar resistance is set to zero.
The Type 4 WTG is a variable speed wind turbine directly connected to the grid through a full power converter. Similar
to the Type 3, utilization of power converter allows the independent control of active and reactive power. The
presence of the full power converter significantly decouples the turbine dynamics from the grid, resulting in reducing
the transient dynamics influencing the wind turbine dynamics [1] – [3]. Consequently, SCC from a three-phase fault
is commonly designed not to exceed the rated current by more than 10%.
The maximum and minimum possible SCC for each type are given in Table 4.1. It is clear that SCC contribution from
Type 1 and 2 are more severe compared to those from Type 3 and 4.
TABLE 4.1 Maximum & Minimum SCC Magnitude of Each WTG
WTG Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4
Max SCC √2 √2 √2 1.1 PU

2 2 2
′ ′ ′
Min SCC √2 √2 1.1 PU 0

2
′ 9
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The above summary outlines only the maximum and minimum fault current contributions from different WPP
topologies. It is not simple to calculate the actual fault current contributions because of the actions of control and
protection functions embedded in the system. These systems can also vary from one manufacturer to another [4].
For example, for a Type 2 WTG operating below rated conditions, the external resistance is by-passed and thus it
behaves as a Type 1 WTG. Another example is when the crowbar protection in a Type 3 WTG is activated at the
fault occurrence; effectively resulting in a resistance in the rotor circuit similar to a Type 2 WTG, but with a varying
value of resistance [3]. The fault current contribution from a Type 3 WTG with crowbar protection is therefore similar
to that of a Type 2 WTG. A comprehensive review including how to model a WPP for fault current contributions is
found in [4].
The short circuit currents calculated using the above method are suitable for circuit breaker duty calculations and not
for estimating the short circuit ratio related to the system strength. Chapter 6 presents several indices for evaluation
the system strength. Such calculations assumes steady state fault level contributions and useful as a screening
technique to determine the necessity of performing a more detailed simulation incorporating WTG controls.
4.4 Transient Stability Analysis

The generic models available in some commercially available transient stability simulation programs may not be
suitable when the wind power plant is connected to a weak system.
The purpose of a transient stability analysis is to determine whether the power system can withstand large
disturbances, typically due to faults. The usual practice in a transient stability study is to select critical scenarios from
the cases studied under the power flow study. Only the selected scenarios are considered for the transient stability
study.
A typical transient stability study looks into the ability of synchronous machines to be in synchronism with the rest of
the system subsequent to a fault. The fault ride through capability of the windfarms is important for ensuring the
system stability following a fault, in particular in power systems with high levels of wind power generation.
Therefore, it is essential to model the fault ride through control capabilities in the WPP model. A typical requirement
of a weak grid during fault recovery is curtailment of active power and boosting of reactive power injection to support
voltage. In type 3 & 4 WPPs, this is achieved through fast control of active and reactive currents. The modelling of
fast controller actions will include modelling of the performance of the power electronic converters associated with
the WPP, in some detail, including the performance of the phase locked loop (PLL) control.
While the generic models available in some commercially available transient stability simulation programs, may not
represent the performance of the power electronic converters, it is possible to add functional control blocks to a
transient stability model, to represent the effect of a PLL.
Electromechanical power oscillations are more common in weak systems than in strong systems. To properly
simulate the dynamics of electromechanical oscillations, it is essential to model the turbine masses and pitch
controllers, although the pitch control and blade dynamics of the wind turbine have a negligible effect on the fault ride
through behavior of the wind power plant. The pitch control and blade dynamics of the wind turbine, are relatively
slow compared to the active and reactive power controllers in the power electronic controllers, and hence do not
contribute to the initial transient response of the WPP.
The grid side reactive power controllers, such as SVCs and STATCOMs contribute significantly to fault ride through
performance and play an important role in connecting WPPs to weak systems. Hence their behavior needs to be
modeled in sufficient detail.
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The transient stability programs use simplified generator models ignoring the dynamics of stator flux. In addition, the
transmission network is modeled using a constant bus admittance matrix calculated for the power frequency.
Therefore, the network dynamics are ignored. Due to these simplifications, any oscillations above the range of
electromechanical oscillations (up to 5 Hz) produced by a transient stability program are not reliable. For example, if
sub-synchronous oscillations are of interest, the above simplifications are not acceptable and detailed EMT
simulations must be carried out. A more detailed discussion of EMT simulations is given in Chapter 5.
The accuracy of the transient stability model of a WPP connected to a weak system depends on the controllers used
and the level of details modelled. Therefore, the level of modelling required is highly dependent on the manufacturer
of the WTG. The user of the model should clarify with the manufacturer of the WTG (or the provider of the model)
whether the transient stability model of WPP provided is accurate at the level of SCR at the PCC.
The fast dynamics associated with the power electronic converters require the simulations to use very small time
steps, sometimes less than 1ms, resulting in very high computation times. The computation times may be reduced
by use of variable or multiple time step simulation algorithms.
Another problem associated with simulating WPPs connected to weak networks is the calculation numerical stability
and accuracy. When the system strength is reduced following a contingency, the WPP models can encounter
numerical problems and hence, the dynamic simulation solution fails to converge at those instances. Under these
circumstances, the simulation results (especially voltages and frequency) will show discontinuities and/or have
abnormal “spikes”.
4.4.1 Network and wind farm modelling

The most accurate approach to represent the interconnected network for transient stability analysis is to explicitly
account for dynamic models of each and every generator in the network. Depending on the number of generators in
the network this approach may result in a significant increase in the computational burden. Judicious network
reduction techniques may be applied to maintain models of the nearby or the most significant generators in the
system. This approach may not be adequate when investigating inter-area modes of oscillations or when computing
the governor and inertial response of the wider network, but the loss of accuracy may be accepted for transient
stability studies including the assessment of wind farms connected to weak networks. This is because with a weak
connection point the impact of remote generators is negligible due to the high impedance separating them. Particular
care should be taken to ensure that all nearby power electronic controlled equipment such as other wind farms,
HVDC links, and reactive power support plant are included in the overall model. As will be discussed in Section 6,
presence of nearby power electronic controlled equipment can have a significant impact on the response of a given
wind farm to steady-state and dynamic conditions.
For transient stability studies, judicious aggregation methods should be applied to represent the wind farm with an
equivalent wind turbine and the equivalent impedance of the all interconnecting cables, as well as any dynamic
reactive support plant in the wind farm. This approach is often adequate when connecting wind farms to strong
networks. With weak grids the voltage profile experienced across the wind farm, e.g. between the closest and farthest
wind turbine, can be significantly different especially during disturbances. Representing the entire wind farm with an
aggregated wind turbine may result in omission of phenomena, which may only manifest themselves if a more
detailed model is used. The number of aggregated wind turbines included in the model should be decided based on
a trade-off between the level of accuracy required and the computational burden (as well as the effort required to
model systems in full detail - this can be time consuming). Some of the widely used methods include full
representation of the farthest feeder plus the use of an equivalent wind turbine for rest of the wind farm, or assigning
one wind turbine model for each section of the wind farm connected to the HV network via a dedicated power
transformer [7]. In addition to the wind turbines and interconnecting cables, each type of dynamic reactive support
plant should be represented explicitly.
If the speed of interactions between wind turbines and other devices are above the typical frequency range of
electromechanical oscillations, the constant admittance representation of the network is not adequate. Most
commercial software on transient stability simulation use the constant admittance representation of the network. An
Page 45
alternative to this where the network dynamics are modelled using dynamic phasors (DP) have been reported in the
literature, but they are still not available in commercial software. Therefore, EMT simulation is essential to study sub-
synchronous and higher frequency interactions between devices.
4.4.2 Central WPP level controller modelling

The central WPP controller (or sometime known as supervisory controller) could play a significantly important role in
primary or secondary, frequency, active and reactive power control, but in most cases it has a negligible impact on
transient stability or fault ride-through capability.
Very few practical wind farms exist where the central controller is fast enough to be active during transients. In most
practical wind farms the communication between the central park level control system and individual wind turbines
happens via relatively slow supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems. Given the slow response time
of the SCADA systems, the park level controller does not respond to rapid system transients. This control can
therefore be generally neglected from conventional transient stability analysis standpoint in systems.
However, the central park level controllers can have a significant impact on the slower dynamic response of a wind
farm, especially if the park controller provides primary or secondary voltage or frequency control to supplement the
respective controller at the wind turbine level. The impact is more pronounced when wind farms are connected to
weak networks.
4.5 Small Signal Stability Analysis

As explained in Section 3.3, a weak system is more vulnerable for undesirable interactions than a strong system. In
particular, Type 3 units are vulnerable to sub-synchronous oscillations.
The purpose of a small signal stability analysis is to determine whether there are any unstable or insufficiently damped
oscillation modes present at a given steady state operating point. The oscillations modes of interest may range from
the low frequency electromechanical oscillations to high frequency interactions between the nearby power electronic
converters.
The information revealed by a small signal analysis study is unique and are not available from a transient stability or
EMT simulation study. Such information includes:
(a) frequency and damping of oscillation modes
(b) which of the state variables, and hence which of the devices, participate most in a given oscillation mode,
(c) whether those participating state variables oscillate together or against each other, and
(d) if the need for a mitigation measure is identified, a guide to the selection of effective control inputs and
feedback signals. These include observability of modes in candidate feedback signals, controllability of
modes using candidate control inputs, and residue of modes for a candidate input/output pair.
A small signal stability analysis should be carried out at different operating scenarios and under anticipated
contingencies.
The network and WPP dynamics must be modelled in order to accurately capture their dynamic behaviours, including
the stator flux dynamics, rotor and grid side controllers and phase locked loops, blade dynamics and pitch controllers.
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Therefore, some conventional small signal stability analysis programs where the network dynamics and other fast
dynamics of devices are typically ignored are not suitable for a small signal stability analysis of a power system
involving a weak system.
4.6 Electromagnetic Transient Analysis

EMT tools in general solve the system of differential equations which describe the three-phase electrical network in
the time domain. EMT tools can model and simulate the electromagnetic transient behaviour of the networks as well
as the mechanical and electrical performance of the WPPs.
The instantaneous waveforms resulting from an EMT analysis contains information that is significantly useful in the
design of controls for WPPs connecting to weak grids, including:
 The instantaneous magnitude and phase of the network currents and voltages
 Waveform distortions and harmonic contents
 Voltages and currents in each phase and any associated unbalance
 Transient behaviours including rise and fall times and damping of the electromagnetic oscillations
 Sub-synchronous torsional and control interactions
 Performance of fast acting protection and control systems
Figure 4.1 depicts a typical EMT simulation waveform of the voltage following an AC system side fault on the high
voltage bus near a 500 MW wind farm.
The advantages offered by EMT tools for modelling and analysing the WPPs connected to the weak networks include:
 Ability to represent PLL in detail - response of the PLL immediately following a disturbance has a critical
impact on the overall wind farm performance.
 Harmonics interaction assessment and identification of the network resonance conditions; time domain
simulations to investigate harmonic interaction issues must be performed on EMT type programs.
 Simulation of unbalanced conditions resulting due to network conditions, faults and other disturbances.
Power electronic based wind generation can produce non characteristic harmonics under un-balanced
terminal voltage conditions. Similarly, the wind turbine may have control and protection schemes to address
unbalanced conditions.
 Modelling and assessment of control and protection performance, which are based on the instantaneous
magnitude and phase of the voltages and currents
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W ind farm fault response

Voltage
30
20
10
0
(kV)
-10
-20
-30
Current
50
(kA)
-40
sec 1.950 2.000 2.050 2.100 2.150 2.200 2.250 2.300
Figure 4.1 Response during and following a fault
4.7 Islanding Assessment

The risk of a WPP creating a local island is typically higher for those WPPs that are connected to the weak network
because their connection point is often remote from strong grid mesh points. Therefore it is recommended that:
 WPPs that connect to weak AC networks are equipped with an appropriate anti-islanding scheme and;
 The proposed anti-islanding scheme is modelled and tested in an appropriate simulation environment prior
to WPP connection, in order to verify its effectiveness.
The main purposes of the study are to confirm that under an island condition:
a) other network users are not exposed to insecure operating conditions

b) the WPP's design ratings are not exceeded, i.e. the WPP remains within its safe operating limits and
c) the anti-islanding protection functions correctly.
The study must be able to demonstrate that not only will the WPP be disconnected under genuine island conditions
but that false triggering of the anti-islanding protection will be avoided for other network events/contingencies.
Traditional RMS positive sequence based transient stability models should provide a sufficiently accurate platform
for setting verification of most anti-islanding schemes. Development of a specialist EMT model for an anti-islanding
study is not normally necessary. However, if an EMT model is required for other assessments, such as WPP fault-
ride through capability, then inclusion of the anti-islanding protection is recommended.
Smaller islands that retain a small proportion of synchronous generation may pose the most challenging
environments for WPPs. The islanding could further weaken the network, causing SCR to fall below the specified
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minimum for the WPP. In such situations even with a close generation – load balance, voltage and/or oscillatory
instability could occur. The risk associated with islanded operation of the generation systems are managed by quickly
disconnecting the WPPs before the island becomes established, by implementing anti-islanding protection [5].
Anti-islanding protection schemes include:
 Active and/or reactive power monitoring schemes: These simple methods monitor the power flows at critical
network nodes and base the decision to disconnect the WPP on these. These schemes are generally very
simple but may not be robust enough to meet connection code requirements.
 Frequency monitoring scheme: By monitoring the local frequency (esp. its rate of change) it is possible to
disconnect the WPP when the load is grossly imbalanced compared to the WPP output. However, this
method may not detect well-balanced "viable" islands.
 Combinations of frequency and power: These measurement methods are used to improve reliability and
overcome some of the limitations of the stand-alone monitoring methods.
 Inter-trip schemes: These can offer a very reliable anti-islanding protection - especially where there are few
circuit breakers between the WPP and the meshed grid. These may often be the preferred solution of the
network service providers [6].
 Phase angle monitoring schemes: Due to technological improvements and reduced cost the use of Phasor
Measuring Unit (PMU) based anti-islanding schemes is becoming more feasible. These schemes transmit
the phase angle of a core grid node to the WPP at high speed. This is then compared with the phase angle
at the WPP's PCC. A sudden shift in phase, beyond the normal range, is indicative of island condition and
after several cycles will trigger disconnection of the WPP.
Typically an anti-islanding scheme will include one or more protections and it is important that each of these is
modelled with sufficient detail to demonstrate the satisfactory performance of the schemes.
4.8 Generic and Vendor Specific Models

Irrespective of the simulation platforms to be used (i.e. RMS simulations or EMT simulations), one of the challenges
in simulation is that detailed accurate models are not readily available. Generic models are commonly used when
the detailed models are not available. Generic models are non-proprietary models primarily intended for preliminary
system impact studies.
The generic models have the disadvantage that a large part of the transfer function block diagram representing the
actual control system of the specific wind turbine design is omitted or replaced with a generic control system. The
remaining parts are an emulation of the actual control behaviour rather than representing the transfer function of the
actual controller explicitly. Such generic models available for RMS positive sequence based simulations are not
specifically designed to assess the wind farm dynamic response to close-in faults, or any types of unbalanced faults.
Although EMT-type models are more suitable for assessment of unbalanced faults etc, the required level of accuracy
can only be achieved if such models truly represent the precise control system of the specific wind turbine design to
higher level of details which cannot be accounted for in the rms-type models.
In the event a generic model has to be used for detailed assessment of the WPP performance, it is recommended
that the veracity of these models is compared against field measurements. If required, structural changes in the
control system or parameter tuning are possible by the user to obtain a better correlation with the measured
responses.
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The use of non-proprietary generic models is desirable when some loss of accuracy can be accepted, or when the
impact of an individual wind farm on the wider network is negligible due to connection to very strong network.
The prime reason for using manufacturer specific models is their improved accuracy. However, manufacturer specific
models represent the specific approaches manufacturers use in implementing the different functionalities of the
WPPs, most of the time giving them a commercial advantage over their competitors. For this reason manufacturer
specific models reflecting actual behaviour of the control system of the physical device are treated as proprietary
models.
Despite their superior accuracy, manufacturer specific models cannot be considered without any problems:
 These models are often provided as black-box models without sufficient visibility to implementation of the
modelled functions. This could make the model maintenance and troubleshooting a problem1.
 Most commercial power system analysis tools have limitations on the number of manufacturer specific
models that can be integrated into the simulation database.
 Inclusion of a large number of customized models in very large simulations could result in practical difficulties
such as incorrect initialisation of the state variables.
In summary, generic and manufacturer specific models must be used for specific applications for which they are
intended. The choice of the more appropriate model for the specific application should be assessed based on factors
such as the level of model accuracy requirements in the particular jurisdiction where the model is used, and the
strength of the connection point. As mentioned before, the user of the model should clarify these with the provider of
the model, prior to its use.
4.9 References
[1] Eduard Muljadi, Nader Samaan, Vahan Gevorgian, Jun Li, and Subbaiah Pasupulati, “Different Factors
Affecting Short CircuitBehavior of a Wind Power Plant” IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY
APPLICATIONS, VOL. 49, NO. 1, JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2013.
[2] V. Gevorgian and E. Muljadi, “Wind Power Plant Short Circuit Current Contribution for Different Fault and
Wind Turbine Topologies,” in Proc. of The 9th Annual International Workshop on Large-Scale Integration of
Wind Power into Power Systems as well as on Transmission Networks for Offshore Wind Power Plants,
Québec, October, 2010.
[3] Francesco Sulla, “Fault Behavior of Wind Turbines”, PhD Thesis, Lund University, 2012.
1 This issue may in theory be overcome if the Grid Codes do not permit submission of black-box
models. By doing so, all highly confidential proprietary models must be submitted together with full
source codes and transfer function block diagram (at least to the overarching body responsible for
model maintenance which is often an ISO or similar). The model would therefore become equally
transparent as the non-proprietary models. Therefore, this approach has not been used effectively or
successfully implemented widely.
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[4] “Fault Current Contributions from Wind Plants”, A report to the Transmission & Distribution Committee, by
the Electric Machinery Committee of Power System Relaying Committee of the IEEE Power and Energy
Society, 2013 (available on PSRC webpage: http://www.pes-
psrc.org/Reports/Apublications_new_format.htm.
[5] "Technical Requirements for the Connection of Embedded Generation", Tasmanian Networks Pty. Ltd.
Guideline, Feb 2015.
[6] "Power Park Modules, Issue 3", National Grid Electricity Transmission (UK), Guidance Notes, Sept 2012.
[7] E. Muljadi, S. Pasupulati, A. Ellis and D. Kosterov, "Method of equivalencing for a large wind power plant
with multiple turbine representation," Power and Energy Society General Meeting, 2008 IEEE, Pittsburgh,
PA, 2008. doi: 10.1109/PES.2008.4596055
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5 ASSESSMENT
5.1 Introduction
Chapter 5 builds upon the work from Chapter 3 (Issue associated with weak systems) and Chapter 4 (Modelling
summary) by reporting on studies carried out by the working group based on various benchmark AC systems. The
objectives of this chapter are to:
a) assess the issues identified using an appropriate modelling of the operating conditions under which the
issues were encountered,
b) unravel the limitations of the equipment or contributing operating circumstances which causes the
manifestation of the issues and,
c) develop the solutions which may effectively mitigate the issues.
Out of the number of issues associated with the connection of WPPs to weak AC systems, as identified in Chapter
3, the dominant issues which could prevent a connection altogether or could be associated with significantly
expensive solutions have been the fault ride-through2 and the small signal stability of the WPP and the connected
power system under adverse operating conditions. The modelling and assessment of the issues, within the confines
of the scope outlined above, are described in the following sections. Attention has been given to the modelling and
understanding of the performance degradation as the SCR of the connection is reduced, toward its theoretical
minimum of unity.
The assessment also covered the identification of potential solutions for mitigating the above issues and confirming
their effectiveness. The potential solutions considered included in high level, potential improvements to the WPP
controllers as well as the installation of complementary devices for supporting and enhancing the WPP performance.
The following potential solutions were specifically modelled and assessed3:
 Addition of ancillary supporting devices: Synchronous Compensators (SC) and Static Synchronous
Compensators (STATCOM)
 Stabilise the operation of WTG converter operation by: use of remote synchronising reference and use of
locally synthesised synchronising reference
The potential for connecting the weak and remote regions of the AC power systems with a high penetration of WPPs
to other regions of the power system was also assessed and is reported in this chapter. The inter-regional connection
solutions investigated include connection of the regions via a Voltage Sourced Converter (VSC) HVDC link in parallel
to an AC link, and connection via a Line Commutated Converter (LCC) HVDC link.
Because of the limitation of time and resources, although the performance of type 4 WPPs has been the focus of the
studies described in this chapter, where feasible, comparisons have also been made with the performance of type 3
WPPs. In representing the weak AC grid, a simple Thevenin equivalent was deemed insufficient as it would not
2 As the WTGs are either decoupled from the synchronous operation of the AC power system (e.g. type 4
WPPs) or are equipped with asynchronous generators (e.g. type 1 – 3 WPPs), the ability of the WPP to
operate successfully connected to the power system following a network disturbance is typified by the
FRT capability of the WPP.
3 Static Var Compensators (SVCs) (highlighted in Chapter 3) are not studied here since their impact is
considered broadly comparable to STATCOM. Clearly these four items do not constitute an exhaustive
list of possible mitigation measures.
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emulate the variation in system frequency and its impact on the performance of WPPs. Instead a synchronous
generator connected to a load was modelled to represent the AC grid.
EMT analysis platforms have been used for most of the modelling and assessment presented in this chapter, as it
has been anticipated that at very low SCRs the WTG will become unstable at a local oscillation mode with a very
much higher frequency, and hence fast acting converter controller behaviour is required to be represented accurately
and in sufficient detail.
Most of the studies in this chapter are carried out using "generic" models. These models give indicative results which
may differ from actual WTG performance. However, these assessment results do demonstrate that the various
"enabling technologies" allow WPPs to operate with lower SCRs. The relative reduction in the lowest SCR that a
WPP can operate with (rather than the absolute SCR values) is the principal output of this assessment.
5.2 Benchmark Model for Assessment

A simplified representation of the AC system is used for connection of the WTG model, as illustrated in Figure 5.1.
The AC system remains common for the different types of WTG model to be assessed. To assess WTG performance
over a range of SCRs the network impedances (L_line & R_line) are varied as shown in Table 5.2. Note: this lumped
impedance does not represent a single transmission line but rather the network impedance between the power
system model “SYS GEN” and the point of common coupling (PCC) of the wind turbine generator "WTG".
Figure 5.1 Overview Block Diagram
Refer to Figure 5.2 for the definition of the SYS GEN model. The benchmark model is based on the IEEE T2 AVR
and Steam Governor model. Typical parameter values for a lumped group of Australian thermal power stations are
given in Table 5.1.
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Table 5.1 Modelling data for synchronous generator Table 5.2 Definition of network impedances for
assessment cases
Page 54
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Figure 5.2 Block Diagram for AC System Generator Model (SYS GEN) IEEE T2
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5.3 Generic Model of Type 4 WTG for Fault Recovery

Investigation
Refer to Figure 5.3 for an overview of the main current control of a generic Type 4 WTG, representative of that used
to investigate fault recovery performance over the range of cases specified in Table 5.2. There are many variations
of the Type 4 arrangement and in this example the WTG is connected via a synchronous machine, which generates
a DC voltage via a basic 6-pulse diode bridge. The DC busbar voltage is converted to a synchronised AC frequency
by switching a 6-arm IGBT/diode bridge at 39 times fundamental frequency. Outer control loops (not shown here)
are used to define the input references ωref and Qref.
This is a generic Type 4 WTG model and has been tuned to allow stable steady-state operation to as low a SCR as
possible, which means that a relatively slow phase locked loop has been used. The converter protection functions
have also been disabled to illustrate the natural response of the inner current control loop without intervention from
other limiting actions.
Figure 5.3 Overview of the Current Control & PLL interfaces of a generic Type 4 WTG
5.3.1 Steady-State Performance Analysis

All simulations were done using the full-converter model (Type 4) for the WPP as described above in section5.3.
The system SCR at the PCC is selected for each case as described in Table 5.3
Figure 5.4 shows the power flow for case 5. The blue arrows correspond to the active power flow in MW and the
yellow arrows correspond to the reactive flow in Mvar. Note that the impedance of the WPP transformers and
cables are lumped into its single star/delta transformer. The simple impedance (R + j Xline + j Xtrafo) represents the
lines and transformers between the stiff system bus and the WPP terminal bus. The transformer inductance is
fixed but the line impedance was varied for each case to adjust the short circuit level at the PCC.
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Figure 5.4 Case 5 steady state power flow
All twelve cases were simulated in PSCAD to determine those cases with stable steady-state conditions. The power
angles along the transmission path connecting the Wind Power Plant (WPP) to the "stiff" system bus were also
monitored since a power angle approaching 90⁰ is a fundamental indication of system instability. Note: for the phase
angle at the WTG busbar, the 30° phase shift due to the star/delta transformer is removed.
The monitored system parameters for all cases are shown in Table 5.3. Cases 1 through 10 were considered steady-
state stable. In the cases 11 and 12, the system with respect to the WTGs oscillates, never achieving a stable point
of operation.
Table 5.3 – Steady state case summaries for assessment of a generic 250 MW WPP
Case # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
SCR @ PCC 7.05 6.02 5.03 4.01 3.01 2.51 2.01 1.84 1.60 1.41 1.27 1.15
Steady‐state stable Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
Voltage (pu) @ PCC 1.019 1.021 1.024 1.026 1.026 1.024 1.018 1.015 1.007 0.997 0.984 0.967
Phase (deg) @ PCC 4.8 6.1 7.9 10.7 15.4 19.2 25.3 28.2 33.6 39.5 46.2 54.1
(w.r.t load busbar)
Phase (deg) @WTG 17.0 18.3 20.1 22.9 27.5 31.3 37.5 40.4 45.9 51.9 58.7 66.8
(w.r.t load busbar)
Supplied reactive 40.3 37.5 34.9 32.8 32.7 34.8 40.7 44.2 51.9 61.4 73.2 88.5
power (Mvar)@ PCC
The EMT simulation results for case 5 are shown in Figure 5.5 which shows acceptable stability. Case 11 is shown
in Figure 5.6 and is clearly unstable.
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Figure 5.5 Case 5 RMS voltage (pu) at PCC P flowing from WPP (33 kV) Q flowing from WPP (33 kV)
Figure 5.6 Case 11 RMS voltage (pu) at PCC P flowing from WPP (33 kV) Q flowing from WPP (33 kV)
5.3.2 Fault Ride Through Performance of Generic Type 4 Model

To investigate the fault recovery response of this generic Type 4 WTG each case is tested by applying a solid two
phase-ground fault at the PCC of duration 250 ms.
Refer to Figure 5.7 which illustrates the WTG’s performance for cases 1 to 11 with a "stacked graph", where the
scaling for each case is the same but a Y-axis offset is used to separate each case. The upper traces show the
voltage at the PCC, the middle traces show the active power flow out of the PCC and the lower traces show the
desired fundamental frequency of the converter's PWM control system.
Cases 1 to 6 demonstrate that acceptable performance is possible, with case 7 (SCR 2.0) being at the borderline.
Cases 8, 9 and 10 demonstrate inadequate damping although steady-state operation is possible (in simulation).
Case 11 (SCR 1.27) is not feasible and does not have a stable steady-state.
It is noted that the low frequency system mode (near 0.4 Hz) is not a factor in the instability of this Type 4 model;
rather it is a local oscillation mode at a very much higher frequency around 25 Hz. This high frequency oscillation is
due to the (necessary) wide bandwidth of the converter's control systems, which cause a too high open loop system
gain as the SCR becomes very low.
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Figure 5.7 Type 4 WTG response to two-phase-ground fault at PCC
Fault Ride Through Performance of IEC 61400-27-1 based Type 4 Model

Further verification of the fault ride through limitations at low SCRs is given in this section with an additional Type 4
WTG model. This was developed with a permanent magnet generator used by the WTG. To comply with FRT
requirements of grid codes this model contains an extra module to control the active and reactive currents. The
inspiration for this module is taken from the IEC 61400-27-1 draft [1].
Figure 5.8 Generic Type 4 model using permanent magnet WTG
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The PLL for the converter has also been adjusted for optimal FRT performance but the oscillograms in Figure 5.9,
Figure 5.10 and Figure 5.11 clearly illustrate the design limits. Refer to Figure 5.11 which shows that for SCRs below
about 1.8 this WTG is transiently unstable, i.e. it is unable to re-synchronise to the grid following the applied fault –
the VSC's frequency diverges from system frequency. Better transient performance would require a faster fault
recovery performance. However, a stable steady-state cannot be achieved for SCRs below about 1.4, suggesting
that a more damped response is needed in steady-state. It is these somewhat contradictory requirements that
determine the design limits of the WTG. It is possible to achieve further performance improvements by utilising the
enabling technologies described in the remainder of this chapter.
Figure 5.9 Vrms (pu) at PCC Figure 5.10 P (pu) at PCC
Figure 5.11 Grid VSC frequency (pu)
5.3.3 Fault Ride Through Performance of Generic Type 3 Model

This section gives simulation results of the basic system depicted in Figure 5.1 coupled to a generic Type 3 (DFIG)
WPP model. The WPP model is simplified to one equivalent machine with one AC/DC/AC converter model to feed
the rotor windings of the induction machine. The DFIG is represented using the PSCAD “Wound Rotor Induction
Machine” model. The generator data is presented in Table 5.4.
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Table 5.4 Simulation Data for Type 3 WTG.
Rated Power 300 MVA Stator Resistance 0.0054 pu
Rated Voltage (L-L) 33 kV Wound Rotor Resistance 0.00607 pu
Base Angular Frequency 50 Hz Magnetizing Inductance 4.5 pu
Stator / Rotor Turns Ratio 0.3 Stator Leakage Inductance 0.10 pu
Angular Moment of Inertia 1s Wound Rotor Leakage Inductance 0.11 pu
Mechanical Damping 0.01 pu
(Note pu values are based on rated power and voltage of the WTG)
The AC/DC/AC converter consists of two VSCs and a DC link. The AC system connected VSC is used to control the
DC voltage across the DC link capacitor. The rotor connected VSC controls the RMS voltage of the system busbar
to 1 pu by supplying an AC voltage with appropriate frequency and magnitude to the rotor windings of the induction
machine. The VSCs are both six pulse bridge topologies and use IGBT switches to generate a two level voltage
waveform. The main controls are based upon DQ control strategies with principal objectives as follows:
For the VSC connected to the AC system
 Control the absorbed reactive power to 0.0 Mvar

 Control the DC voltage to 1.0 pu
For the VSC connected to the rotor
 Control the system RMS voltage to 1.0 pu

 Control the wind turbine angular velocity for optimum wind energy utilisation
The DC link also has a voltage chopper to prevent overvoltage during contingency events. To evaluate the
performance of the WPP, the controllers’ parameters and protection were calibrated so that all SCR cases were
steady-state stable. A two phase to ground fault (solid) was simulated at t=10s and removed after 250 ms. The
simulation results for three cases (6, 11 and 12) are illustrated in the following figures, Figure 5.12 – Figure 5.14.
The results show that successful FRT was possible with the exception of case 12 where the WTG loses synchronism.
It is important to note the excessive reactive power oscillation during and after the first moments of fault recovery. In
case 12 this has led to an extreme over-voltage, which in practice would have been restricted by surge arresters.
However, these high reactive swings could place a too high burden upon surge arrester.
Simulation Results Case 6
Figure 5.12 RMS voltage (pu) at PCC P flowing from WPP (33 kV) Q flowing from WPP (33 kV)
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The Type 3 WTG simulated here exhibits very similar FRT performance compared to the Type 4 WTGS - when taking
into account the slightly higher MVA rating simulated for the Type 3 WTGs.
5.4 Impact of the Interaction between WPPs on Fault Ride-

through
The study work for this system connects a second (identical) WPP halfway along the original T-line as shown in
section 5.3 of the generic WTG model. For simplicity, the line impedances for each T-Line (#1, 2 and 3) take 50 %
of the original network impedance values given in Table 5.2. The purpose of this study is to demonstrate the
interaction among nearby WPPs. It is expected that the WPP's recovery performance will degrade when compared
with the single WPP study for the "same" SCR case.
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Figure 5.15 Multiple WPPs connected to a weak AC grid
Figure 5.16 Fault ride through performance of multiple WPPs
For the two WPP case the PLL PI gain has been reduced substantially in order to improve fault ride-through and it
seems reasonable to expect that acceptable performance could be achieved for cases 1 to 6 (SCR = 2.5). Case 7
exhibits dramatic oscillations during fault recovery while case 8 is unstable during the fault recovery period. For case
9 onwards, even stable steady solutions could not be achieved. This study clearly demonstrates the degradation in
performance that is intuitively expected when two remotely connected WPPs share the same source of synchronous
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generation. Using "nominal" SCR calculations, i.e. calculating the SCR at their own PCCs in isolation, this two WPP
study shows a similar stability level at SCR=1.6 as the single WPP showed at SCR = 1.3. This negative interaction
becomes more important as the penetration of non-synchronous generation increases, requiring a re-evaluation of
the simple definition of SCR – this fact is explored more deeply in Chapter 6 of this brochure.
5.5 Small Signal Stability

The small signal stability investigation is undertaken with a WPP model which is validated for operation down to a
SCR of 2.0. The simulation results (Figure 5.18 to Figure 5.23) confirm that in its validated operational range this
Type 4 model does not degrade the main system mode of oscillation (near 0.4 Hz), which is adequately damped. In
addition the WTG model does not introduce any observable local oscillation modes either.
In summary: this section clearly demonstrates that for the system studied, a properly tuned Type 4 WTG did not
degrade the power system’s low frequency modes of oscillation as the SCR decreased.
5.5.1 Investigation System

The original benchmark model from PSCAD, as described in section 5.2, was converted to SimPowerSystems and
all investigations in this section were carried out in Matlab/Simulink – SimPowerSystems environment as illustrated
in Figure 5.17.
To cause a small disturbance to the model, a high impedance three-phase fault of duration 500 ms is applied at the
PCC for each test case. The fault impedance is varied to maintain a 5 % dip in the PCC voltage. The synchronous
machine and the WTG start from stable steady state conditions. The WTG's reactive power set-points are adjusted
for each case to assure almost equal initial voltage levels. The fault is applied at time t=1s.
Figure 5.17 Model representation in SimPowerSystems
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5.5.2 Simulation Results
(a) Performance of the synchronous machine
Figure 5.18 Synchronous machine terminal voltages for each investigated case
Figure 5.19 Synchronous machine rotor speeds for each investigated case
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(b) Performance of the Wind Turbine Generator
Figure 5.20 Voltages at the PCC of the WPP for each investigated case
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Figure 5.21 Current amplitudes at the PCC of the WPP for each investigated case
Figure 5.22 Active powers measured at the PCC of the WTG for each investigated case
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Figure 5.23 Reactive powers measured at the PCC of the WTG for each investigated case
5.6 Possible Mitigation Solutions

This section shows the performance of four candidate "enabling technologies" that have been proposed for simulation
study. All the studies will repeat the fault recovery simulations as shown in section 5.3: Pre-fault, the WTG will be
operating in steady-state at maximum output. Fault recovery performance for will be tested by applying a solid two
phase-ground fault at the PCC of duration 250 ms. There are twelve possible cases with a range of SCRs determined
by the AC network impedances given in Table 5.2. The four candidate systems are:
 The addition of Synchronous Compensators (SC) at PCC

 Addition of static synchronous compensators (STATCOM) at PCC
 Utilisation of Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) to change the PLL reference at PCC
 Utilisation of a de-coupled, local synchronising reference within WTG control
Note: These studies focus on improvements to the basic stability of the WPP by addition of enabling technologies
but it is recognised that adjustment to WPP protection systems will likely also be required when operating in parallel
with new power equipment.
5.6.1 The addition of Synchronous Compensators

The study work for this system evaluates the use of a synchronous compensator to improve stability and FRT
performance of a WPP at low SCRs by the augmentation of the generic WTG model, as shown in section 5.3, with a
synchronous compensator (SC) connected to the PCC as shown in Figure 5.24.
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Figure 5.24 Isolated WPP with support from a Synchronous Compensator
The synchronous machine model used in the "AC System Generator" was also used for the compensator, except
that the turbine governor was disabled and the mechanical torque was set to zero. Also, the rating of this machine
was reduced to 50MVA and it was connected to the PCC through a 13.8/220 kV 50 MVA transformer (X=15%). The
excitation system was set to control the machine terminal voltage at 1.00 pu. The SC has an inertia time constant,
H, of 3 s.
The fault was simulated at t= 40s for 250 ms (solid two phase fault) and refer to Figure 5.25 for study results of all 12
cases (SCR range 7.0 to 1.15). By augmenting the WTG with a synchronous compensator, it seems reasonable to
expect that acceptable performance could be achieved for cases 1 to 11, i.e. for all SCRs down to 1.27. However,
case 12 still exhibits transient instability – it shows unsuccessful fault ride-through performance.
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Figure 5.25 Impact of WTG augmentation with a Synchronous Compensator
For SC case 11 the system recovers. However, it is important to note that during the fault recovery period there is a
high temporary over-voltage at the PCC followed by subsequent oscillations as shown in Figures 5.26 to 5.29. The
impact of these types of phenomena on other system equipment should be taken into account.
Figure 5.26 P flowing through WPP (33 kV) case 11 Figure 5.27 Q flowing from WPP (33 kV) case 11
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Figure 5.28 Q flowing from the SC case 11 Figure 5.29 RMS voltage (pu) at PCC case 11
5.6.2 The addition of STATCOM

The study work for this system evaluates the augmentation of the generic WTG model, as shown in section 5.3, with
a static synchronous compensator (STATCOM). The rating of the STATCOM is 10 % of the WPP rating, i.e. ± 25
Mvar with a temporary overload capability of 2.0 pu. The system used for the study is shown in Figure 5.30.
Figure 5.30 Isolated WPP with voltage support from STATCOM
A 25 Mvar STATCOM with 50 Mvar short-term overload capability was inserted at the PCC through a 33/220 kV
transformer with leakage inductance of 5 % and STATCOM buffer inductors of 15 %. The STATCOM was in voltage
control mode, targeting the voltage at the PCC to 1.0pu with a 5 % sloping characteristic. A solid two-phase to
ground fault of 250 ms duration is simulated at t=1 s. The performance improvement due to the STATCOM is shown
in Figure 5.31 and compares very favourably with the original uncompensated performance shown in Figure 5.7.
Adding the STATCOM achieves similar performance to the uncompensated cases at about 30 % lower SCR.
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Figure 5.31 Type 4 WTG response to two-phase-ground fault at PCC with addition of STATCOM
5.6.3 Utilisation of Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) to change the PLL reference
at PCC
Another alternative explored to achieve an acceptable performance in cases 11 and 12 was to change the signal
waveform input in the PLL. During the previous simulations it was noticed that the PLL signal degenerates as the
SCR reduces. The harmonic content in the signal was distorting it too much and the ability of the PLL to track the
signal was impaired. To work around this problem the reference signal was changed so it was acquired after the
transformer connecting the Type 4 WPPs to the line at the high voltage side (PCC 220kV). The new signal was
further filtered (as consequence it introduced some delay in the PLL).
The change in PLL reference from the original point at the low voltage side of the 33/3.75 kV converter transformer
to the 220 kV PCC improved the performance of the system. A further change from the PCC to the 220 kV stiff
busbar with nominal fault level of 4500 MVA additionally improved the performance of the system. The practical
difficulties of the implementation of this change, such as the time delay for communications, were accounted with a
20 ms pure time delay. A solid two-phase to ground fault of 250 ms duration is simulated at t=40s. The results for
SCR = 1.27 (case 11) are shown in Figure 5.32.
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Figure 5.32 shows considerable over-voltage shortly after the fault clears with a slow system recovery. Therefore it
is important to evaluate the impact of this temporary over-voltage on the system.
The sensitivity of the time delay on the voltage from the remote PMU (used as the PLL input signal) was checked
with an additional investigation which increased the delay from 20 ms to 100 ms. The signal was filtered and the
phase shift caused by the filter, the 100 ms delay and the transformers (two Y-∆ between PCC and the converter)
were accounted for and compensated. The impact on the dynamic performance of WPPs is repeated for low SCR
(case 11) and the results are illustrated in Figure 5.33. The results show that although the response is marginally
more oscillatory the FRT was still successful.
5.6.4 Integration of the WTG's main synchronising PLL with its fast inner control
loops
The study work for this system replaces the generic WTG model with a WTG controlled as a voltage source (Figure
5.34).
Figure 5.34 Isolated WPP with integrated oscillator/fast inner control loop
This section describes a method of control first proposed for stabilisation of HVDC converters at low SCRs [2] - since
the development of this method SCR connections approaching unity have not presented a barrier to the use of HVDC
systems. Essentially the control dispenses with a separate Phase-Locked Loop and instead uses a self-generated
oscillator for the converter's main inner control loop; this improves the response time/stability compromise of the
overall system.
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Refer to Figure 5.35 which illustrates the simplified WTG system used to demonstrate this principle. Although, for
simulation simplicity, the complete WPP is represented by a single converter, the usual transformer arrangement for
a WPP is included since this gives the more realistic (higher) impedance between converter and PCC. The main
transformer steps the grid voltage down to a typical WPP feeder voltage of 33 kV. However, the simulated WTG
connection voltage is not the normal LV value (< 1 kV) because of the need to maintain an equivalent WTG
arrangement for simulation. In this example, the equivalent WTG model represents about 100 WTGs and converters.
For convenience the modelled WTG is a self-excited synchronous machine. Its AVR is set to control the DC voltage
at the output of a 6-pulse diode bridge with some droop feedback based on the reactive power flow through the WTG
transformer. The chosen WTG arrangement is not a factor in improving the WPP's ability to operate at low SCR.
However, a controlled rectifier at the WTG terminals would have lessened the required rating of the DC chopper
devices.
The IGBT converter is controlled with a PWM frequency of 3.9 kHz. The DC storage capacitors are modestly sized
and protected by the parallel connected DC choppers which can absorb the energy from the WTG during AC network
faults.
There are two control blocks for the converter: Oscillator Control and Firing Control. The Oscillator Control block
does not receive a sinusoidal voltage signal for synchronisation; instead it generates its own ramp oscillator output
as a function of its three inputs: the WTG's rotating speed, omega, the DC power flow, Pd, and the WPP's 3-phase
RMS voltage magnitude, V_WF_rms. The Firing Control generates six gate signals to the IGBTs as a function of its
two inputs: the ramp oscillator and the instantaneous WTG currents, i_WTG.
i_WTG
Gp1
omega W Oscillator Gp2
Firing
V_WF V_WTG Pd P Control Gp3
Control
V_WF V_WTG V_WF_rms V Gn1
i_WF i_WTG Gn2
i_WF I_WTG Gn3
P_WF P_WTG
P_WF P_WTG Id Id_R
Ud 0.001 [H] Ud_R
Q_WF Q_WTG
Q_WF Q_WTG Id
V_WF_rms V_WTG_rms Id
2 2 2
4700 [uF]
V_WF_pu V_WTG_pu Gp1 Gp2 Gp3 Ud_R Q_WTG

*
Pd
250 [MVA] 250 [MVA]
220[kV] / 33 [kV] 33[kV] / 33 [kV]
50e-6 [H] Ud Wind
Ud
#1 #2 A #1 #2 A Turbine
V Trip_WTG V Generator
F = 210.0 [Hz]
Ud_R
F = 500 [Hz]
PCC Ud_R
100 [ohm]
4700 [uF]
Id_R Id_R Trip_WTG

omega
100 Mvar 6 Mvar 2 2 2
Gn1 Gn2 Gn3
Figure 5.35 Simplified representation of Type 4 WTG system
The response of this system to a solid two-phase-ground fault at the PCC is then tested for the full range of SCRs
given in Table 5.2. The results illustrated in Figure 5.36 show a remarkable consistency in performance meaning
that this system is able to operate stably down to a SCR of about 1.15.
The main observable response difference is that the PWM converter operates with a higher post-fault frequency
when the SCR has higher values. This is because the system generator is greatly impacted by the fault at high SCRs
and its rotational speed increases. At very low SCRs the voltages at the system generator and load busbars are
hardly impacted by the fault and therefore there is now a small reduction in system frequency - due to the loss of
energy from the WPP during the fault. This is an important observation because it means that the post fault re-
synchronisation frequency of the converter can be significantly higher or lower than the pre-fault value (depending
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on fault type/location). This is a weakness of traditional PLL methods where a reduced bandwidth is often used to
maintain steady-state stability at low SCRs.
Figure 5.36 Model response of a Type 4 WTG phase-locked oscillator during two-phase-ground fault at PCC
Oscillator Control
The conceptual block diagram for the oscillator control is shown in Figure 5.37. The "outer loop" is a basic PI regulator
which aims to maintain the speed of the WTG, W_pu, at its reference level (for simplicity this is shown as a constant
1 pu here). The output of this PI regulator increases the output, P_ref, if speed is too high and decreases P_ref, if
speed is too low. The outer loop is relatively slow due to the low frequency bandwidth of WTG speed. An auxiliary
input, Vm, is used to quickly reduce P_ref, when the WPP voltage is low. The "inner loop" is a basic PI regulator
which aims to maintain the DC power, Pd, through the converter at the level defined by the internal input, P_ref. The
output of this PI regulator increases its output, f in, if Pd is too low and decreases f in, if Pd is too high. This inner
loop is relatively fast due to the wide frequency bandwidth of the DC power. The greyed block, Hertz Ramp, is the
frequency controlled oscillator: it converts the input frequency order, f in, to a ramp signal which contains the desired
phase angle (ωt) for the firing control.
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Figure 5.37 Conceptual block diagram of oscillator control
Firing Control
The conceptual block diagram for the firing control is shown in Figure 5.38. The upper part of the diagram shows
that the phase input, ramp, drives a "classical" triangle wave modulator. This method converts the phase input into
gating signals that cause the PWM converter to generate a balanced 3-phase vector set (embedded in these vectors
are fundamental frequency sinusoids of nominal voltage magnitude). The main drawback of synchronous voltage
source converter control, when compared to the traditional current source approach, is the difficulty in preventing
converter over-currents during severe network disturbances. The issue is addressed here by using an over-current
limit that uses proportional (droop) control [3] and is illustrated by the components inside the red rectangle. This very
fast control loop suppresses transient over-currents before they exceed the IGBT protective block limit and clamps
the over-current peaks to manageable levels.
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Figure 5.38 Conceptual block diagram of PWM firing control
5.7 A weak AC connected WPP in parallel with VSC HVDC

The study work for this system evaluates the impact of connecting a VSC HVDC scheme in parallel with the AC
transmission network of the generic WTG model, as described in section 5.3. The rating of the VSC HVDC is fixed
to 500 MW but the rating of the WPP is altered in the range 250 MW to 750 MW by scaling the full rating of each
WTG. Therefore, the study shows WTG operation at full output with varied VSC HVDC loading. The load on the AC
grid is adjusted to maintain a 50:50 ratio between the synchronous and non-synchronous generating units.
Figure 5.39 An isolated WPP connected to AC grid in parallel with a VSC HVDC scheme
Note: for consistency with the other studies the definition of SCR does not include the HVDC link and the AC
impedances for the twelve cases are altered as given in Table 5.3.
Table 5.3 Impedance Parameters for the AC Transmission Network
All 12 cases are studied at three load levels: 500 MW, 1000 MW and 1500 MW, with WTG outputs of 250 MW, 500
MW and 750 MW respectively. The response to a two phase-ground fault at the PCC of 250 ms duration is studied
and shown in Figure 5.40, Figure 5.41 and Figure 5.42. The parameters shown are:
 The average RMS voltages at the PCC (in pu)

 The 3-phase active power through the PCC (in MW)
 The frequency of the WTG converter (in Hz)
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The results show that stable steady-state operation and proper transient stability (successful fault-ride-through) is
achieved over the whole range of SCRs (7.0 to 1.15). This is unsurprising given that VSC HVDC is known to be able
to transmit the power from large offshore WPPs where there is no local synchronous generation [4]. The additional
complexity of a weak connection to the main synchronous grid at the WTG is found to be not decisive. In this example
the transient stability of the VSC HVDC link is improved by sending the frequency of the inverter terminal (AC grid
end), via telecommunications, to the link's rectifier terminal - with a realisable communication delay of 20 ms. The
received inverter frequency is then used as the reference frequency for the link's rectifier terminal.
5.7.1 FRT performance for 500 MW of load and 250 MW of WPP generation
Figure 5.40(a) Average RMS Voltage at PCC (pu)
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Figure 5.40(b) Active Power at PCC (MW)
Figure 5.40(c) Average Frequency at PCC (Hz)
Figure 5.40 FRT performance for 550 MW of load and 250 MW of WPP generation. Plots from bottom to top
represent Cases 1 – 12 respectively.
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Figure 5.41 For 1000 MW of load and 500 MW of WPP generation. Plots from bottom to top represent Cases
1 – 12 respectively.
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Figure 5.42 For 1500 MW of load and 750 MW of WPP generation. Plots from bottom to top represent Cases
1 – 12 respectively.
5.8 A weak AC system with a WPP connected via a LCC HVDC

Line commutated HVDC schemes have known issues when connecting their inverter terminals to weak network
connections [5]; however this section presents a study on the issue of connecting their rectifier terminals to weak AC
networks for the transmission of large WPP energy to remote load centres.
Wind resources are often located in remote areas, far away from large load centres [7], [8]. In such cases the
connection point of these WPPs would often be to a weak transmission network.
Installing the necessary transmission network upgrades to enable the transmission of wind power over long distances
is a lengthy and complicated task, requiring big footprints and therefore complicated right-of-way processes. The
selection of DC technology reduces the transmission tower footprints and increases the power transmission capacity
when compared with AC transmission. Moreover AC interconnections always result in an increase of the short circuit
levels, which may cause other network issues [6]. For illustration purposes Figure 5.43 shows an example of a HVDC
bipole using Line-Commutated Converters (LCC) for bulk wind power transmission from a very weak AC network
connection (SCR =1.3) to a remote load centre with a weak AC network connection (SCR = 2.6). The AC system
inertia at both PCCs is very high, greater than 1 Terawatt second (TW-s), which means that the HVDC link is
connected to relatively weak parts of two very large AC systems. A STATCOM has been added to the very weak
rectifier PCC to provide dynamic voltage support.
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Figure 5.43 LCC HVDC wind power transmission to remote load centres
LCCs have some technical restrictions associated with their operation when connected to weak AC systems. For
example LCCs require a relatively strong synchronous voltage for a reliable commutation process. Thus, stable
operation under weak AC system conditions requires careful controller design and parameterization. A major effort
to describe the technical challenges of designing and operating LCC DC links in weak networks has been undertaken
by a joint task force in [8]. The following are problems associated with weak AC networks and LCC HVDC [5] [9].
 Higher Temporary Over-Voltages (TOV),

 Increased risk of instability (voltage, transient, oscillatory and sub and super-synchronous)
 Increased risk of harmonic resonance
 Increased risk of non-compliant voltage flicker
The transmission of wind power connected to weak AC networks using LCC HVDC presents many technical
challenges that have to be addressed in a comprehensive manner to ensure a technically feasible and compliant
solution. In order to study the technical challenges an RMS transient stability study has been performed. The network
shown in Figure 5.43 has been modelled in an RMS transient stability program using detailed supplier models of type
4 WTGs and LCC HVDC. The WPPs generate about 3.7 GW at rated power, which is then transmitted by the LCC
HVDC bipole to the remote load centre.
Some of the major challenges found in the study are described in the following section and in [10].
5.8.1 Temporary / Transient over-voltages

During AC network faults and DC line faults, the reactive power consumption of the converter stations changes
considerably. The voltage drop during a fault at the inverter side of the AC network normally leads to a commutation
failure causing a temporary loss of DC power transfer. After fault clearing, the HVDC system starts to restore power
to pre-disturbance levels. However, it takes a few hundred milliseconds to fully recover the DC power to the pre-fault
values and during this time the Mvar mismatch between the converter consumption and the AC filter / shunt
capacitors connected to the AC bus may result in high transient and temporary AC over-voltages. This can be critical
if the fault-clearing weakens the AC system even more (e.g. trip of important transmission lines or large generators).
Dynamic reactive compensation (SVC, STATCOM or SC (synchronous compensators)) will help to limit the over-
voltages.
Figure 5.44 shows an inverter AC side fault, which causes a commutation failure in the LCC HVDC. The inverter
commutation failure leads to a temporary DC over-current, which due to the increased converter reactive power
absorption causes an AC rectifier voltage drop (between 0.2 and 0.28 seconds in the simulation). The rectifier voltage
drop is compensated by the STATCOM trying to support the voltage. Shortly after fault clearing during the DC power
Page 85
recovery there is a significant Mvar mismatch since all AC filters are connected and the converter slowly increases
its reactive power consumption. This Mvar mismatch results in a 1.26 pu over-voltage at the rectifier side immediately
after fault clearing. The STATCOM quickly reduces its capacitive output (due to the AC over-voltage seen after fault
clearing) and as the LCC HVDC recovers the DC power its Mvar absorption gradually increases which reduces the
AC rectifier voltage. The weaker the rectifier AC network, the higher the over-voltage will be. This TOV will be seen
across all the converter terminals of the type 4 WTGs; therefore part of the design task is to avoid over-voltage
protection trips from type 4 WTGs.
Figure 5.44 AC over-voltages after inverter side fault clearing
5.8.2 Frequency deviations

Due to the weak system conditions frequency deviations can be significant during contingencies. Therefore it may
be important to use the DC power modulation features of the HVDC to limit frequency deviations [11] [12]. If there is
a need to limit the AC frequency deviations to within pre-defined levels under contingency conditions, additional
inertia can be added to the weak AC system by the integration of SCs (synchronous compensators). Figure 5.44
shows that the rectifier and inverter frequency deviations go in opposite directions during the fault. At the rectifier
AC network the frequency increases due to the loss of the DC power, which is similar to losing a load. At the inverter
side the frequency decreases due to the sudden loss of the transmitted DC power which is similar to losing a
generator.
5.8.3 WTG fault ride through
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When a WPP is connected to a weak AC network on the rectifier side of the LCC HVDC, it is possible for the WTG’s
fault ride through (FRT) control mode to also get activated following inverter side commutation failures. This is due
to the temporary increase in DC current following a commutation failure, which leads to an increase in the rectifier’s
reactive power consumption and therefore an AC voltage drop at the rectifier AC terminal. This of course depends
on the AC system strength at the rectifier terminal and the amount of dynamic voltage support in this network. It is
however relatively independent of the DC line/cable length, meaning that events/contingencies happening in a very
distant AC network (inverter side), can still lead to FRT mode activation of the WTG controllers. This phenomenon
should be studied to ensure there are no negative system stability effects.
Figure 5.44 shows how the AC rectifier voltage drops due to the increased DC current during the inverter commutation
failure (between 0.2 and 0.25 seconds of simulation in the top left plot). This drop in the rectifier voltage causes the
WTGs to go into FRT mode reducing their active power output (See Pwind in top right plot). The system then recovers
to a stable operating point.
5.8.4 Stable DC power recovery

If system conditions at the inverter side also become very weak (< SCR 2.0) [5] due to the trip of important network
elements, commutation failure may also occur during the recovery period. Therefore, it is very important to provide
a robust solution which enables the stable recovery of DC power without subsequent commutation failures for the
whole range of operating conditions. Moreover if the AC system at the rectifier side is weak, the DC power recovery
after a contingency could potentially cause substantial AC rectifier voltage drops which could then drive the WTGs
into FRT mode and cause subsequent oscillations.
Dynamic reactive compensation (SVC, STATCOM or Synchronous Compensators) supports voltage recovery under
such conditions.
5.8.5 Controller coordination

The HVDC controller and the WPP controllers also need to be coordinated to avoid unacceptable disturbances in the
AC system in case of HVDC pole trip or initiated power limitation (run-back).
5.9 Summary
The simulation studies presented in this chapter confirmed that the performance of a WPP connected to a weak AC
system could be affected by instability of the performance of the wind generator controllers.
Studies using "generic" Type 4 WTGs connected to an example power system demonstrated control borne transient
stability issues when the connection became very weak (SCR below about 2.0).
1. A comparative study with generic Type 3 WTGs indicated broadly similar performance with the generic Type
4 variants.
2. The addition of "enabling technologies" to the generic WTG systems significantly improved their transient
stability at low SCRs:
a. Adding a 20 % rated synchronous compensators, 20 % rated STATCOM or remote synchronising
references (via telecommunications) reduced, by about 30 %, the SCR at which transient stability
was maintained.
b. Adding a local phase-locked oscillator type controller reduced, by about 40 %, the SCR at which
transient stability was maintained.
3. Using the example power system it was found that the low frequency oscillation modes of the power system
were not degraded by the properly tuned Type 4 WTG.
4. In the example power system studied, a parallel connected VSC HVDC link stabilised a "generic" Type 4
WTG for SCRs down to about 1.15 by synchronising the weak PCC to the stronger part of the AC network.
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5. When connected to a very weak AC network at its rectifier terminal, LCC HVDC can be used to reliably
transmit power from a same-sized WPP with the addition of only modestly sized dynamic Var compensation.
6. The negative interaction between nearby Type 4 WTGs becomes more important as the penetration of non-
synchronous generation increases and this requires a re-evaluation of the basic definition of SCR.
Care should be taken when interpreting the results from these assessments since the studies have mainly used
"generic" WTG models rather than commercial variants. It should be noted that the relative reduction in the lowest
SCR that a WPP can operate under (rather than the absolute SCR values) is the principal output of this assessment.
5.10 References
[1] IEC 61400-27 "Electrical simulation models for wind power generation" (Committee Draft)
[2] Ainsworth, J. D., “The phase-locked oscillator—a new control system for controlled state converters', IEEE
Trans., PAS-87(3), 859–865 (March 1968)
[3] Tore Skjellnes, Asle Skjellnes, and Lars E. Norum. "Load sharing for parallel inverters without
communication." Nordic Workshop on Power and Industrial Electronics (Norpie 2002), Stockholm, Sweden.
2002.
[4] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_HVDC_projects#Europe
[5] CIGRE WG 14.07, IEEE WG 15.05.05 “Guide for Planning DC Links Terminating at AC systems Locations
having Low Short-Circuit Capacities”, June 1992.
[6] J. Arrillaga “High Voltage Direct Current Transmission”. The institution of Electrical Engineers 1998.
[7] “Eastern wind integration and transmission study”. Prepared for NREL by: EnerNex Corporation. February
2011.
[8] “20% Wind Energy by 2030 Increasing Wind Energy’s Contribution to U.S Electricity Supply”. U.S.
Department of Energy. July 2008.
[9] P. Kundur, Power System Stability and Control McGraw-Hill, Inc.1994
[10] A. Hernandez et al “Facilitating Bulk Wind Power Integration using LCC HVDC”, Cigre US National
Committee 2013 Grid of the Future Symposium.
[11] S.P. Teeuwsen “Dynamic Performance of the 1000 MW BritNed HVDC Interconnector Project” Power
engineering society general meeting IEEE, 2010
[12] S.P. Teeuwsen “Dynamic Performance of the new 400 kV Storebaelt HVDC Project” Power Systems
Conference and exposition IEEE/PES, 2009
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6 QUANTIFICATION OF THE ISSUES
6.1 Introduction
Connection of significant amounts of wind power to constrained power networks can result in system stability
concerns. The system stability problems with predominant wind generation manifest differently than with conventional
generation based on synchronous generators. Operation of the wind power plants (WPPs) under weak network
conditions could result in system and/or wind turbine converter control instabilities. Some of the interactions between
transmission assets and WPPs are complex and thus special studies are needed to determine wind turbine generator
(WTG) response in such conditions. The use of simple indices for determining the likelihood of such conditions would
be a logical step before embarking on detailed power system modelling and analysis.
This chapter presents various indices suitable for evaluation of the weakness of a power system with high penetration
of wind power. Indices are proposed for the assessment of both local (issues pertaining to the connection point) and
system wide issues. Short circuit ratio is presented as the primary index and X/R ratio as the secondary index for
assessment of the weakness of the connection point. These two indices will then allow for calculation of a voltage
sensitivity index which identifies the maximum steady-state voltage rise (and/or fall) when connecting a WPP to a
weak network. The voltage sensitivity index will also provide information on the optimal power factor, and the
maximum steady-state active power while preventing the risk of voltage collapse.
A general equivalent circuit based approach, termed as equivalent circuit-based short circuit ratio (ESCR), is
presented for calculation of the short circuit ratio for any given WPP and power system. Two other approaches
referred to as composite short circuit ratio (CSCR), and weighted short circuit ratio (WSCR) are presented and
compared against ESCR.
Rate of change of frequency and inertia are proposed as indices for assessment of the weakness of the wider
network. Such indices are more applicable for isolated power systems, or those connected to the bulk power system
via DC links only, with a high ratio of non-synchronous to synchronous generation. Issues pertaining to the WPP
local connection point can be investigated from the standpoint of the impact on the wind turbine control system, or
overall WPP, or both. Short circuit ratio can be conveniently used for assessment of both connection point and wind
turbine control system issues.
6.2 Short circuit ratio

6.2.1 Background
Short circuit ratio (SCR) is a widely used index for assessment of the strength of the connection point for HVDC links,
and in particular for the line current commutated (LCC), and capacitor commutated converter (CCC) technologies.
For an HVDC link it is defined as the ratio of fault level at the connection point to the nominal output active power of
the link. It is commonly used at the planning stage to give an idea of the likely issues caused by integration of the
HVDC link into the network. Such an index can also be calculated for synchronous machines albeit, not very widely
used, as an indicator of power system integration issues. This stems from a synchronous generator’s ability to operate
with very low level of short circuit ratio which is, in turn, due to the superior control of reactive power through the
excitation system.
SCR is an indication of the system's ability to respond to active/reactive power injections and absorptions. A low-
SCR (“weak”) system is very sensitive to active/reactive power injections (or absorptions) i.e., the system voltage
changes rapidly as the amount of reactive power injected (or absorbed) changes. It is therefore difficult to stabilize
the system voltage (magnitude and phase angle) on a weak system. Whereas. A high-SCR (“strong”) system is
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largely unresponsive to active and reactive power injections (and absorptions) and the system voltage is not
significantly influenced by changes in the network. A weak system generally requires a voltage control system with
supplementary stabilization control.
Compared to an HVDC link, a WPP has a significantly more complex topology due to the use of several wind turbines
(which may or may not be identical), and common use of static reactive support plant such as capacitor bank and
dynamic reactive support plant such as STATCOMs and synchronous condensers. Additionally, it sometimes
happens that several WPPs are located adjacent to each other, or even sometimes connected to the same
connection point. This makes it imperative to appreciate the impact of all neighbouring WPPs. The two aspects
addressed above are difficult to account for using the conventional calculation method for the SCR. To make it
applicable to any given WPP and network topology, an equivalent circuit based calculation method (ESCR) is
proposed in this chapter as elaborated below for various configurations. For multi WPP applications results obtained
from this approach will then be compared against two other approaches referred to as composite short circuit ratio
(CSCR), and weighted short circuit ratio (WSCR)
6.2.2 Fault current calculations

To correctly determine the short circuit ratio, it is imperative to first calculate the fault infeed at the desired location.
Where WPPs are part of a larger power system, hand calculation is not practicable. Short circuit calculation engines
embedded into RMS-type power system simulation tools are often used for this purpose. At present, most these tools
treat wind turbines in the same manner as synchronous generators. This would result in an over-estimation of the
fault current at the given point due to significantly higher fault current contribution from the synchronous generators.
Efforts are ongoing in the industry to integrate appropriate fault current calculations algorithms into the RMS-type
simulation tools so as to account the true response of power electronic converters in the wind turbines. In the absence
of such methods the following assumptions are proposed:
 Type 1 and 2 wind turbines: no contribution
 Type 3 and 4 wind turbines: 1 pu contribution
Type 1 and 2 wind turbines can therefore be removed for fault current calculations. Type 3 and 4 wind turbines can
be represented as fictitious synchronous generators with a fault current contribution of 1 pu, i.e. full load current, at
the turbine terminals. To achieve this, the source impedance of the fictitious generators should be adjusted.
6.2.3 Network configurations

The following should be taken into consideration and should be accounted for when performing fault current
calculation studies, and consequently determining the short circuit ratio:
 Contingency conditions
It is recommended to estimate the fault level for both normal and contingency operating conditions. It is
expected that the WPP will maintain its continuous uninterrupted operation for normal and credible
contingency conditions. Investigating non-credible contingencies is primarily to identify the need for imposing
operational constraints under such conditions. Depending on the connection agreement between the WPP
owner and network owner/operator, a WPP may/may not be required to sustain non-credible contingency
conditions.
 Conventional generation dispatch
Fault level calculations should include the lowest realistic unit commitment condition of electrically close
conventional synchronous generators. For planning and feasibility studies this should include the potential
retirement/mothballing of synchronous generators.
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 Number of WPPs to consider
All WPPs electrically close to the plant of interest should be considered in the calculation. A practical rule is
that if adding a WPP to the calculation does not change the result, the plant can be neglected.
 HVDC links and other power electronic devices
HVDC links and other power electronic interfaced technologies such as SVCs and STATCOMs in the close
proximity of WPPs, should be included in the calculations of short circuit ratio.
6.2.4 Calculation methods - Single WPP

Example 1: Single WPP without any static or dynamic reactive power support plant
(a) Equivalent circuit-based short circuit ratio (ESCR)
A simple schematic diagram of a WPP without any static and dynamic reactive power support plant is shown in Figure
6.1. The WPP consists of N number of wind turbines, where the cable impedance represents the aggregate
impedance of the cables for all those individual wind turbines. For simplicity only one level of voltage transformation
is assumed from the MV level collection grid to the connection point (represented as SYS in the figure). The approach
presented here can be readily applied to WPP with two levels of high voltage transformations.
Figure 6.1 Schematic diagram of a WPP with no static or dynamic reactive power support plant
An equivalent single phase equivalent circuit of this simple WPP is shown in Figure 6.2.
Figure 6.2 Equivalent circuit representation of the WPP shown in Figure 6.1
The electrical network impedances are considered to be known where:
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ZTL1: Aggregate impedance of the wind turbine transformer and cable
ZTL2: Aggregate impedance of the MV transformer and cable
Zsys: Equivalent impedance of the system
The point of interface may be defined either to be HV or MV connection point.
Using basic definition of the short circuit ratio, SCR, at the point of interconnection (POI) can be written as:
SCR (6.1)
where
S is the network short circuit level in MVA at the point of interconnection, prior to connecting the WPP
P is the nominal MVA rating of the connecting WPP
If the nominal MVA rating of the WPP is selected as the base MVA of the pu system:
SCR , (6.2)
Substituting for SPOI,PU in terms of pu voltage at the POI (assumed to be 1.0 pu) and the pu system impedance at
the POI:
,
, (6.3)
, ,
where
Z , is the network pu impedance at the point of interconnection
V , is the pu network at the point of interconnection
Substituting (6.3) in (6.2) results in:
SCR (6.6)
,
The equation (6.6) shows that the SCR at the POI can be calculated as the inverse of the per-unit impedance seen
at the POI. For example, with Z , 20% the SCR at the POI will be 5.
Note that per-unitisation is based on the WPP nominal power. Some of the power system simulation tools use a 100
MVA base in which case a conversion to this base would be necessary.
The impedance used should reflect the maximum grid impedance under which the WPP is expected to operate.
Note that these equations do not account for the variation of POI voltage. Further equations will be developed in
section 6.4 relating the SCR and steady-state voltage stability indices.
(b) Composite short circuit ratio (CSCR)
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This method primarily aims at calculating short circuit ratio at the WPP medium voltage collection grid. The following
derivations refer to the equivalent circuit shown in figure 6.2.
Using a system base power (SBASE of 100 MVA) for the calculation of the equivalent system reactance can be
estimated as follows:
X (6.7)
Where
X is the system impedance, in pu, seen at the HV bus
S is the base MVA of the pu system
S is the short circuit level in MVA at the point of connection, POI.
The composite short circuit level, in pu, based on system MVA, at the medium voltage collector bus CSSC MV can be
estimated as:
CS (6.8)
Where
X is the HV to MV transformer impedance (and any connecting cable or transmission line

impedance), in pu on the system MVA base
The CSCR can then be calculated as:
CSCR (6.9)
where
WP is the nominal MVA base rating of the transformer
In a more general approach, CSSC MV could be calculated with a short circuit program by estimating the three-phase
fault level at the medium voltage bus. The calculation should assume no short circuit contribution of the WPP of
interest, and take into account the approach elaborated in section 6.2 as to how to account for contribution of remote
WPPs in the network. The CSCR can then be calculated as indicated in (6.9).
In this case with a single WPP there is no distinction between the short circuit level at the medium voltage collector
bus and the composite short circuit level at the same bus.
CSCR and ESCR indices will give rise to identical SCR figures for a single WPP.
Relationship between SCR at the POI and wind turbine terminals
For a WPP the short circuit ratio can be readily determined at the point of connection with the knowledge of the
minimum network fault level. Given diversity of wind turbine control concepts among various manufacturers and
diversity of the WPP balance of plant design concepts, the short circuit ratio calculated at the POI does not provide
a good indication of the issues which may pertain to a specific WPP based on specific wind turbines. It is therefore
imperative to calculate the SRC at the wind turbine terminals based on the given SCR at the POI. With knowledge
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of the SCR at the wind turbine terminals one can compare it with the minimum permissible value of the wind turbine
SCR. A change in WPP control strategy or installation of supplementary equipment, e.g. synchronous condensers,
may be necessary should the calculated SCR value is less than the minimum value provided by the wind turbine
manufacturer.
Using the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 6.2 the following impedance relationship can be established:
Z Z Z Z (6.10)
Substituting for ZWTG and Zsys based on (6.6) results in:
Z Z (6.11)
Note: all the impedances are expressed in pu, normalized using the WPP nominal MVA rating as the base.
An important conclusion can be made from (6.11) as follows:
SCR SCR (6.12)
Using above equations Figure 6.3 illustrates variation of the SCR at the wind turbine terminals as function of the SCR
at the connection point.
Figure 6.3 Variations of wind turbine SCR as the function of SCR at the POI (note: “SCR generator” and
“SCR grid” represent the terms and respectively, as used in the above equations)
Example 2: Single WPP with static reactive power support plant (capacitor bank)
Figure 6.4 depicts the schematic diagram of a WPP with capacitor banks connected at the medium voltage collection
grid. The equivalent circuit can be represented as shown in Figure 6.5.
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Figure 6.4 Schematic diagram of a WPP with static reactive power support plant (capacitor banks)
Z Z (6.13)
Considering typical impedances of the WPP and with a static reactive compensation of 5-10% of the WPP’s nominal
power, one can conclude that the value of ZC can very marginally reduce the SCR relative to the WPP configuration
without capacitor banks in service. For simplicity, the shunt capacitor banks can therefore be excluded from SCR
calculations.
Example 3: Single WPP with dynamic reactive power support plant (synchronous compensator)
Figure 6.6 shows the schematic diagram of a WPP with synchronous compensators connected at the MV collection
grid. The equivalent circuit can be represented as shown in Figure 6.7.
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POI / HV MV
MV Line/Cable and WT Cable and
Transformer Transformer
P.S
Power System
Synchronous SC
Compensator
Figure 6.6 Schematic diagram of a WPP with dynamic reactive power support plant (synchronous
compensator)
POI / HV MV
Zsys ZTL2 ZTL1
USYS UWTG
ZTL3
ZSC
USC
Z Z (6.14)
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Unlike with capacitor banks, the use of synchronous compensator will allow a substantial increase in the SCR value.
A numerical example describing application of synchronous compensator to increase the SCR value in a practical
WPP will be explained later on in this chapter.
Example 4: Numerical example
Figure 6.8 shows the equivalent circuit representation for connection of a WPP to a weak AC network. The WPP has
both capacitor banks and synchronous compensators connected at the MV collection grid. As the WPP under
consideration is fairly compact cable impedances for the collection gird and HV grid are neglected.
The following data is given:
S , 300 MVA Z 8%
P 150 MW Z 12.5%
S 30 Mvar Z 10%
Z 50% Z 15%
,
,
POI / HV MV
Zsys ZTL2 ZTL1
USYS UWTG
ZTL3
ZSC
USC
Figure 6.8 Equivalent circuit representation of WPP used in the numerical example
Equivalent impedance of the synchronous condenser’s branch can be calculated as:
Z 10% 15% 125% (6.15)
The equivalent impedance between the two parallel connected branches, i.e. synchronous condenser and the
system, can be calculated as follows:
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Z (6.16)
The impedance Z4 can therefore be calculated as:
Z =42%
The total impedance seen by the wind turbine is therefore:
Z Z Z 42% 8% 50% (6.17)
Using (6.6) the SCR seen at the wind turbine terminals is therefore 2.
6.2.5 Calculation methods - Multiple WPPs

This section discusses three different methods for calculations of the short circuit ratio when there are several other
WPPs nearby, as shown in the following figure 6.9. Three different methods are described for assessment of the
likely power system integration issues with multiple WPPs in service.
Figure 6.9 Nearby WPP connected to the same region in a power system
Method 1: Equivalent short circuit ratio (ESCR)
This method is based on and follows the same approach described in [3], for assessing the potential for interaction
of the multiple HVDC links connecting to the same region in a power system.
The objectives of this method are to assess:
 Impact of adjacent existing WPPs on the performance of the proposed WPP as seen at its connection point
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 Impact of proposed WPP on the performance of the adjacent existing WPPs as seen at their connection
points
This method allows calculation of the short circuit ratio at the WPP connection point, medium voltage collection grid,
and the wind turbine terminals.
The ESCR approach is based on assessment of the observed voltage change at one WPP bus (for an example bus
1 shown in figure 6.9) for a small voltage change at another WPP bus (for an example bus 2 shown in figure 6.9), as
an approximate indicator of the interactions between the WPPs. The interaction factor, termed here as “Wind Plant
Interaction Factor (WPIF)”, is defined as:
∆
(6.18)
∆
Where, ∆ is the voltage change observed on bus “I” for a small voltage change at bus “j”.
WPP buses electrically far apart will have WPIF values closer to zero, whereas for busses very close, WPIF should
be closer to unity.
When more than one WPP are connected to a power system, electrically close to each other, the short circuit level
of the network in the region is shared between these WPPs. Hence the network strength, seen from one WPP is
significantly less than the network short circuit level calculated at the bus. The following definition of ESCR extends
the concept of SCR for a given WPP, approximately taking into account the sharing of the network strengths by the
other nearby WPPs:
∑
(6.19)
An advantage of the use of ESCR is that it can be readily amended to cater for any conceivable configuration for
connection of multiple WPPs.
The above (6.19) can also be expressed in terms of the elements of the impedance matrix Z, of the network,
connecting the windfarms.
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Figure 6.10 – Equivalent representation of multiple windfarms connecting to a power system and Z matrix
Assuming a small change of current at the “i”th node,
∆ ∆ (6.20)
∆ ∆ (6.21)
Resulting in a WPIF of
∆
(6.22)
∆
Also noting, if the pu system expressed on the base power of P ,
,
SCR , (6.23)
,
Hence, when all quantities are represented in pu, on base power of P , , equation (6.19) can be written as:
∑ ∑
(6.24)
∑ , ,
, ,
In considering a common situation where two WPPs connecting to one bus, or electrically close to each other, when
there is no appreciable impedance between the WPPs, and all are connected to the same point in the network (as
shown in Figure 6.11), SCR calculations can be modified as follows:
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Figure 6.11 Equivalent circuit representation of two WPPs connected to the same connection point-
configuration 2
SCR (6.25)
SCR (6.26)
where Z11 and Z22 primarily represent transformer impedances in each of the WPPs, and all quantities are expressed
in pu, with base power of respective wind farm rated power.
Method 2: Composite short circuit ratio (CSCR)
In this method, the multiple WPPs connecting to the same HV bus or HV busses in closed electrical proximity are
approximated as single aggregated WFFs connected to the common MV bus as shown in the following figure 6.12.
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Figure 6.12 Multiple WPPs connecting to the same HV bus or HV busses in close proximity
The equivalent circuit for the WPP connections is shown in the following figure 6.13.
Figure 6.13 Equivalent circuit representation of WPPs connecting to the same HV bus
In the CSCR method, all the WPPs are assumed to be connected to the same MV bus. The approximate
equivalent circuit representation is shown in figure 6.14.
Figure 6.14 Approximate equivalent representation assumed for CSCR method
It is assumed that all the impedances are represented as pu values, based on a MVA base of SBASE.
The approximate short circuit level at the MV bus in pu is given by (assuming USYS is approximately unity):
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,
, (6.27)
The approximate short circuit level in MVA is given by:
, (6.28)
The CSCR is defined as:
(6.29)
Substituting equations (6.27) and (6.28) in (6.29), CSCR is calculated as:
(6.30)
In a more general approach, SMV can be calculated with a short circuit program. The medium voltage buses should
be connected with a branch of negligible impedance and the three phase fault level of the joint buses should be
calculated. The calculation should assume no short circuit contribution of the WPPs. The CSCR can be calculated
as indicated in (6.29).
In this case, there is an important distinction between the short circuit level at the medium voltage collector bus and
the composite short circuit level with the medium voltage buses connected. Unlike ESCR index, which calculates the
short circuit ratio for each of the adjacent WPPs, the CSCR approach calculates an aggregate SCR for a fictitious
WPP comprising all those adjacent WPPs.
Method 3: Weighted short circuit ratio (WSCR)
Another appropriate index for the calculation of impact of adjacent WPPs is the weighted short circuit ratio (WSCR),
defined by:
Weighted S SCMVA
WSCR  N
P i
RMWi
N N
( S SCMVAi * PRMWi )/  PRMWi
 i
N
i
P
i
RMWi
S SCMVAi * PRMWi
 i
N
( PRMWi ) 2
i (6.31)
where
SSCMVAi is the short circuit capacity at bus i before the connection of WPP i
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PRMWi is the MW rating of WPP i to be connected

N is the number of WPPs fully interacting with each other
i is the WPP index.
A small sample system with four WPPs, as shown in Figure 6.15, is used to demonstrate the proposed WSCR
concept. The subsystem, consisting of four WPPs in close proximity, connects to the main system with weak links.
Table 6.1 shows the WPP sizes and SCR values calculated for assuming no interaction.
Figure 6.15 Four WPPs integrated into the system with weak connections
Table 6.1 Wind capacity and SCR values assuming no interaction
WPP Rating (MW) Short circuit capacity SCR
A 1200 6500 5.42
B 1000 8000 8
C 800 8500 10.63
D 2000 7000 3.5
The WSCR index can then be calculated as follows:
1200 6500 1000 8000 800 8500 2000 7000

WSCR 1.46
1200 1000 800 2000
Comparison of the three indices
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Table 6.2 presents results obtained from the ESCR, CSCR and WSCR indices. A system fault infeed of 1000 MVA
is assumed. The equivalent WPP transformer impedance is assumed to be 0.15 on a 100 MVA base.
Both CSCR and WSCR indices calculates the aggregate short circuit ratio, whereas the ESCR determines the short
circuit ratio for each WPP accounting for the weakening effect adjacent WPPs can have.
Unlike CSCR and ESCR indices which can calculate the SCR at the MV busbar, WSCR provides the SCR at a
common “virtual” point of connection. Larger SCR values are therefore generally derived from the WSCR index.
Table 6.2 Comparison of the three indices for calculation of short circuit ratio with two WPPs in service
WPP ratings ESCR CSCR WSCR
WF1=100 MW, ESCRWF1=2.86 2.86 5

WF2=100 MW
ESCRWF2=2.86
WF1=100 MW, ESCRWF1=3.33 3.81 6.66

WF2=50 MW
ESCRWF2=4.44
WF1=100 MW, ESCRWF1=2.22 1.90 3.33

WF2=200 MW
ESCRWF2=1.67
WF1=200 MW, ESCRWF1=1.43 1.43 2.5

WF2=200 MW
ESCRWF2=1.43
6.2.6 The use of short circuit ratio for planning and connection assessment of
WPPs
Based on experience obtained from commissioning, field testing, and comparison of RMS-type models against the
detailed EMT-type models, the following classification is proposed when dealing with WPPs connected to weak
points in the network.
 Connection is considered to be weak if SCR at the POI is less than 5 or if SCR at the medium voltage
collection grid is less than 4 (whichever of these criteria met).
 Connection is considered to be very weak if SCR at the POI is less than 3 of if SCR at the medium voltage
collection grid is less than 2 (whichever of these criteria met).
 For applications with multiple WPPs, it is suggested to use the minimum value obtained from ESCR, CSCR
and WSCR indices.
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6.3 X/R ratio

X/R ratio is another factor which can provide insight into the technical feasibility of connecting a WPP. In general as
the transmission voltage increases, X/R ratio of the transmission lines increases. Therefore, similar to the SCR, a
high X/R ratio generally indicates a stronger connection point.
The grid X/R is sometimes represented at the equivalent grid impedance angle. In practical WPPs the grid impedance
angle is in the range of 60-85 degrees. No simple analytical relationship can be deducted between the SCR and X/R.
However in general, with weak grids both SCR and X/R are low, and vice versa. Typically, an X/R ratio of below 3
indicates a weak network. Alternatively, a phase angle of below 70 degrees can be used.
The following discussions can be made with regard to the impact of X/R ratio:
 Voltage at the connection point: When the X/R ratio is low the voltage at the POI increases whereas the
voltage at POI decreases when the ratio of X/R increased for a given active power. This dependency is
shown in Figure 6.16 for a typical case. The two dashed lines mark the lower and upper boundary of the area
with the likely values for grid angle.
 Flicker emission: The increase in X/R ratio results in a significant reduction in the flicker emission as a
consequence of the reduction in active power dependency of the voltage due to low line resistance.
Figure 6.16 Calculated voltages at 1.0 per unit current as a function of the grid impedance angle
6.4 Voltage sensitivity
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6.4.1 Background
Using equivalent circuit shown in Figure 6.2 and based on the calculation method developed, following section
investigates some of the implications of connecting WPP to networks with low short circuit ratio. Figure 6.17 shows
how the generator terminal, and MV and HV bus voltages change as a function of the SCR, when the current output
is fixed at 1.0 per unit. This figure indicates that voltage will become more and more sensitive should the SCR drops
below 5 or so. The same case study was repeated with half of the wind turbines online. Results shown in Figure 6.17
indicate that voltage variation will significantly increase.
Figure 6.17 Calculated voltages at 1.0 per unit current as a function of the SCR
As another example Figure 6.18 shows variation of the generator voltage as function of current for two SCR values
of 2 and 5. Results are obtained with a power factor of 1.0 and a grid angle of 70 degrees. The current is varied from
0.1 to 1.2 per unit in steps of 0.1 per unit. As shown in the figure the voltage change is significant for an SCR value
of 2. At rated current output the voltage amplitude is decreased to 0.9 per unit and the angle of the voltage has shifted
by 40 degrees at the POI.
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Figure 6.18 Calculated generator voltages as a function of generator current, with SCR of 2 and SCR of 5
6.4.2 The need for an additional index

The intent of developing an additional index associated with voltage sensitivity for weak grid conditions is to answer
the following questions which cannot be addressed by the use of SCR or X/R indices separately.
1. How does the voltage magnitude at the generator terminals vary with changes in active and reactive
power?
2. What is the limiting value of active power output (voltage collapse point)? Can generator transfer the
nominal active power under weak grid conditions?
3. How can the SCR and X/R indices be related and used collectively?
4. How can the SCR index be used at any amount of active and reactive power and power factor?
5. What is the most suitable operating power factor to minimise variations in voltage?
The following sub-sections aims at answering the above questions.
6.4.3 Voltage sensitivity indices (λ and μ)

Figure 6.19 depicts a single generator (or aggregate of many smaller generators) connected to an infinite bus through
an equivalent network impedance.
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P,
Aggregate Impedance Z = R +
Generator bus Infinite bus
generator
Voltage ∠ Voltage ∠0
Figure 6.19 Single generator connected to infinite bus via grid impedance
From first principles, the voltage magnitude V at the generator bus in Figure 6.19 is found to satisfy the following
equation in terms of the generator power output (P,Q), the network impedance components (R,X) and the infinite
bus voltage :
2 ∓ 0. (6.32)
This is a quadratic equation in V2 and thus has an exact analytical solution. It is most easily expressed in terms of
the voltage ratio ⁄ :
ρ ≝ 1 2λ 1 4 λ μ , λ , μ . (6.33)
Observe that the quantities λ and μ appearing in this solution are dimensionless. They are respectively the real
and imaginary parts of the complex quantity ∗ ⁄ .
The relationship of the terminal voltage magnitude to generated power can be conveniently visualised with P–V
curves obtained by plotting V (or ρ) against active power P for fixed reactive power Q. A typical family of P–V
curves for a weak-grid connection is shown in Figure 6.20. For the connection considered the network fault level of
196 MVA, X/R ratio of 5 and WPP capacity of 100 MW has been assumed.
Figure 6.20 P-V curves for a typical generator in a weak grid
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As Figure 6.20 shows, a typical P–V curve is nonlinear and tends toward a ‘knee point’ at an ultimate value of P
where the stable and unstable branches meet. This is the voltage collapse point, and corresponds to the point where
the quantity under the square root in the above solution becomes zero:
1 4 0. (6.34)
Once again, this is a quadratic equation in each of the system quantities (P, Q, R, X, ) and in particular can be
solved for the limiting power Pmax at voltage collapse:
| |
max ∙ 1 1 . (6.35)
As is evident from both this formula and Figure 6.20, increasing the reactive power export Q increases Pmax and thus
boosts the power export capacity of the connection, while reducing Q has the opposite effect.
The formula also shows that the amount by which Pmax increases or decreases for each 1 MVar of reactive power
export or import is sensitive to the X/R ratio of the network. When R is negligible, then to a good approximation Pmax
increases by 1 MW for every 1 MVar of reactive power injection. On the other hand if R ≈ X, then an additional 1
MVar reactive power injection can theoretically increase Pmax by √2 1 2.4 MW at the generator terminals
(keeping in mind that the network losses will also increase accordingly).
6.4.4 Relation to SCR and X/R
The above formulae for voltage sensitivity to power flow are broadly applicable to all generator connections capable
of being reduced to the simplified model in Figure 6.19. However, it is the defining characteristic of ‘weak’ connections
that the voltage sensitivity ∂V⁄∂P or ∂V⁄∂Q implied by these formulae is substantially greater than what is seen at a
traditional generating centre within a large power system. This is typically explained in terms of the generating centre
having a much greater fault level or short circuit ratio than the weak generator connection.
The key relation between SCR and voltage sensitivity stems from the following entity, alluded to above, for the
dimensionless quantities λ and μ:
∗
. (6.36)
Let the generator now operate at its rated MVA output: that is, let P and Q be such that | | gen .
Then, taking the magnitude of the above expression one has
| | gen gen gen

| |Rated MVA | | pu (6.37)
noticing that Vb2 / Sb is the base impedance for the per-unit system. But comparing this with the formula above for
SCR, and employing the approximation , it is apparent that
| |Rated MVA . (6.38)

SCR SCR
One sees then that the quantities λ and μ central to voltage sensitivity are very closely related to the reciprocal of the
SCR. It follows that the smaller the SCR, the greater the tendency toward high voltage sensitivity. The numbers λ
and μ help to quantify this relationship, but they do not do so with equal force: it is seen above that λ has a ‘first order’
effect on local voltage while μ has only a ‘second order’ effect (at least when ≪ max ). To separate the influences
via λ and μ one must know not just the SCR, but also the X/R ratio.
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∗⁄
Returning again to the identity and focussing on the angles of the complex quantities involved, there
results the formula
arctan arctan arctan arctan (6.39)
where arccos pf is the power factor angle for the generator, with positive sign for Q export and negative for Q
import. Applying standard trigonometric identities, one arrives at:
⁄
⁄
where tan 1. (6.40)
pf
One finally has (subject to the approximation ) the following alternative definitions of λ and μ giving their
values directly from the calculated SCR and the network X/R ratio, without first calculating the network impedance Z:
⁄ ⁄
∙ , ∙ , (6.41)
SCR ⁄ SCR ⁄
where ⁄ gen and ⁄ gen are the generator power outputs in per-unit on the generator MVA rating.
Appendix A provides a numerical example describing calculations of voltage sensitivity indices for a practical wind
farm application.
6.4.5 Relation between WTG and WPP indices

The above considerations have been developed for the simplest practical case: that of studying voltage sensitivity at
the terminals of a single aggregated equivalent generator and single equivalent network impedance. Figure 6.21
depicts the shift of focus from the generator terminals to the POI in the simplest case. In Figure 6.21 it is assumed
that all the generating units can be represented in aggregate, with a single equivalent balance of plant (BoP)
impedance RP + jXP. Shunt elements and auxiliary reactive plant are not provided for in this model. When the focus
is on behaviour at the generator terminal bus, Figure 6.21 can be regarded as an instance of Figure 6.19, with total
system impedance R = RP + RG and X = XP + XG.
The alternative ‘virtual generator’ model of Figure 6.21 allows for all the preceding theory to be applied directly at the
point of connection. However, it will still be important to understand the relationship between the virtual generator
power (P’,Q’) and the original aggregate generator power (P,Q), since the latter will be a much better approximation
of the true conditions for each real generating unit.
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Figure 6.21 Modelling as a virtual generator at the point of connection
A convenient mapping between the quantities (P,Q,V) and (P’,Q’,V’) in Figure 6.21 is obtained by writing the equation
|I| |S| ⁄|V| at each of the terminal and connection point buses, together with the power-balance equations across
the impedance ZP:
|I| , P P |I| R , Q Q |I| X . (6.42)
This results in the following formulae for translation of power quantities from the original to the virtual generator:
P P R , Q Q X , (6.43)
and in the reverse direction:
P P R , Q Q X . (6.44)
The values of V’ and δ’ may be obtained by applying the original formulae based on the grid impedance RG + jXG.
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6.5 Rate of change of frequency (RoCoF)

As discussed previously indices such as SCR and X/R ratio can be used to indicate or evaluate the weakness of
WPP connection point. When assessing the weakness of wider network these indices do not always remain
appropriate. One of the most widely used indices for assessment of the weakness of the overall inter connected
power system is the rate of change of frequency (RoCoF).
RoCoF experienced on a power system is highest immediately after a contingency event. RoCoF gradually reduces
as generator governors act to change power output in response to the change in power system frequency.
The maximum acceptable RoCoF for existing wind turbines is in the range of 4 Hz/s for 200–300 milliseconds.
However, older type 1 and 2 wind turbines are sometimes found to have a maximum permissible RoCoF of 1 Hz/s
only. Practically, for all wind turbine types, slower changes, such as 1 Hz/s, can be tolerated for a longer duration; in
the range of one second or more.
The limitation on permissible RoCoF stems from the use of a phase-locked loop in the converter controls of type 3
and type 4 wind turbines, which can lose tracking of the voltage phase angle, and therefore the power system
frequency during rapid changes in power system frequency.
The displacement of synchronous generators by type 3 and 4 wind turbines can result in higher RoCoF, because
wind turbines do not inherently provide any inertial response. This may potentially be an issue in power systems with
high wind penetration.
6.5.1 Estimation of RoCoF

The worst case potential RoCoF can be estimated in real-time based on the following approach.
Each generating unit on the system is allocated a base MVA rating and an inertia constant. DC links are allocated
an inertial constant of zero.
The largest absolute value of negative RoCoF can occur on the system following the trip of the large infeed.
Immediately after the trip of the unit, the initial RoCoF can be estimated as:
RoCoF min f ,i 1,2,3 …. (6.45)
The largest absolute value of positive RoCoF can occur on the system following the trip of the largest outfeed.
Immediately after the trip of the unit initial RoCoF can be estimated as:
RoCoF max f ,j 1,2,3, … (6.46)
where
f system frequency,
Ksys system inertia in MWs is calculated as ∑ where is inertia constant of i-th

generator connected to the system and is its MVA rating,
Klost the inertia lost in MWs = x , where is inertia constant of the large infeed
connected to the system and is its MVA rating.
P the MW lost due to loss of largest infeed
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P is the MW “gained” due to loss of largest outfeed
EirGrid has performed validation of the above RoCoF estimation method, by comparing the estimated values against
the measured values during a number of frequency disturbing events, and the results are shown in Table 6.3. As
illustrated in Table 6.3 there is a good correlation between the measured and calculated results with the calculations
consistently on the conservative side.
Table 6.3 Comparison of measured and calculated RoCoF for a number of events in EirGrid network
Event RoCoF (Hz/s)

Disturbance
Number
Actual Calculated
1 Trip 388 MW 0.265 0.296
2 Trip 216 MW 0.112 0.167
3 Trip 201 MW 0.121 0.162
4 Trip 173 MW 0.102 0.127
5 Trip 125 MW 0.102 0.143
6 Trip 200MW 0.095 0.121
7 Trip 265MW 0.125 0.172
8 Trip 210 MW 0.144 0.195
9 Trip 97 MW 0.050 0.075
6.5.2 RoCoF of Power Systems
The RoCoF experienced in a power system depends on the inertial responses of the synchronous generators and
rotating loads connected to the power system, the characteristics of the interconnections with the neighbouring power
systems, and the magnitude of the potential system disturbance that could be expected and managed.
Because of the lack of interconnectivity, the islanded power systems (e.g. New Zealand) are likely to experience
higher RoCoF compared to large interconnected power systems (e.g. Europe). The power systems interconnected
with the neighbouring power systems through HVDC links are likely to behave similar to islanded power systems, if
the HVDC links are not capable of power-flow modulation in response to system frequency deviations.
Where transmission faults could lead to separation of large interconnected systems into autonomous islands, RoCoF
should be an important consideration as the islanded system may experience large RoCoF which could be beyond
the capability of the connected WPP.
There is a risk that a probable event (loss of a single generator or a single infeed) during periods of low inertia could
lead to the cascaded tripping of all distribution generation.
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Studies within EirGrid, such as the Facilitation of Renewables (FOR) study [5] have indicated that that during times
of high wind generation following the loss of the single largest infeed, RoCoF values of greater than 0.5 Hz/s could
be experienced on the island power system. Based on operational experience it is expected that these potential high
RoCoF values could exist when the system exceeds a 50% system non-synchronous penetration (SNSP) level or
the synchronous inertia falls below 25000 MW-seconds.
State of South Australia exhibits high wind penetration which can under some operating conditions produce more
than 95% of the state’s electricity demand. South Australia is electrically connected to the neighbouring state of
Victoria (and the rest of the interconnected eastern Australian power system) via a double circuit 275 kV AC
transmission line, and a small VSC HVDC link. Under some operating conditions, operation with only four
synchronous generators within the state has been recorded in the past few years. In the event of loss of the 275 kV
interconnector, the South Australian power system will become electrically isolated without almost no support from
the neighbouring power system. Studies have shown that such islanding conditions can result in RoCoF in excess
of 2 Hz/s during high wind generation within the state.
The above studies have considered the current state of installed WPPs with a combination of modern type 3 and 4
wind turbines, as well as older type 1 and 2 wind turbines. None of the wind turbines installed are equipped with a
programmed inertia feature. This feature has not therefore been included in the RoCoF calculations.
The following criteria is therefore suggested based on the South Australian and Irish experience:
 Weak system: with RoCoF of 1 Hz/s
 Very weak system: with RoCoF of greater than 2 Hz/s
6.5.3 Inertia and System Non-Synchronous Penetration (SNSP)
The overall system inertia is the sum of the inertia of the rotating masses of all synchronous machines in the system
which varies significantly from one system to another. It is not therefore possible to use the system inertia directly as
an index for assessment of the strength of the wider network. However, its impact is accounted for in the RoCoF
caused by system disturbances.
EirGrid has been utilising the SNSP (System Non-Synchronous Penetration) as a measure of the non-synchronous
generation on the system in any given instant. It is a ratio of the real-time generation from wind and HVDC imports
to demand plus HVDC exports. However, SNSP, as a measure of system strength, has the following weaknesses:
 Geographical dispersion of the generation is not recognized: For an example, if the wind penetration of a
particular region is high compared to the rest of the power system, while the SNSP on the whole power
system indicates a stable system, the region with high penetration of wind cold result in cascaded collapse
if it separates from the rest of the system. While, a prudent dispatch selection, where practical, may prevent
this but it does highlight a possible limitation of the SNSP metric.
 Inertia provided by synchronous compensators or WPP programmed to provide inertia are not recognised:
SNSP index is primarily applicable for power systems with high amount of thermal power plants. Figure 6.22
shows variations of the SNSP index over a 30 hour timeframe in a system with dominant hydro generation
most of which can double as a synchronous condenser. Although this figure shows SNSP reaches a peak of
68%, in practice because some of the hydro generators are either partially loaded or are operating as
synchronous compensators, the power system is not expected to experience any fault level, RoCoF, or
voltage control issues. Care should therefore be taken when using SNSP index as a measure of the
weakness of the system.
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Figure 6.22 Trace of SNSP index experienced in practice over a 30 hour period
6.6 Available Fault Level - Impact of nearby WPPs and HVDC

links
This index assesses the impact of non-synchronous generators (NSGs) such as WPPs and HVDC links connected
deeper in an AC network. The impact of any connected NSG is assumed to be equivalent to a reduction of the short
circuit level, provided by the synchronous machines connected to the power system, at the point of connection. The
short circuit level reduction at the point of connection is assumed equal to the MVA rating of the NSG multiplied by
its minimum short circuit ratio MSCR4.
This method does not calculate the actual fault current of the NSG, but assesses the available fault level after allowing
the reduction in the fault level, that must be conserved for satisfactory operation of other NSGs nearby. The concept
is described in the following two examples.
6.6.1 Available fault level at a local busbar

This example is a simplified demonstration of estimation of the capability of the network’s connection point, in terms
of the available fault level, to support a proposed WPP project. The proposed and existing WPPs are connected as
shown in Figure 6.23. Note: In this example (for simplicity) the generator output voltages are assumed to be 1 pu
with zero phase angle and resistances are ignored. Consider the connection point shown in Figure 6.23 where an
existing WPP is connected. A new proposed WPP wishes to share the connection point.
The calculation steps are as follows:
4 Minimum fault level: The lowest MVA fault level that can occur at the WPP's connection point following a credible
contingency event under the defined weakest AC system condition (i.e. due to the minimum normal dispatch of synchronous
generation).
Minimum short circuit ratio (MSCR): The lowest short circuit ratio that the WPP requires at its connection point to maintain code
compliant performance .
Available fault level (AFL): The minimum fault level minus the effective reduction due to the connection of non-synchronous
generation.
Effective impedance: The impedance of a non-synchronous generator calculated from its minimum short circuit ratio multiplied
by its MVA rating.
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1. Calculate the minimum MVA fault level at connection point with all non-synchronous generators
disconnected:
MVA fault level = 1 / (j0.02 + j0.08) * 100 MVA =1000 MVA (6.47)
2. Calculate the required minimum fault level for the existing WPP (MSCR * MVA rating):
Min. fault level required for existing WPP = 4*100 MVA = 400 MVA (6.48)
3. Calculate the available fault level (for proposed WPP) = (6.47) - (6.48)
Available fault level = 1000 MVA - 400 MVA = 600 MVA
Figure 6.23 Calculation of local NSG impact on Connection Point Capability
The maximum possible capacity of proposed WPP can now be estimated using the above calculated available fault
level, and the MSCR required for satisfactory operation of the technology intended for that windfarm. For examples:
(a) Maximum rating of proposed WPP with MSCR of 4 (AFL/MSCR) = 600/4 = 150 MVA
(b) Maximum rating of proposed WPP with MSCR of 3 (AFL/MSCR) = 600/3 = 200 MVA
6.6.2 Available fault level at a nearby busbar

As an example, consider the case shown in Figure 6.24 where a proposed WPP wishes to connect to an (electrically)
nearby busbar. By using the concept of available fault level the impact of non-synchronous generation can be
calculated deeper into the network.
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In this assessment the principle of superposition is utilised for estimating the impact of reduction of the available fault
level, at the connection point of an existing NSG.
In the first step, the reduction in the available fault level at the point of connection is represented as an “increase” in
the fault level at the same point, by modelling the connected NSG, as an voltage source behind the effective
impedance. The impact of this increase in other parts of the network can be calculated using available short circuit
level calculation methods and tools. Assuming linearity in network representation and principle of superposition, the
effective increased of the fault level calculated at any point of the network, will be equivalent to the potential reduction
in the fault level, if a similar magnitude of reduction of the fault level is made at the point of connection of the NSG.
As the new WPP to be connected to the network will also have an impact on fault level available for the already
existing WPPs, the new WPP (with the likely MSCR representing the technology to be employed) should also be
modelled and represented in the calculation. The maximum capacity of the new WPP is obtained, when the available
fault level at any of the connection points, where the new or the existing WPPs connected, would reach zero.
The following calculation steps are made and are tabulated in the table 6.4 below:
1. Calculate the minimum fault level with all non-synchronous generators disconnected (column2).
2. Calculate the minimum fault level with all generators connected - but represent non-synchronous
generators by a Thevenin voltage source behind their effective impedance (column3).
3. Find the difference in these two MVA “fault levels” (column 4 = column 3 – column 2).
4. Find the available fault level by subtracting this difference from the initial fault level due to synchronous
generation only (column 5 = column 2 – column 4).
5. Reduce the effective impedance of the new WPP until the AFL at one busbar reaches zero.
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Figure 6.24 Calculation of remote NSG impact Connection Point Capability
This calculation shows that the existing WPP has “used-up” most of the fault level provided by the existing
synchronous machines. The proposed WPP to be connected to the nearby busbar #2 could only further reduce the
available fault level at busbar #3 by 83 MVA before triggering the requirement for a full system study.
Table 6.4 Calculation of available fault level at different busbar locations using effective impedance
SG + NSG ∆(difference)
Busbar Number SG(MVA) AFL(MVA)
(MVA) (MVA)
1 (existing) 700 929 229 471
2 (existing) 622 770 148 474
3 (existing) 583 1083 500 83
1 (+ new windfarm) 700 955 255 445
2 (+ new windfarm) 622 1036 414 208
3 (+ new windfarm) 583 1166 583 0
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In this example the minimum effective impedance of the new WPP, which would lead to an available fault level on
busbar #3 to zero, is found be 0.376 Ω (up). Using the available fault level of 266 MVA at busbar #2, would give the
new WPP as maximum capacity of 88 MVA (assuming MSCR = 3.0) or a capacity of 66 MVA (assuming MSCR = 4).
Since these values have been determined by the new WPP’s impact upon an existing NSG it also means that the
optimum location of any mitigation measures (such as synchronous compensator, STATCOM, etc.) may not be at
the new WPP’s connection point.
The above also highlights the need to maintain a margin in the available fault level at each connection point so that
future growth in non-synchronous generation can occur without compromising the performance of existing non-
synchronous generators.
6.7 References
[1] Cigre WG 14.07 (1992), ‘Guide for planning DC links terminating at AC system locations having low short-
circuit capacities’, Part I: AC/DC interaction phenomena.
[2] Cigre WG 14.07 (1997), ‘Guide for planning DC links terminating at AC system locations having low short-
circuit capacities’, Part II: planning guidelines.
[3] Cigre WG B4.41 (2008), ‘Systems with multiple DC infeed’.
[4] ERCOT CREZ Reactive Compensation Study, available at:

http://www.ercot.com/content/news/presentations/2010/CREZ%20Reactive%20Power%20Compensation%
20Study.pdf
[5] EirGrid Facilitation of Renewables study, available at: http://www.eirgrid.com/mwg-

internal/de5fs23hu73ds/progress?id=C9kireUVyKBKnBVPdI2rYDY1ZR7DIzNJfsVCJ5ETGrE
[6] Renewable Energy Integration in South Australia - Joint AEMO & Electranet Report, available at:
http://www.aemo.com.au/Electricity/Planning/Integrating-Renewable-Energy
[7] Badrzadeh, B.; Halley, A., "Challenges Associated With Assessment and Testing of Fault Ride-Through
Compliance of Variable Power Generation in Australian National Electricity Market," Sustainable Energy,
IEEE Transactions on , vol.6, no.3, pp.1160-1168.
[8] Morton, A.B.: “False instability in rms-type power system simulators with fast current sources or sinks: a
case study”. Sixth IASTED Asian Conference on Power and Energy Systems (AsiaPES 2013), April 2013.
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7 GUIDE TO WIND POWER PLANT CONNECTION
7.0 Introduction
Chapter 7 addresses the application engineering considerations for interconnection of a wind power plant to a weak
AC system, based on the information outlined in the first six chapters. The chapter begins with the identification and
assessment of the different aspects of the system capability, continues with the relevant issues to be considered,
and concludes with various technology options to address the issues identified, followed by a dynamic planning study
flow chart. A number of examples from specific systems are provided throughout the chapter to illustrate particular
issues.
7.1 Identification / Assessment of System Capability
7.1.1 Short Circuit Ratio

Wind power plant connections create concerns when the Short Circuit Ratio (SCR) at the connection point drops
below a certain threshold. These concerns relate to a wind power plant’s ability to continue operating correctly under
steady-state and transient conditions. Given significant differences in design approaches adopted by various wind
turbine manufacturers, it is beyond the scope of this WG to propose precise SCR threshold values below which a
WPP will fail to perform adequately.
Chapter 6 discussed a general methodology for calculation of short circuit ratio with inclusion of static and dynamic
reactive support devices, and the impact of adjacent wind power plants. Connection of several adjacent wind power
plants, in general, gives rise to a reduction of the short circuit ratio as seen by each of those wind power plants. In
contrast, installation of synchronous condensers assists in increasing the short circuit ratio and reducing the phase
shift caused by system faults. It is therefore imperative to correctly determine the minimum short circuit ratio
accounting for all nearby devices with an appreciable impact.
Having calculated the SCR at the point of connection, the next step is to determine the equivalent SCR seen from
the wind turbine terminals. Under low SCR conditions, wind turbine and plant controls may behave differently than
under normal or high SCR conditions. This may necessitate modifications in the turbine converter and plant controls,
and in particular coordination with other dynamic reactive support devices.
RMS-type models are typically proven adequate for the assessment of the performance of WPPs for SCR values at
the point of connection in the range of three to five. For lower SCR values, RMS-type models may or may not be
adequate to represent the performance of WPPs. For such wind power plant projects, it is prudent to gain confidence
in the accuracy and adequacy of RMS-type models by comparing the responses against a detailed electromagnetic-
transient simulation model which accounts for the detailed actions of converter controls.
7.1.2 X/R Ratio

X/R ratio is another factor which can partially assist in evaluating the weakness of the wind power plant connection
point. A high X/R ratio is generally desirable as it gives rise to better steady-state and transient performance. Wind
power plant performance may need to be considered in more detail with an X/R ratio of three or below.
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Aside from considering the absolute value of X/R, another aspect which needs careful consideration is the difference
between the X/R ratio as seen with the source impedance and compared to the fault impedance. When there is a
difference between the source and fault X/R ratios, the fault will not only result in a voltage drop but also result in a
sudden change in the phase angle of the source voltage. This phenomenon is often termed as a ’’phase angle jump’’.
The phase angle jump is not generally a matter of concern for synchronous generators, but needs to be considered
with wind plants which use a phase locked loop (PLL). Large phase angle jumps may result in an inability of the PLL
to correctly track the frequency, and result in high current transients as well.
7.1.3 Maximum Available Fault Level

For multiple wind power plants connected to a weak grid, the coordination among each wind power plant and
transmission devices is crucial for reliable system performance. A wind power plant’s controller is usually set up
without knowing the exact capabilities and settings of the neighboring wind power plants. Therefore, a minimum
system strength is required to provide sufficient margin to allow each wind power plant to properly tune its controller.
The concept of maximum available fault level is used to allocate the fault level available in a power system, as
required, for the adequate operation of the non-synchronous plants such as WPPs and HVDC converters. The fault
level allocated for adequate operation of a WPP is based on the minimum SCR pertinent to the technology employed
with the WPP. The maximum available fault level for a connection of the new WPP is the fault level remaining in the
system, above those allocated to the existing WPPs.
The maximum capacity of a WPP that can be connected to the power system, in the vicinity of other WPPs, is
determined by the maximum available fault level and the minimum SCR required for the adequate operation of the
WPP, based on the technology used for the WPP.
Typical system analysis, like steady state short circuit studies, can be used to determine the maximum available fault
level for a WPP connection.
Wind turbine manufactures have different designs and capabilities for weak grid conditions to provide reliable
performance at high wind generation output levels. High resolution recorders, like PMUs, can provide sufficient
performance measurement for proper controller tuning and, therefore, allow connections with higher SCRs.
7.1.4 Voltage Stability and Reactive Power Margin

The maximum capacity of a wind power plant connected to a weak grid is also determined by voltage stability, which
in turn is driven by the system strength. It must be noted that proper voltage controller settings are important to
accommodate weak grid condition to prevent the undesired poorly-damped or un-damped voltage response. It has
been observed through ERCOT’s operational and planning experience that a wind power plant’s output could be
constrained under weak grid conditions to avoid undesired voltage instability.
In general, the voltage stability is defined with the consideration of stably supplying a load in an area from generation
sources located outside the area. A region is considered to have adequate voltage stability margin to maintain post-
transient voltage stability if the following criteria is met:
(a) A 5% increase in load above expected peak can be supplied from resources external to the study area
under zero or single element outage operating conditions; and
(b) A 2.5% increase in load above expected peak can be supplied from resources external to the study
areas under more than one element outage operating conditions.
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The typical reactive reserve margin as defined above may not be applicable to weak grids, which are generally in
remote areas with limited or no load. A reactive margin, therefore, may not be adequate for determining the voltage
stability in weak grids connected to WPPs.
In a highly compensated weak grid, voltage collapse can occur within the normal operating voltage range (0.95 to
1.05pu) masking voltage stability risks in real time operations. Static capacitors and static var compensators
contribute to this issue and have limited effectiveness for further increasing transfer capability.
In ERCOT’s Panhandle studies, the PV curves of selected Panhandle 345 kV buses under the most limiting output
of 3,620 MW are shown in Figure 7-1. The most significant observation from Figure 7-1 is that the voltage collapse
occurred at a relatively high voltage level. The commonly accepted normal operating voltage range is from 0.95 to
1.05pu but all bus voltages were higher than 0.96pu at the collapse points of the PV curves. The reason the voltage
collapse occurred at such a high voltage level is that the Panhandle grid is essentially a weak system that is highly
compensated with switched shunt capacitors and SVCs. These reactive compensation devices kept the voltage high
while the power transfer level approached the steady state voltage stability limit.
Figure 7.1 PV Curves of Panhandle Buses – Base Case
Currently, there is no widely accepted planning criterion for a weak grid condition to require reactive power margin
for a specific wind power plant in a weak grid; it will require further discussion and research to establish a reliability
criterion for system planning purposes. Furthermore, based on each region’s planning and operation requirement, it
may not be required to design a system to allow maximum wind generation delivery. ERCOT’s current practice is to
perform the system analysis, and include steady state and dynamic studies to determine the power transfer limit for
the weak grid. Since the wind generation is an intermittent resource, a 10% margin is considered on the identified
limit in the initial stage for real time operation. A tighter margin will be required based on the real time operational
experience.
7.1.5 Rate of Change of Frequency
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Basically, the frequency of a power system can be considered as a measure of the balance or imbalance between
the production and consumption of active power in a power system. When the frequency goes below the nominal
value (e.g. 50 Hz in Europe and 60 Hz in North America), that means that the consumption of active power is higher
than production; and on the contrary, when the frequency goes above the nominal value, this occurs because the
consumption of active power is lower than production.
In the case of a sudden disturbance in the power system, such as the loss of a power plant or a large load change,
there is an imbalance between the production and the consumption causing frequency excursions in the AC system.
To deal with this situation, fast activated reserves become very important to supply or reduce the power required to
return to a stable condition.
Traditionally, large conventional synchronous generators provided the needed system inertia to tackle the described
problem. Nowadays, wind power plants and other non-synchronously connected units displace this synchronous
generation, so the system inertia is reduced. Hence, a higher rate of change of frequency and larger frequency
deviations can be expected if no mitigating control actions are taken.
For moderating, or even avoiding, the negative influence of increasing wind power penetration on the frequency of a
power system, a fast active power controller based on frequency deviation (∆f) can be applied to available fast
frequency response reserves.
Rate-Of-Change-Of-Frequency (RoCoF) withstand capability is an important parameter to specify the minimum

capability of a wind power plant which should be capable of remaining connected to the AC network and operable
within a certain value of the average rate of change of the AC network frequency (df/dt) in a predefined period of
time. RoCoF is illustrated in Figure 7.2 below.
Frequency
Frequency gradient
df/dt
Time
Figure 7.2 Rate-Of-Change-Of-Frequency
Factors which influence the RoCoF are the inertial response of the load and the synchronous generator inertia levels
(excluding the direct response of the load).
A contingency resulting in excessively high RoCoF values could result in tripping a number of generators. This could
aggravate an already low frequency situation, and in the worst case, could lead to triggering under-frequency load
shedding relays or causing a blackout. Therefore, detailed technical studies should be performed considering high
levels of non-synchronous generation to determine the maximum wind power penetration while still achieving
acceptable power system performance. Additional measures utilizing fast frequency responsive reserves may also
need to be considered.
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Both the capability for operating at a deviated frequency and RoCoF capability are specified by the specific rules and
connection agreements with the TSO. Wind turbine manufacturers and developers generally withstand a RoCoF of
between 2 – 4 Hz/s, with the exception of earlier wind turbines which are only able to withstand RoCoF up to 1 Hz/s.
High RoCoF is usually encountered only in small systems. It has a negative impact on operation of power electronic
based generation due to fast phase shifts that cannot be handled by phase lock loop oscillators (PLL). It also has a
negative effect on protection coordination by reducing the amount of time between the action of primary and back-
up protection.
In the case of the European network (ENTSO-E Draft Network Code for Requirements for Grid Connections
Applicable to all Generators), the minimum time periods for which a wind power plant shall be capable of operating
for different frequency deviations without disconnecting from the AC network are shown in Table 7.1 below.
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Table 7.1 Frequency ranges (8 March 2013) without disconnecting from the AC network
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7.1.6 Inertia and System Non-Synchronous Penetration

EirGrid operates a small, isolated island system of approximately 5100 MW peak load. EirGrid faces issues which
are unique to small systems and to the use of RoCoF relays for system protection. It has been utilizing the SNSP
ratio (System Non-Synchronous Penetration) as a measure of the non-synchronous generation on the system in any
instant. It is a ratio of the real-time generation from wind and HVDC imports to demand plus HVDC exports.
The current SNSP limit being applied is 50%. Through a series of measures (as illustrated in Figure 7-3), particularly
around RoCoF and ramping capability, it is expected that this figure can be increased to 75%. In EirGrid, for a trip of
the largest infeed of 450 MW, minimum system inertia level of 25,000 MW-Sec results in a maximum rate of change
of frequency of 0.45 Hz/s, which allows a prudent margin of safety.
Figure 7.3 Impact of System Inertia on RoCoF
7.1.7 Wind Turbine/Plant Control Gain Margin and Phase Margin

Most control systems used by the wind industry, for grid connection, are closed loop controls, i.e. a feedback
measurement of the signal to be controlled is used. Close loop controls can show instability or poor performance if
the tuning and design is not done properly.
The widely used control system stability indices, gain margin and phase margin, can be adopted to ensure that the
control system of the WPP will be stable.
The gain and phase margins of a controller are affected by the gain of the plant. For grid connections with low SCRs,
the equivalent grid gain seen by the wind power plant controller is higher than in “normal” connections with high
SCRs. Therefore the effect on these two control parameters is higher when connecting a WPP to a weak grid, and
these two parameters are worsened in such situations.
In general, systems with low SCR pose more challenges in terms of plant control. However, a proper tuning of the
plant control makes it behave as under normal SCR conditions.
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When analyzing the impact of the SCR on the control system of the WPP, it is important to understand how the gain
due to grid impedance is seen from a control perspective. As an example, Figure 7-4 below shows a schematic
representation of the voltage control loop of a WPP.
Plant
Vref Ref
Figure 7-4 Schematic Representation of a WPP Voltage Control System
The open loop gain (KT) is given by the product of the gains of the control system, the plant and the grid: KT =
Xgrid*Kcontrol*Kplant. Using the representation shown in Figure7-4, it is possible to investigate the influence of the control
gain and system strength on the system stability. In general, irrespective of the control technology used, with high
SCR values the grid gain becomes less pertinent to the stability of plant operation, and the opposite applies for low
SCR.
7.2 Issues to be Considered for the Identified Level of System

Capability
7.2.1 Power Output Control

Because of the low marginal cost of generation for wind plants, the power generated by WPPs comprising variable
speed turbines is usually maximized using maximum power point tracking. This maximum is limited be either the
power which is able to be extracted from the wind, or the maximum power able to be generated by the wind power
plant, as shown in the figure 7-5.
Figure 7-5 WPP output - maximum power point

tracking, limited by the maximum capacity of the
WTG.
Additional requirements may need to be specified for the performance of wind power plants in order to maintain the
operational safety and security of a power system. It is often the case that the requirements for small wind power
plants are less stringent than those for larger plants, due to the fact that their impact is less noticeable in strong power
Page 128
systems. In weak power systems, more stringent requirements may apply to smaller wind power plants as well as
the larger ones.
The WPPs should be able to be dispatched at power outputs anywhere between the minimum and maximum power
capability of the plant. The minimum power of a wind power plant is zero, and in some plants, due to internal losses,
it can even be slightly negative. The maximum is dependent on the size of the turbines, and the ratings of their power
electronic interfaces with the power system.
Controlling the power output at a given set point is possible for most wind plants. For variable speed turbines, varying
both the speed and the pitch of the wind turbine leads to changes in wind power available to the turbine. While
varying the speed can be performed very quickly, pitching the blades is a much slower process. Constant speed
turbines may have an active stall pitch system to avoid mechanical stress, but this is very slow. Wind power plants
with pitchless turbines can still follow given set points in discrete jumps which correspond to starting or shutting down
individual turbines.
A tolerance is usually given for following a set point. These tolerances are expressed in percent, or averages over a
specified time. Following the set point at every second is not usually possible. These tolerances may need to be
defined more carefully in weak networks.
It is essential that the active power of a wind power plant be able to be controlled remotely, and useful if it is also
able to be controlled by the DSO or TSO responsible for the system to which it is connected. This allows the operator
to take actions to prevent power imbalance, and overloading of transmission lines.
Controlling the rate at which power output will change from one set point to another, i.e. the ramps rates, can also
be used to ensure maintaining acceptable levels of power quality such as large step changes in voltage. Figure 7.6
shows the application of ramp rates to WPP output. In many grid codes, ramp rates both upward and downward are
limited, with an exception for downward regulation due to quickly decreasing wind speeds or for emergency shutdown
of the WPP. During startup it may not be possible for all turbines in a wind power plant to start simultaneously without
exceeding the ramp rate limit.
Figure 7-6 Ramp rate limitations for changing the

power set points
With higher penetrations of wind power, it is becoming increasingly important for wind power plants to participate in
frequency control, if required. The intermittency of the available wind resources causes the WPP outputs to vary
with time, adding to the variation of the generation – demand imbalance generally caused by varying loads. As more
wind power displaces conventional synchronous generation available for dispatch, WPPs are needed to play an
increasing and active role in managing the generation-load imbalance and in turn the system frequency.
Frequency control cannot be performed in the same way for wind power plants as can be done for synchronous
generation, since the available wind and hence the WPP power output is continually varying. However, reserves can
be created by curtailing the power output of WPPs below their maximum tracked output capability, at any given
instant of time.
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Curtailment reserves available capacity in a wind power plant for the purpose of being able to utilize the curtailed
capacity when reserve power is required. This reserve power can be used for either primary or secondary frequency
control. One common method for doing this is Delta control. By measuring the available power in the wind through
the speed of a wind turbine, the set point of the wind turbine can be controlled to constantly follow the power in the
wind, but leave a constant amount of power available for frequency control.
Figure 7-7 Available power output curtailment

using Delta Control for providing reserves
Curtailment can also be performed by wind power plants with fixed speed turbines, by starting and shutting down
turbines. However this is less desirable than continuous turbine control. Switching of turbines causes increased
stress on them, and disconnected wind turbines can no longer provide ancillary services. Figure 7.7 shows
curtailment of WPP output for enabling secondary frequency control.
Figure 7-8 Curtailment of WPP output for

Balance Control
In order to restore primary reserves in faster acting generators, balance is required to be maintained between load
and generation. Wind power plants can contribute to balance control with the proper economic incentives.
Balance control is usually performed within an area in a 5 to 15 minute time frame, by an entity responsible for
balance. This can be many individual entities responsible for different subsets of generation, or the DSO or TSO
sending a dispatch signal to the wind power plant through automatic generation control. Figure 7.8 shows curtailment
of WPP output for enabling primary frequency control.
Rescheduling the power output of many wind power plants simultaneously may pose technical challenges. The
control systems need to be coordinated in order to achieve smooth operation of the power system.
The power set point of a wind power plant can be reduced during faults to prevent over-speed.
7.2.2 Voltage Control

Increased wind power penetration into power systems is causing a number of issues in relation to voltage control
and maintaining voltage stability of the systems. While many of these issues are common to larger systems, some
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can be magnified on island power systems, such as the Irish system. The following discussion is based mainly on
the experiences from the Irish power system.
In the synchronous island power system of Ireland, one of the fundamental issues with increased wind power
penetration is the ability to control voltage. There are a number of aspects to this problem:
 Reduction in reactive power support capacity

 Reduced capability of the WPPs
 Automatic voltage regulation
 Ability to control voltages in weak areas
 Coordination of voltage control
Reduction in Reactive Power Support Capacity:
The Grid Code in Ireland requires conventional generation to have a lagging/leading power factor of 0.85/0.93
whereas wind power plants are only required to have 0.95/0.95 power factor. This effectively means that if a standard
450 MW conventional generator is replaced by an equivalent amount of wind generation, the reactive power available
to control system voltages has reduced from +279/-179 MVARs to +/-148 MVARs. Therefore as conventional
generation is displaced by wind power plants the reactive capability of the system is severely diminished.
This is further exacerbated by the fact that heavily loaded circuits exporting power from remote wind power plants
will tend to absorb more reactive power.
Reduced Reactive Power Capability of WPPs:
While the Grid Code requires wind power plants to have +/- 0.95 power factor, experience has shown that many
distribution wind plants are incapable of exporting reactive power to the transmission system. There are two key
reasons for this:
 Many distribution wind plants are connected by long, high resistance circuits. The active power export from
the wind plants flowing along these circuits has the effect of pushing up the sending end voltage at the wind
plant terminals. In order to keep the wind plant terminal voltages within limits, many distribution wind plants
have to absorb reactive power.
 In situations where distribution wind plants can export reactive power, much of this reactive power is actually
absorbed by the reactance of the plant (particularly transformers, between the wind plant and the
transmission system).
As a result, the majority of distribution connected wind power plants tend to absorb reactive power.
Automatic Voltage Regulation:
Conventional generation and transmission connected wind power plants use AVRs (Automatic Voltage Regulators)
to automatically control the system voltage by regulating their reactive power output in response to fluctuations in
voltage. While it is theoretically possible for distribution connection wind power plants to provide voltage regulation,
in practice this has been difficult to implement due to concerns about excessive voltage variations for demand
connections as the wind fluctuates.
Ability to control voltages in weak areas:
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Some remote areas of the Irish power system have traditionally had voltage control difficulties. Due to the weak
nature of these areas, the voltage fluctuations are very sensitive to the active and reactive power flows in the area.
Sudden changes, e.g. switching in a capacitor bank, can result in the area going from a low voltage profile to a high
voltage profile. The introduction of wind generation into these areas has to be carefully considered in order to ensure
that unacceptable voltage fluctuations are not introduced.
Coordination of Voltage Control:
Where wind power plants share a connection point or have other wind power plants in close proximity, care is required
over the voltage regulation settings of the wind power plant controllers. Issues have been observed where wind
power plants began hunting and developed unstable reactive power swings due to insufficient consideration of the
coordination of voltage control.
7.2.3 Frequency Control

In case of frequency deviations in the AC network, the wind power plant can provide frequency control in order to
stabilize the AC network frequency. It should also be able to withstand frequency deviations at the point of connection
under normal and abnormal operation conditions.
For the European network (ENTSO-E Draft Network Code for Requirements for Grid Connections Applicable to all
Generators), the Active Power - Frequency Response Capability of a WPP at the point of connection is shown in the
Figure 7-9 below.
∆ P/P NOM
s1
P1
s2 f DEADBAND
fMax f2
f2 fMin ∆ f/f NOM

s3
P2
s4
Figure 7-9 Active Power Frequency Response Capability of WPP at Point of Connection
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Where:
P Change in P due to the step change in frequency (MW)
f Frequency change in the AC network(s) at the point of connection (Hz)
PNOM Nominal Active Power Capacity (MW) of the WPP
fNOM Nominal frequency (Hz)
fDEADBAND = [fMin, fMax] Frequency Response Dead-band (mHz) (usually set in zero mHz)
s1, s2, s3, s4 Droop upward/downward regulation (%)
f1 Under-frequency threshold (Hz)
f2 Over-frequency threshold (Hz)
Regarding the Active Power Frequency Response capability, the wind power plant has to provide the active power
output P up to the point P1 in accordance with the times t1 and t2, as can be noticed from Figure 7.10
Figure 7-10 Active Power Frequency Response Capability of Wind Plant
Where:
t1: Maximum admissible initial delay (seconds)
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t2: Time for full activation resulting from frequency step change (seconds)
7.2.4 Voltage and Frequency Ride-through

Voltage and frequency ride-through are related to the wind power plant performance to withstand specified voltage
and frequency changes in the network to which the plant is connected. In most cases these levels which need to be
followed are determined by the relevant network operator and specified in the connection agreement. Here the
requirements for voltage and frequency limits, rate of change of frequency and fault-ride-through are considered. As
these are usually system specific requirements, attention has to be paid to whether or not the wind power plant has
the performance to fulfill the requirements, and if not, additional measures need to be taken to guarantee the
performance.
Voltage and frequency limits are usually defined at the connection point. They consist of ranges and durations where
the wind power plant shall be capable of staying connected to the power system and continue operation without
disconnection from the network. For example, in the Continental Europe 400kV network, the wind power plant shall
stay connected to the network when the voltage varies between 0.85-1.10 pu and frequency varies between 47.5-
51.5 Hz. Inside these ranges, separate unlimited time and limited time regions are defined.
In addition to voltage and frequency ranges, additional requirement for rate of change of frequency may exist. This
system protection related functionality is usually defined by the relevant network operator and therefore the wind
power plant performance should be coordinated accordingly.
Low voltage ride-through or fault-ride-through is defined as the performance of the wind power plant to be able to
continue operation after significant drop of voltage at the connection point. In Figure 7-11 and Table 7-2, an example
of requirements for fault-ride-through performance is presented. The diagram represents the lower limit of a voltage-
vs-time profile of the voltage at the connection point, expressed by the ratio of its actual value to its nominal value in
per unit before, during and after a fault. Uret is the retained voltage at the connection point during a fault, tclear is the
instant when the fault has been cleared. Urec1, Urec2, trec1, trec2 and trec3 specify certain points of lower limits of voltage
recovery after fault clearance.
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Figure 7-11 Voltage Ride-through Profile
Voltage parameters [pu] Time parameters [seconds]
Uret: 0 tclear: 0.14 – 0.25
Uclear: ≥ Uret trec1: ≥ tclear
Urec1: ≥ Uclear trec2: ≥ trec1
Urec2: 0.85 trec3: 1.5 – 3.0
Table 7-2 Parameters for Figure 7-11 Voltage Ride-through Capability of Power Plant
7.2.5 Energy Storage
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Energy storage resources include a broad range of different technologies, including but not limited to hydro pumped
storage, fly wheels, compressed air energy storage, and battery storage.
Batteries, as one of the energy storage resources, can provide fast and precise control through power electronic
devices. The main application for battery storage is to provide frequency support to minimize the system power
imbalance.
ERCOT conducted a pilot project to test a “Fast Responding Regulation Service (FRRS)”—a form of regulation
service requiring full response within 60 cycles of a substantial deviation in system frequency or receipt of an ERCOT
deployment signal. ERCOT’s pilot project ran from February 25, 2013 to February 28, 2014. During the pilot, a key
resource that was qualified and provided FRRS was battery in West Texas of nominal capacity of 36 MW. The
battery was qualified through testing, to provide up to 32 MW of FRRS-Up, and to provide up to 30 MW of FRRS-
Down.
ERCOT observed that FRRS can improve ERCOT’s ability to arrest frequency decay during unit trips. In real-time,
piloted FRRS resources independently detected the system frequency and demonstrated their capability to slow
sudden frequency decays triggered by loss of generation. As an example, Figure 7-12 shows the response of a
piloted FRRS resource to an actual event on May 22, 2013. This response was typical of the FRRS resources for
approximately 80 unit-trip events taken place during the course of the pilot.
KW Frequency
32500 60
30000 59.98
27500 59.96
25000 59.94
22500 59.92
20000 59.9
17500 59.88
15000 59.86
KW Frequency
12500 59.84
10000 59.82
7500 59.8
5000 59.78
2500 59.76
0 59.74
21:11:02
21:11:05
21:11:07
21:11:10
21:11:12
21:11:15
21:11:17
21:11:20
21:11:23
21:11:25
21:11:28
21:11:30
21:11:33
21:11:35
21:11:38
21:11:41
21:11:43
21:11:46
21:11:48
21:11:51
21:11:53
21:11:56
21:11:59
21:12:01
21:12:04
21:12:06
21:12:09
21:12:11
21:12:14
21:12:17
21:12:19
21:12:22
21:12:24
21:12:27
21:12:29
21:12:32
21:12:35
21:12:37
21:13:01
21:13:04
21:13:06
21:13:09
‐2500 59.72
‐5000 59.7
Figure 7-12 Typical Response of a Pilot Resource to a System Frequency Event
ERCOT’s analysis of the rate of change of frequency (RoCoF) indicates that if a portion of the resources providing
regulation are fast-responding, there is less residual frequency deviation that requires response from conventional
resources.
The Figure 7-13 below shows an actual FRRS deployment signal from ERCOT, the response of the FRRS resources,
the variation of system frequency.
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RoCoF ~30 sec RoCoF ~30 sec after

before FRRS FRRS Resource
Figure 7-13 Fast Responding Regulation Service (FRRS) Deployment Event
The RoCoF, 30 seconds prior to the FRRS deployment signal, and 30 seconds after FRRS resources responded
(accounting for 10 second delay) was averaged for each deployment by month from January 2013 (one month before
the pilot deployments began) to February 2014. Between February 25, 2013 and February 28, 2014, inclusive, there
were more than 43,000 FRRS Deployments, and pilot resources responded with an average of approximately 12.5
MW per deployment. ERCOT has calculated that the average decrease in the RoCoF is 7 mHz for each 30 seconds
after the FRRS response. ERCOT has determined that FRRS can provide an ascertainable operational benefit to
the ERCOT system by reducing the rate of change of frequency as well as the rate of change of regulation
deployment.
Although battery resources can provide effective support for frequency response, the connection of batteries to the
grid will face similar challenges if they are to be connected to weak grids with low SCRs as discussed previously.
7.2.6 Appropriate Software Tools and Models

RMS simulation programs can be used to check load flow constraints and to screen the potential voltage stability
issues through steady state analysis (i.e. P-V and Q-V curves) or quasi steady state analysis representing slow
control responses such as transformer tap operation. Transient stability issues, whether they stem from inability to
adequately control the grid voltages using fast acting control devices, inability maintain synchronism with the
connected networks, or controller interaction and performance degradations under adverse operating conditions,
need to be studied using suitable modelling and simulation tools. The transient stability models and simulation tools
need to be judiciously selected so that the intended phenomena can be adequately represented and studied.
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While transients stability of the WPPs with high SCRs (e.g. above 4) can be studied using RMS models and simulation
tools, the stability issues associated with connection of WPPs with low SCRs are likely to require detail modelling
and assessment using an EMT simulation tool.
7.3 Performance Improvement Technology Selection

This section summarizes the avenues through which the issues associated with the connection of WPPs to weak
grids can be mitigated.
7.3.1 Transmission System Reinforcement

There are many ways to increase the SCR at the point of a wind power plant connection through transmission system
reinforcement. Some of which are:
1) Reconductoring of existing lines

2) Provision of additional transmission lines
3) Increase in the transmission line voltage
4) Provision of additional or larger transformers
5) Addition of conventional generation
6) Connection of synchronous compensators
There isn’t a single option that would not require significant capital investment; some options will incur increased
operational costs in addition to the capital investment.
In some situations, system reinforcements may be necessary, irrespective of the stability considerations, to increase
the transmission capacity to accommodate new WPP connections. In this case, the required SCR level could be
considered as a design factor and the augmentation options considered should account for the cost of providing the
required level of SCR.
7.3.2 Energy Storage

The energy storage forms which ultimately use conventional synchronous machines for converting the stored energy
to electricity (e.g. hydro pumped storage and compressed air storage) are beneficial because they improve the
frequency performance of the power system and the voltage controllability at and near their points of connections.
Battery storage plants can provide fast and precise control of its active and reactive power output through the power
electronic converter. While the voltage controllability of the battery storage plant may be beneficial in improving the
performance of the WPPs connected to weak networks, they will suffer from stability issues similar to WPPs when
connected to weak AC systems and delivering power to network. Therefore, connection and performance of battery
storage plants needs to be carefully coordinated with the nearby WPPs to ensure adequate performance under weak
grid conditions.
On the other hand, for battery storage plants when connected to stronger parts of the network, their fast response to
inject and withdraw energy can provide effective frequency support under operating conditions with low inertia.
Figure 7-14 below shows a simulation of a 65 MW battery resource injecting full capability within 1 second in response
to a low frequency event in ERCOT.
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When there is significant penetration of battery storage in a system, compared to the dispatched synchronous
generation, fast charging or discharging of the batteries can potentially result in adverse impacts on the system
frequency under low inertia conditions. Therefore, the charge and discharge rate for the energy storage resources
may need to be limited if a large quantity of energy storage is implemented in a weak grid with very low inertia.
With proper coordination and control, battery storage may also able to stabilize the nearby WPPs, under
contingencies where the transmission system becomes weaker, by locally storing the generated power and thereby
fast reducing the power that will be transmitted through the weak AC transmission system.
Figure 7-14 Impact of 65 MW Battery Response to a Low Frequency Event.
7.3.3 Synchronous Compensation

Issues associated with increasing renewable penetration levels, such as very low short circuit ratio, lack of system
inertia or below minimum levels of dynamic reactive plant capabilities, may be successfully dealt with by using
synchronous condensers. Many Transmission System Operators and Markets Operators are considering
reintroducing synchronous condensers as part of the system planning process (see some examples in [2], [4], [5]).
Some of the advantages of synchronous condensers are:
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 Improved power quality - by contributing to reduce voltage unbalances, harmonic resonances and voltage
sags & swells
 Capability for both generating and absorbing reactive power
 Contribution to system short-circuit capacity (“grid strengthening”) which helps performance of the protection
relays and WPPs,
 Improved fault ride-through of the WPPs.
 High overload capacity, both for shorter or longer periods of time. This capacity may be largely customized
and is around 100% for short-term periods of 10-15 sec [6]. Provision of system inertia and instantaneous
inertia-power contribution to reduce the impact of power unbalances (e.g. switching on and off of loads) on
system frequency
 Improve ability to damp voltage oscillations when recovering after transmission faults (See Figure 7-15)
Voltage response associated with 5 GW wind penetration, with/without SCs
Figure 7-15: SC performance on alleviating voltage oscillations caused by large scale penetration of WGRs
into a weak grid after a three-phase short circuit fault, cleared after 0.1 s (ERCOT CREZ Case study, [5])
The contribution of synchronous condensers to ensure low-voltage ride through of the wind power plant, to prevent
voltage collapse near the point of common coupling of the wind power plant, and to improve damping of voltage
oscillations after a fault while guaranteeing compliance with the voltage limits stated by grid codes, is analyzed in [3]
and [5].
The advantages of synchronous condensers are receiving a renewed attention because of the potential retirement
of many coal power plants due to higher environmental impact and higher marginal costs compared to different forms
of renewable power generation. In order to maintain system inertia and power system fault levels, different options
are being considered, including [2]:
 Installing new dedicated and purpose-built synchronous condensers.

 Using retired generating units to operate as synchronous condensers.
 Providing incentives to operate existing generating units as synchronous condensers when required
All of the above options would require changes in regulatory frame woks, including identification of the value of
different ancillary services, such as inertial contributions, fault level contribution and fast control of reactive output,
and determining the appropriate market mechanisms for their development and procurement. In addition to the issues
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concerning market operation, there are also some technical issues concerning the retrofit of existing generating units
to work in synchronous condenser mode:
 New control modes and associated equipment, including excitation and protection systems, lubrication and
cooling systems, need to be considered.
 Starting systems may be required as most synchronous generators are not “self-starting” machines.
 Reliability and life extension of aged machines and plant (e.g. bearings, pumps, insulation) must be
considered.
 Existing connection configurations and ratings may not be optimal for new requirements, and existing
locations may not be optimal based on transmission system needs.
7.3.4 Shunt FACTS Devices

The shunt FACTS devices commonly used for improving the performance of WPPs include Static Var Compensators
(SVCs) and Static Synchronous Compensators (STATCOMs).
Both these devices, similarly to synchronous compensators, enhance the control of the voltage at the point of
connection through provision of reactive power support (generating and absorbing). However, unlike the synchronous
compensators they do not contribute to system inertia and their contributions to the fault currents are very small.
Although they also respond faster than synchronous compensators for system voltage variations, their capability, in
particular the capability of SVCs, diminishes at low voltages.
Type 3 and type 4 wind power plants contain full or partial converters and therefore have built-in VAR support
capability. However, this capability may not be adequate for enhancing the performance of the WPPs connected to
the weak AC networks, in particular during system transients.
Traditional Var management by capacitor banks may have a disadvantage that their switching is associated with
voltage step changes. The capacitor banks are required to be switched frequently, with the varying levels of WPP
power output, to meet performance as required by the grid codes. Employing dynamic Var devices, alone or in
combination with switched capacitor banks, reduces the frequency of switching the capacitor banks and provides for
smooth control of the voltage.
The fast voltage control response ability of SVCs and STATCOMs improves the performance of the WPPs by
enhancing their stability, in particular when connected to weak AC systems, and the fault ride through capability. The
shunt reactive power plant connected with the WPPs (both FACTS devices and synchronous compensators) can
also provide reactive power ancillary services to the AC network, regardless of the operating status of the wind power
plant.
While the benefits provided by SVCs and STATCOMs for improving the performance of the WPPs are similar,
STATCOMs have the following advantages over SVCs:
• As the STATCOM appears to the network as a voltage source, it is capable of injecting current into a fault
in the network.
• Because of the larger reactive power support capability at low AC voltage, when compared with a SVC, a
STATCOM with a lower rating is typically able to provide at least equivalent performance to that of a SVC.
In recent years an increasing number of STATCOMs have been used in conjunction with wind plants.
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7.3.5 Series FACTS Devices

Series compensators control the overall effective series transmission impedance and hence improve controllability
of power transfer through the transmission system, and the stability of the transmission system, including providing
increased damping to small signal oscillations.
Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC)
Series capacitors can be inserted in long transmission lines in order to decrease their series impedance, enabling
higher power transfers. However when the level of compensation increases above 40%, a risk of sub-synchronous
resonance may arise within the network, impacting on the nearby thermal power plants. The adverse effect of such
a resonance can be avoided by making part of the series compensation controllable. This is achieved by bypassing
part of the series capacitor with a thyristor controlled reactor, the reactor being controlled to modulate the level of
series compensation in real time, allowing control of the power flow in the transmission lines and damping of
oscillations. This equipment is referred to as a TCSC.
TCSCs could be used to enhance the stability performance of WPPs where the grid connections are made through
long transmission lines.
Operation of TCSC could also impact on the performance of the converters in type 3 and type 4 WPPs. The fast
converter control in WPPs has the potential to interact with the TCSC controllers, leading to instability of the
controllers, and hence need to be studied, tuned and coordinated carefully.
Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC)
The SSSC uses a voltage-source converter to create an AC voltage that is inserted in series with a transmission line,
in order to control the power flow on the line. The SSSC provides a larger level of flexibility in controlling power flow,
compared to TCSC, and can be used to improve the stability of the transmission system.
While the concept and feasibility of using SSSC for improving the stability performance of power systems have been
proven in a number of pilot schemes, wide use of SSSCs for improving the performance of WPP connections has
not seen to date.
7.4 Planning Study Summary

At the risk of oversimplification, a flow chart depicting the thought process in evaluating the concerns for the
application of a wind power plant in a weak grid is shown in Figure 7-16.
The flow chart is meant to serve as a guide to the major steps in the process, and not as a detailed algorithm. The
flow chart is specific for wind plants not connected close to HVDC or other power electronic equipment. It should be
used in conjunction with the detailed considerations contained throughout this guide. The specific SCR quantities
above which WPP developers need not be concerned, and below which they must be concerned, are unfortunately
not unique numbers, but rather indicators only. In a realistic situation, they are more likely a range of values.
Different manufacturers will want to examine a given situation in more detail at different values of the SCRs. The
purpose of calling attention to the SCR values is to point out the need for a dialog among the manufacturer, system
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operator, and WPP developer. Too often this step is ignored or taken late in the process when solutions to issues
may be more expensive. In this respect, the purpose of the flow chart is not to replace existing processes, but rather
to encourage increased communication among the parties during the project design and implementation process.
The following considerations are recommended in support of the thought process outlined in Fig. 7-16 when
undertaking power system studies for planning and connection assessment of WPPs:
 For weak WPP applications

o Comparison of RMS-type dynamic models against the detailed EMT-type models and
confirmation of the models through field measurements is advantageous.
o Detailed RMS-type models are recommended as opposed to generic models
synchronous condensers, is less likely.
 For very weak WPP applications

o Verification of RMS-type models against the detailed EMT-type models is necessary before
carrying out any detailed connection assessment studies.
o In the event that an acceptable correlation does not exist between the RMS-type and EMT-
type models, either RMS-type models need to be revised, or EMT-type models need to be
used for the connection assessment studies.
synchronous condensers, may be necessary.
o Any simulation models used for the studies must capture these application specific changes
rather than using an off-the-shelf standard simulation model.
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Figure 7-16 Dynamic Planning Study Flowchart
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7.5 References
[1] TB 523, System Complexity and Dynamic Performance. (2013). CIGRÉ, Working Group C1.13.
[2] Report: Integrating Renewable Energy –Wind integration studies report for the national Electricity Market
(NEM), 2013. AEMO, Australian Energy Market Operator.
[3] TB 450, Grid integration of Wind Generation, 2011. CIGRÉ, Working Group C6.08.
[4] Panhandle Renewable Energy Zone (PREZ) Study Report, 2014. ERCOT System Planning Dept.
[5] Cheng, Fan et al, Large Scale Grid Integration of Renewable Technologies on Power System Networks:
Challenges & Solutions. 12th Wind Integration Workshop, October, 2013. London, UK.
[6] Ranlöf, Tellier et al, Operating Experiences with Synchronous Condensers Installed in the Hydro-Québec
Transmission System. Power-Gen International, 2013. Orlando, Florida.
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8 CONCLUSIONS
The working group has assimilated a large amount of experience and knowledge in relation to the connection of
WPPs to weak AC networks.
It has identified the issues encountered in connecting WPPs to weak AC grids through the practical experiences of
its members and considered the potential issues that may be exacerbated with an increased the level of WPPs
penetration in the power systems. Solutions were developed with the intention of mitigating the cause of the issues.
The issues associated with connecting WPPs into weak power systems stem from two fundamental causes:
(a) The inability of the power system to stably transfer the generated power under different operating
conditions (with system normal and under contingencies)
(b) The inability of the WPPs to stably generate power, in particular after system disturbances, by not correctly
following the system conditions and working in unison with the transmission system
These causes are related and influenced by one on the other. They impact on the performance of the WPPs almost
always as a combination and in particular addressing (a) would often improve the issues caused by (b).
While most of the issues due to (a) are common for any form of generation connected to a weak transmission system,
irrespective of if they are synchronous machines or WPPs, the issues with connection of WPPs are exacerbated due
to the inability of WPPs to contribute to system inertia, limited capability in providing reactive power support and
hence voltage control, and small contribution to network fault currents. Commonly encountered issues belonging to
this category include voltage stability and voltage recovery of the transmission system following faults, network’s
voltage regulation and control, transient stability in relation to transferring the generated power while maintaining the
synchronism with the grid, following network contingencies. The solutions often involve appropriate level of capital
investments for improving the grid performance, such as an increased level of static and dynamic reactive power
support, transmission system compensation, or augmentation of the transmission capacity resulting in an increase
in system strength.
The working group, has given significant attention to understanding and assessing the issues due to (b), and has
focused its work on Type 3 and Type 4 WPPs. The assessment has highlighted the need for improving the ability of
the WPP converter controllers to follow and respond to system changes, in particular the system frequency and
phase angle changes as seen by the controllers. In this respect, a number of preliminary investigations carried out
by the working group indicate promising solutions and opportunities for the WPP manufacturers to improve plant
performance. Simulation studies confirmed that with appropriate design, tuning and coordination of WPP converter
controllers, it may be possible to stably operate WPPs connected to weak AC systems with SCR levels as low as
1.15.
The working group has also demonstrated, through simplified simulation studies, the influence of grid level support
on the improved performance of the WPP convertors. The studies also analysed the interaction of multiple WPPs
connecting to a weak AC network, the interactions, and solutions for improving the performance of weak AC network
connected WPPs operation in parallel with an HVDC link, and the performance of a weak AC system with WPPs
connected to another region via a HVDC link.
The “weakness” of an AC network connection is a relative measure which needs to be considered in relation to the
intended capacity of the WPP to be connected. In this regard, the working group has considered and compared the
use of a number of “indices” to represent the weakness of an AC system, including X/R ratio, short circuit ratio (SCR)
and a number of its variations. As a measure of the stiffness of the whole power system, the system inertia and rate
of change of frequency (RoCoF) have been considered.
The working group has also concluded that the fidelity of modelling and method of simulation WPPs for assessing
their performance in connecting to weak AC grids need to be considered carefully, giving attention to the potential
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phenomenon to be represented and assessed. As the connecting AC system becomes weaker, as represented by
low SCRs (i.e. SCR < 3), the inability of the WPP converters to stably operate following system disturbances becomes
a critical aspect of the analysis, and therefore need to be modelled in detail and simulated using a suitable EMT
simulation tool. On the other hand for WPPs connecting to stronger AC networks (i.e. SCR > 5), the stability of the
converter operation is unlikely to be an issue, but the performance of the WPP connection is likely to be limited by
the performance of the AC network. Therefore, an RMS representation and simulation of the network including the
dynamic plant connected to the network (e.g. VSC), would be sufficient for assessment of their performance. The
modelling and performance simulation of WPPs connecting to networks for SCRs in the range of 3 to 5 should be
carried out using appropriate level of detail modelling and suitable simulations tools, selected in consultation of the
WPP manufacturer.
Finally, the assessment and conclusions of the working group contribute to clarifying the understanding of the issues
associated with connecting WPPs to weak AC systems and outlining the possible solutions for mitigating the issues
which may arise.
The recommendations in this brochure are based on the grid integration of wind farms, but many of the ideas
presented here can also be applied to other types of generation connected via power electronics, such as photovoltaic
generation. However, some differences can be expected when the interaction of a very large number of such devices
are considered, for example roof top solar panels. This aspect has not been addressed by the present working group
but is recommended as a topic for a new working group.
Page 147
9 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Electric power system planning with the uncertainty of wind generation, Working Group C1.3 April 2006, Cigre
Technical Brochure 293, 293 C1.3.pdf
Modelling and dynamic behaviour of wind generation as it relates to power system control and dynamic
performance, Working Group C4.601 August 2007, Cigre Technical Brochure 328, 328 C4.601.pdf
Integration of large scale wind generation using HVDC and power electronics, Working Group B4.39 February
2009, Cigre Technical Brochure 370, 370 - WGB4.39.pdf
Integration of large scale wind generation using HVDC and Power Electronics, Working Group B4.39 February
2009, Summary paper published in Electra, No 242, Feb 2009, pp 39 -45. ELT_242_6 - WGB4.39.pdf
Grid Integration of wind generation, Working Group C6.08 February 2011, Cigre Technical Brochure 450, 450-
C6.08.pdf
Coping with Limits for Very High Penetrations of Renewable Energy Joint Working Group C1/C2/C6.18 of Study
Committee C6 August 2012 (Note: this is a draft brochure, work in progress)
Loss of (Angle) Stability of Wind Power Plants - The Underestimated Phenomenon In Case of Very Low Short
Circuit Ratio, Volker Diedrichs, Alfred Beekmann and Stephan Adloff, 10th International Workshop on Large-Scale
Integration of Wind Power into Power Systems, 2011
Control of Wind Power Plants Utilizing Voltage Source Converter in High Impedance Grids, Volker Diedrichs, Alfred
Beekmann, Kai Busker, Swantje Nikolai, Stephan Adloff, IEEE Power and Energy Society General Meeting, 2012
Operation of Wind Power Plants in High Impedance Grids 2012
Loss of Stability Margin Assessment during Wind Power Plants Operation in High Impedance Grids (2012?)
Large Scale Grid Integration of Renewable Technologies on Power System Networks, Mehriar Tabrize, Yunzhi
Cheng, Mandhir Sahni, Zheng Fan, Tobias Gehlhaar
Research on Dynamic Var Compensate Strategy of Wind Farm with STATCOM, Chi Yongning, Li Yan, Sun Wei,
Liu Chao, Wei Linjun, IEEE, 2011
Integrating Large Wind Farms into Weak Power Grids with Long Transmission Lines, Juan Sanchez-Gasca,
Ziaoming Yuan, Renchang Dai, James Lyons, IEEE/PES Transmission and Distribution Conference & Exhubition:
Asia and Pacific, 2005
HVDC Multi-Infeed Performance, Göran Andersson, Paulo Foscher de Toldeo and Göta Liss
Analysis of Voltage and Power Interactions in Multi-Infeed HVDC Systems, Denis Lee, Hau Aik and Göran
Andersson, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol 28, No 2, 2013.
Panhandle Renewable Energy Zone Study Report, ERCOT System Planning, 2014
Review of the design and performance features of HVDC systems connected to low short circuit ratio AC systems,
R.S. Thallam, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol 7, no 4, 1992
Systems with multiple DC infeed, WG. B4.41, Cigré Technical Brochure 364, 2008.
Analysis of Voltage and Power Interactions in Multi-Infeed HVDC Systems, D. L. H. Aik och G. Andersson, IEEE
Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 28, pp. 816-824, April 2013.
Page 148
HVDC Multi-infeed performance, G. Andersson, P. F. d. Toledo och G. Liss, [Online]. Available:

http://www08.abb.com/global/scot/scot221.nsf/veritydisplay/59df8a3bd0f6599cc1256fda004aead4/$file/multiinf.pdf.
[downloaded on 20 March 2015].
Loss of (Angle) Stability of Wind Power Plants - The Underestimated Phenomenon In Case of Very Low Short
Circuit Ratio, A. B. Volker Diedrichs och S. Adloff, 10th International Workshop on Large-Scale Integration of Wind
Power into Power S, 2011.
Control of Wind Power Plants Utilizing Voltage Source Converter in High Impedance Grids, V. Diedrichs, IEEE
Power & Energy Society General Meeting, San Diego, July 2012.
Integrating Large Wind Farms into Weak Power Grids with Long Transmission Lines, J. Sanchez-Gasca, Z. Yuan,
R. Dai, J. Lyons, IEEE/PES Transmission and Distribution Conference & Exhubition: Asia and Pacific, 2005.
Operation of Wind Power Plants in High Impedance Grids, V. Diedrichs och K. B. S. N. Alfred Beekmann, 11th
International Workshop on Large-Scale Integration of Wind Power into Power Systems as well as on Transmission
Networks for Offshore Wind Farms, Lisbon, 2012.
Panhandle Renewable Energy Zone Study Report, ERCOT System Planning, 2014.
Impact of Interactions among Power System Controls, TF1 of AG0 of SC 38, Cigré, 2000.
On Voltage and Power Stability in AC/DC Systems, WG 14.05, Cigré, 2003.
Guide for planning DC links terminating at AC system locations having short-circuit capacities Part I: AC/DC
Interaction Phenomena, WG 14.07, and Cigre.
Guide for planning DC links terminating at AC system locations having short-circuit capacities Part II: Planning
Guidelines, WG 14.07, Cigre, 1997.
Coordination of controls of multiple FACTS/HVDC links in the same system, WG 14.28, Cigre, 1999.
System Complexity and Dynamic Performance, WG C1.13, Cigre, 2013.
Coping with limits for very high penetrations of renewable energy, JWG of SC C6, Draft, Cigre February 2011.
HVDC connection of offshore wind power plants has started, WG B4.55, Cigre 2015
Page 149
APPENDIX A: GENERIC WIND TURBINE MODELS
Introduction
Generic wind turbine models have been used to perform the various simulations reported in this brochure. Although
they may lack the detail controls in a manufacturer specific model, generic models are developed to mimic the
behavior of the turbine during steady-state and during transients. Therefore, they represent the important
components in a wind turbine in a simplified form. The following sections describe the main components in a generic
wind turbine model.
Aero-dynamic Model
The power extracted from wind by a wind turbine is given by,
0.5 , (1)
where, ρ is the air density [kg/m3]; R is the turbine blade length [m]; Cp is the performance coefficient; and vw is the
wind velocity [m/s]. The performance coefficient is a function of tip speed ratio (TSR), λ, and pitch angle, β. The
maximum theoretical value of the performance coefficient is 59:3%. This value is known as the Betz limit. However,
commercial wind turbines typically have Cp in the range of 20 - 45% [1].
The tip speed ratio is defined as the ratio between the turbine blade tip speed and the wind speed. The relationship
between the performance coefficient, tip speed ratio and the pitch angle in real wind turbine is a complex relationship
which typically depends on the geometric configuration of the wind turbine blades and the aerofoils composing them.
However, various empirical formulae are given in the literature to represent this relationship. For example, in [2], the
generic equation
,
(2)
.
With
.
is used to represent the performance coefficient. The coefficients C1 to C6 are: C1= 0.5176, C2 = 116.0, C3 = 0.4,
C4 = 5.0, C5 = 21.0 and C6 = 0.0068. The performance coefficient calculated for different pitch angles using the
Equation (2) is shown in Figure A.1. As seen in the figure, each pitch angle has an optimum tip speed ratio where
the performance coefficient is maximum. The power extracted by the wind turbine is maximum when the performance
coefficient is at this optimum value. Therefore wind turbines are typically operated at the optimum tip speed ratio and
this operating mode is known as the optimum power tracking mode.
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Figure A.1 Cp-λ characteristics
In the optimum power tracking operation, the generator speed is varied as the wind speed changes to maintain the
optimum tip speed ratio.
Pitch controller Model
The purpose of the control is to make the electrical power follow the set-point value of the power demand. To achieve
this purpose, the pitch angle is changed at the command of the controller.
Figure A.2 CIGRE generic wind turbine pitch control model
The generic mechanical model in Figure A.2 is proposed by Cigre [2]. A non-windup proportional-integral (PI)
regulator is acting on the error between actual and reference mechanical power (for fixed speed turbines) or actual
and reference speed (for variable speed turbines). The actual power (speed) is as measured/derived from the turbine-
generator output. The reference power (speed) is defined by the higher level controls. In the case of variable speed
turbines, the reference speed is defined as a function of power output by the manufacturer. The additional signal
Pitch_comp is for pitch compensation used in some designs – in this generic model, Pitch_comp is ignored. The
typical values used in the pitch controller model are given in Table A.1.
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Table A.1: Typical Parameters for Cigre Generic Mechanical Controller Model
Parameter Name Description Typical Range
Kp
Proportional Gain 50 - 200
Ki
Integral Gain 10 - 50
r_max
Maximum rate of increase of pitch angle 5 – 10 degrees/sec
r_min
Maximum rate of decrease of pitch angle -5 – -10 degrees/sec
Tp
Actuator time constant 0.3 – 1 second
beta_max
Maximum pitch angle 20 – 30 degrees
beta_min
Minimum pitch angle 0 degrees
beta
Pitch angle Output of model
Generator Model
Type-3 wind turbines used wound rotor induction generators whereas the generator for a Type-4 wind turbine can
be either squirrel cage induction generator or a permeant magnet generator. In simulation, single, two or three mass
models are typically used to represent the drive train and the blade dynamics.
Power Electronic Converters
The selection of the type of power electronic (PE) converter used in a wind turbine will depend on many parameters
[3]. Some key considerations are presented in the following text.
DFIG require reactive power to be supplied to them from the grid. In both Type 3 and Type 4 wind generators, the
reactive power is delivered from the converter. Furthermore, in order to control the output of the DFIG it is necessary
to control both reactive and active flowing to the machine and to the grid. Because of these the reasons, converters
utilised in DFIG applications are four-quadrant converters with fully controlled switches.
PMSG in the full-rated power converter wind turbine do not require any reactive power. Furthermore, the active power
flows unidirectional from the PMSG to the grid through the converter. Thus, only a simple diode rectifier can be
applied to the generator side converter in order to obtain a cost-efficient solution. Semi controlled rectifier solutions
are also possible. In order to get variable speed operation and stable DC bus voltage, a boost DC-DC converter
could be inserted in the DC link or DC voltage can be controlled using rotor excitation in case of field excited
synchronous generator.
Two-Level Power Converter (2L-BTB) with pulse width modulation-voltage source converter with two level output
voltage (2L-PWM-VSC) is the most frequently used three-phase power converter topology so far in wind turbines
systems. This type of converter is suitable for use with synchronous machines and induction machines, including the
wound rotor type.
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As the interface between the generator and grid in the WTS, two 2L-PWM-VSCs are usually configured as a back-
to-back structure (2L-BTB) with a transformer on the grid side. A technical advantage of the 2L-BTB solution is the
relatively simple structure and few components, which contributes to a well-proven robust and reliable performance.
Multilevel Power Converter are used more and more as the power capacity of wind turbines climbs, and it becomes
more and more difficult for a traditional 2L-BTB solution to achieve acceptable performance with the available
switching devices. With the abilities of more output voltage levels, higher voltage amplitude and larger output power,
multilevel converter topologies are becoming interesting and popular candidates in the wind turbines application.
Multilevel converters can be classified into three categories: neutral-point diode clamped structure, flying capacitor
clamped structure, and cascaded converter cells structure. In order to get a cost-effective design, multilevel
converters are mainly used in the variable speed full-scale power converter wind turbines with the power range of
several MW.
Generally, the output quality requirements of the grid side are much stricter than those of the generator side. To
adapt this unsymmetrical requirement for wind power converters, a “compound” configuration employing lower
number of levels on the generator side and higher number of levels on the grid side can be adopted.
Power Electronic Converter Controllers
The converter controllers are required to generate the reference voltage waveform required to switch the converters.
Typically these controllers are operated in the d-q reference frame. Two cascaded PI controllers are used. The inner
loop controller regulates the d-axis and q-axis currents and generates the d-axis and q-axis reference voltages. The
outer loop generates the reference currents for the inner loop controller. One of the outer loop controllers is
proportional to the active power and the other is proportional to the reactive power. The reference signals for the
outer loops come from the slower WPP level (i.e. park level) supervisory controller.
Models used for the Simulations Performed
The Type-3 and Type-4 wind turbine models used to perform the simulations reported in this brochure were generic
wind turbine models provided by the Manitoba HVDC Research Centre. The following sections provide a brief
description about these models.
Type-3 Wind Turbine Model
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Figure A.3 Type 3 WTG model structure
Figure A.4 Type 3 WTG PSCAD model – Block Diagram
This example case uses a 5MW wind turbine. The user has the ability to scale the power generated by the wind
turbine to match the wind power plant rating. The following assumptions have been made to simplify the aero-dynamic
model:
Page 154
1. A constant performance coefficient is assumed. In this case 0.448 is used as the performance coefficient
regardless of the tip-speed ratio.
2. The pitch controller dynamics have been neglected.
3. A constant tip-speed ratio of 5.775 is assumed. The rotor radius of the wind turbine is assumed to be 63m.
Therefore, the relationship between the rotor speed (ωr) and the wind speed (vw) is given by,
10.909
(3)
The reference speed of the wind turbine generator is calculated from equation (3).
Rotor Side Converter Controllers
The d-axis of the Rotor side converter controller is selected to be along the stator flux vector. The q-axis is assumed
to be leading the d-axis. A simplified controller block diagram of the side converter controller is shown in Figure A.5.
Q Vdro
Idr,Ref
- Vqr,R
+- PI +- P Var,R
Vac,Ref
dq
Vac Idr
To Vbr,R
Iqr,Ref Vqr,R abc
ωRef
-+ PI +- P Vcr,R
ω Iqr
Figure A.5 Simplified controller block diagram of the Rotor side converter controller
Note that, only AC voltage control mode is modelled for simplicity.
Grid Side Converter Controllers
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The d-axis of the Grid side converter controller is selected to be along the terminal voltage vector. The q-axis is
assumed to be leading the d-axis. A simplified controller block diagram of the side converter controller is shown in
Figure A.6.
Idg,Ref
Vdc,Ref - PI +- Vqr,R
+- PI Vag,
dq
Vdc Idg
To Vbg,
abc
Iqg,Ref +- PI Vqg,
Vcg,
Iqg
Figure A.6 Simplified controller block diagram of the Grid side converter controller
Note that, the converter controller controls the q-axis current to zero.
Converters, Fault ride through and Protection
The switching of the power electronic switches have not been modelled in this generic model. The converters are
modelled with their average value model. When the converters are modelled with the details of the power electronic
switches, a smaller simulation time step (~10ms) is required. The average value model enables the usage of a larger
time step (~50ms) allowing a faster simulation.
Only a simple fault ride through capability is included in the model. The wind turbine is allowed to ride through a fault
until the terminal voltage drops to 0.4pu. If the voltage drops below 0.4pu, the rotor side converter current controllers
are reset and the rotor voltage is set to zero. However, the grid side converter is allowed to ride through the fault.
The model includes a simple crow-bar protection model.
Type-4 Wind Turbine Model
Figure A.7 Type-4 WTG model structure
Page 156
A permanent magnet synchronous machine based generator is considered. Pitch control and mechanical model are
considered. It does not have any special fault-ride through logic.
Figure A.8 Type 4 WTG PSCAD model – Block Diagram
The type-4 generic model used for the work presented in this brochure assumes a 5MVA permanent magnet
machine. A simplified pitch controller and a mechanical system model is included as shown in Figure A.9.
Figure A.9 Simplified pitch controller and Mechanical system dynamic model
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Converters
Both the machine side converter and the grid side converters are assumed to be two level voltage source converters.
The converters are modelled as detailed models with power electronic switches. A chopper is included to dissipate
the excess power in the event of a terminal fault.
Converter Controls
Both the machine side converter and the grid side converter use d-q axis control. Both converters assume the d-axis
to be along their terminal voltage vector. The q-axis is assumed to be leading the d-axis. The Machine side converter
controller d-axis outer loop controls the active power generated by the generator and the q-axis outer loop controls
the reactive power. The inner loop controls the d-axis and q-axis current.
The Grid side converter controller d-axis outer loop controls the DC voltage and the q-axis outer loop controls the AC
terminal voltage. The inner loop controls the d-axis and q-axis current.
The wind turbine is allowed to ride-through all AC faults without any special fault-ride through logic.
References
[1] O. Anaya-Lara, N. Jenkins, J. Ekanayake, P. Cartwright, and M. Hughes, Wind Energy Generation Modelling
and Control, Wiley, UK, 2009.
[2] WG C4.601, TB 328:"Modeling and Dynamic Behavior of Wind Generation as it Relates to Power System
Control and Dynamic Performance", Cigre, August 2007
[3] Frede Blaabjerg, Marco Liserre and Ke Ma: “Power Electronics Converters for Wind Turbine Systems”, IEEE
Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol. 48, No. 2, March/April 2012
APPENDIX B: CALCULATION OF VOLTAGE SENSITIVITY INDICES
B.1 Worked example

Short circuit studies have established a minimum fault level of 300 MVA at the POI, with X/R ratio equal to 5. It is
proposed to connect 100 MW of wind generation with a reactive power import and export capability at the generator
terminal equivalent to a minimum power factor of 0.95. Estimate the per-unit voltage rise or drop at the generator
terminals for operation at 100% and 50% of rated output, under maximum reactive power export and import conditions
in each case, and assuming 1.0 pu terminal voltage pre-connection. Also estimate the amount of generation in MW
at unity power factor likely to induce voltage collapse.
Short circuit ratio: SCR = 300 / 100 = 3
As the operating power factor is specified, it is convenient to calculate λ and μ using the formulae for |λ + jμ| and μ/λ.
However, care must be taken when inferring the sign of λ and μ when this method of calculation is used. When
operating at 0.95 power factor, tan 1⁄ 0.95 1 0.329 and
5 ∓ 0.329 1.766 for export

.
1 5 0.329 8.262 for import
For operation at 100% of rated output and maximum export:
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1
| | | | 1 1.766 2.029| |
3
and with P and Q both positive it is clear λ should have a positive sign. Hence
1
0.164, 1.766 0.164 0.290.
3 2.029
(As a check, one should verify the same values are obtained from the direct λ and μ formulae above with p = 0.95
and q = 0.329 x 0.95 = 0.313.)
The stated pre-connection condition implies that one may take 1 pu. The ‘linear rule’ approximation for the
terminal voltage gives in this case
1 1.164 pu
indicating a 16.4% voltage rise, while the more accurate ‘quadratic rule’ gives
1 1.122 pu
2
for a 12.2% voltage rise. Finally, the exact formula gives
1
1 2 0.164 1 4 0.164 0.290 1.238
2
or
1.113pu.
The most accurate estimate of voltage rise is accordingly 11.3%. The quadratic rule overestimates this by about 1%,
while the linear rule overestimates by more than 5%.
For operation at 100% of rated output and maximum import, the calculation is repeated with μ/λ = –8.262. In this
case, the fact that P is positive and Q is negative indicates μ is positive, so λ must take a negative sign. The values
obtained are
1
0.040, 8.262 0.040 0.331
3 1 8.262
and the approximate and exact values of V are given respectively as
1 0.960 pu
1 0.905 pu
2
1
1 2 0.040 1 4 0.040 0.331 0.777, 0.881 pu.
2
Again, the quadratic rule is clearly superior, overestimating V by a little over 2% in absolute terms compared with an
8% overestimation using the linear rule.
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When operating at 50% of rated output at the same power factor, the values of λ and μ scale uniformly by 50%. The
voltage calculations are worked in the same way as above, and the overall results can be summed up in Table B.1:
Table B.1 Calculations of steady-state voltage rise (fall) as function of the WPP output power and power
factor
Power output (%) 100 100 50 50
Power factor 0.95, export 0.95, import 0.95, export 0.95, import
λ 0.164 –0.040 0.082 –0.020
μ 0.290 0.331 0.145 0.166
Vapprox1 (p.u., linear rule) 1.164 0.960 1.082 0.980
Vapprox2 (p.u., quadratic rule) 1.122 0.905 1.071 0.966
Exact V (p.u.) 1.113 0.881 1.068 0.964
To estimate the power Pmax for voltage collapse at unity power factor, observe that with q = 0 one has
1 1 ⁄ 5
∙ 0.0654 , ∙ 0.3269 .
SCR 1 ⁄ 3√26 SCR 1 ⁄ 3√26
The condition for voltage collapse from above is
0 1 4 1 0.2616 0.4274 .
Solving this quadratic equation for p:
0.2616 0.2616 4 0.4274

1.866pu.
2 0.4274
This indicates that voltage collapse is likely at a hypothetical generator output of 186.6 MW at unity power factor –
less than twice the generator size proposed.
B.2 Relation to voltage angle displacement

Section 4.4 has focussed on the magnitude of the generator voltage V, the phase displacement or ‘power angle’ δ is
also an important indicator of voltage instability. The angle δ may be regarded either as the phase displacement
between the generator and the infinite bus, or as the phase angle shift at the generator terminal relative to the zero-
generation condition. While it plays an important role in rotor angle stability analysis with synchronous generators, it
is also relevant to quantifying voltage stability issues for generators of all types.
When the network is assumed lossless (R = 0), the generated power P and voltage angle δ are directly linked by the
well-known formula
sin .
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This formula is readily generalised to the network of Figure 6.19 with arbitrary R and X; this generalisation provides
formulae for both sin δ and cos δ in terms of the quantities λ and μ defined above.
The general formulae can be derived with the aid of Figure B.1, which expresses in the form of a phasor diagram the
basic circuit equation for the network model in section 6.4.3, Figure 6.19.
V
δ β
φ ZI
I θ
I
Figure B.1 Phasor diagram showing voltage angle relationships
The other angles that appear in Figure B.1 besides δ are the generator’s power factor angle arctan ⁄ , the
network impedance angle arctan ⁄ , and an auxiliary angle β which by inspection of the diagram satisfies the
following relation:
.
2
With the aid of Figure B.1 , the phasor addition may be resolved into components parallel to and perpendicular to the
generator voltage phasor V. Taking the perpendicular components yields the equation
sin cos sin .
Multiplying this through by V, expanding sin and making the substitutions
cos , sin , cos , sin ,
converts the above equation to
sin ,
or in terms of the voltage ratio ⁄ and the dimensionless quantity μ defined above,
sin .
Taking the parallel components in Figure B.1 yields the equation
cos sin ,
or when multiplied through by V, expanded and substituted as above,
cos .
These may be termed the sine and cosine formulae for the angle δ in terms of λ and μ, and the voltage ratio ρ. In
terms of the raw circuit quantities, they are
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sin , cos .
The first of these is the generalisation of the power-angle formula above. It shows that in a network with R > 0, the
quantity sin δ does not scale purely with P but must be adjusted by a term proportional to RQ. Nonetheless it still
reveals in an alternative form the intrinsic limit to generated power P imposed by the network, since its right hand
side cannot realistically remain below unity for arbitrary large values of P.
These equations for δ do not directly suggest a critical stability threshold for the allowable angle dispersion, but
additional guidance is provided if one takes as a ‘voltage stability margin’ the discriminant in the original voltage
equation:
Δ 1 4 .
There are ample desiderata for regarding this quantity ∆ as a stability margin: it is numerically equal to the difference
between the values of ρ2 on the positive and negative branches of the P–V curve, Figure 6.20; it becomes zero at
the point of voltage collapse; and conversely, it attains its maximum value 1 under the condition of no generation (P
= Q = 0).
The margin ∆ is related to the angle displacement δ through the substitutions cos and sin given
by the sine and cosine formulae. With these substitutions, the above expression becomes equivalent to
Δ 2ρ cos δ 1.
This simple formula provides a direct method of quantifying in a certain sense the degree of voltage stability at a
generator terminal, based purely on the observed voltage magnitude and angle change from zero to full generation.
(Observe that according to the model of Figure 6.19, the generator terminal voltage equals ∠0 at zero generation.)
A corollary of this formula is the relation
1
ρ cos δ
2
between the ‘critical’ values of voltage ratio ρ and angle shift δ at the point of voltage collapse. This provides a useful
criterion for the maximum angle shift on voltage stability grounds. For example, if voltage ratios in the system under
normal operation should be allowed to range down to 0.75 (essentially 0.9 pu divided by 1.1 pu, with an additional
5% safety margin) without danger of voltage collapse, this corresponds to requiring voltage phase displacements no
greater than
1
ρ arccos 48 .
2 0.75
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APPENDIX C: CASE STUDIES
C.1 ERCOT - Actual Operating Experience

The effect of weak system strength on the WPP voltage control performance can be best demonstrated with a recent
event in ERCOT [1]. An existing wind power plant (WPP) connected to a weak system in ERCOT experienced
undesirable poorly damped and un-damped voltage oscillations under weak grid conditions. A simplified network
topology of the WPP connected to the ERCOT region is shown in Figure C.1.1. The WPP was modelled as an
equivalent wind turbine to represent the total number of turbines within the WPP. To ensure the accuracy of the
WPP's response, the equivalent collector system of the wind generation resource was calculated based on the
methodology described in reference [2]. Under normal operating conditions, the WPP is connected to the ERCOT
grid through two 69kV transmission lines. One phasor measurement unit (PMU) is installed on a 69kV line (Bus 5-
Bus 7) to provide real time voltage and current data back to ERCOT with a resolution of 30 samples per second. The
SCR is approximately 4 in normal operation conditions. If one of the 69kV lines is out of service, the SCR is reduced
to 2 or less.
Figure C.1.1 - A simplified network topology of the WPP connected to the ERCOT region.
When one line was taken out of service, the WPP experienced poorly damped or un-damped voltage oscillations.
Figure C.1.2 shows the recorded WPP's voltage performance at the POI through Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs).
The investigation of the event revealed the key cause for the oscillatory response was the plant level voltage control
of the WPP was not suitable for a weak grid condition. The calculated SCR at POI after losing one line is less than
two. The event was simulated with the WPP represented with a detailed dynamic model to re-create the oscillatory
response; simulation results are presented in Figure C.1.3. The voltage oscillation is effectively damped when
modelling system strength improvements that increase the SCR as shown in the purple colour curve. Tuning the
voltage controller gains based on the lower SCR value also improved the oscillatory response as shown in the green
colour curve. This actual experience demonstrates potential operational challenges and resolutions for a WPP to
operate reliably under low SCR conditions.
Page 163
Figure C.1.2(a) Poor-damped voltage oscillation at mid-level output
Figure C.1.2(b) Un-damped voltage oscillation at high output
Page 164
Figure C.1.3 Voltage Response at WPP's Point of Interconnection
System Planning
Figure C.1.4 shows the ERCOT transmission topology. The approved CREZ projects, including Panhandle region,
were largely completed in 2013 [3][4]. As of 2013, there was over 11 GW of wind generation in service on the ERCOT
system. Texas Panhandle region is currently experiencing significantly more interest from wind generation
developers than what was initially planned for the area. As reviewed in April 2014, there was over 5 GW of wind
generation capacity with a signed interconnection agreement (SGIA) in the Texas Panhandle and more than 10 GW
wind generation capacity proposed to connect to the Texas Panhandle that was progressing through the
interconnection process.
The ERCOT Panhandle grid is remote from synchronous generators and requires long distance power transfer to
the load centres in ERCOT. All wind generation projects in the Panhandle are expected to be equipped with
advanced power electronic devices that will further weaken the system strength due to limited short circuit current
contributions. Dynamic response in the Panhandle will be dominated by power electronic devices (wind plants, SVC,
etc.) such that voltage control becomes very difficult because of the high voltage sensitivity of dV/dQ. In other words,
under weak grid conditions, a small variation of reactive support results in large voltage deviations. Stability
challenges and weak system strength are expected to be significant constraints for Panhandle export.
Figure C.1.4. ERCOT Transmission Topology
Key Observations and Findings
 Panhandle Weak Grid Characteristics
The Panhandle grid is remote from synchronous generators and load centres and is considered a weak grid
when integrating a large amount of wind generation. Several system characteristics and challenges that can
occur in a weak grid are:
o In a highly compensated weak grid, voltage collapse can occur within the normal operating voltage
range (0.95 to 1.05 pu) masking voltage stability risks in real time operations. Static capacitor and
static var compensators contribute to this effect and have limited effectiveness for further increasing
transfer capability.
Page 165
o A grid with low short circuit ratios and high voltage sensitivity of dV/dQ requires special coordination
of various complex control systems. Typical voltage control settings can result in aggressive voltage
support in a weak system and lead to un-damped oscillations, overvoltage cascading or voltage
collapse.
o Wind projects connected to the Panhandle region are effectively connected to a common point of
interconnection (POI) such that each wind plant may interact with other Panhandle wind plants.
Weighted Short Circuit Ratio (WSCR)
There is currently no industry-standard approach to calculate the proper short circuit ratio (SCR) index for a weak
system with a high penetration of wind power plants. To take into account the effect of interactions between wind
plants and give a better estimate of the system strength, a more appropriate quantity is the weighted short circuit
ratio (WSCR), defined by:
Weighted S SCMVA
WSCR  N
P i
RMWi
N N
( S SCMVAi * PRMWi ) / P RMWi
 i
N
i
P i
RMWi
S SCMVAi * PRMWi
 i
N
( P RMWi )
2
i (C.1.1)
Where SSCMVAi is the short circuit capacity at bus i before the connection of wind plant i and PRMWi is the MW rating
of wind plant i to be connected. N is the number of wind plants fully interacting with each other and i is the wind plant
index.
The proposed WSCR calculation method is based on the assumption of full interactions between wind plants. This
is equivalent to assuming all wind plants are connected to a single virtual Point of Interconnection (POI). For a real
power system, there is usually some electrical distance between each wind plant's POI and the wind plants will not
fully interact with each other. The WSCR obtained with this method gives a conservative estimate of the system
strength and is considered as a proper index to represent the system strength for the Panhandle region.
 Voltage Ride Through Capability
Based on the wind plant design information available at this time, it appears that some projects have less high
voltage ride through (HVRT) capability compared to others. Actuation of wind plant overvoltage relays was
observed in various simulation results and can potentially lead to overvoltage cascading as shown in Figure
C.1.5 [2].
Page 166
Figure C.1.5 Cascading High Voltage Collapse in the Panhandle
Post-disturbance overvoltage is more likely to occur under weak grid conditions. Overvoltage tripping can be
minimized through a combination of system strength enhancements and better HVRT capability of wind
generation projects. The collapse caused by overvoltage cascading presents a significant reliability risk and
suggests a need for wind generation projects to comply with the HVRT requirement shown in Figure C.1.6,
which is adopted by ERCOT since April, 2014[3].
Figure C.1.6 Proposed Voltage Ride Through Capability for Wind Generation Resources
 System Strength Enhancement
An appropriately conservative system strength calculation, WSCR, was used to characterize Panhandle system
strength. A WSCR of 1.5 was proposed as the minimum system strength need for the Panhandle. The need
for system strength enhancement should be determined based on wind generation output instead of wind
generation capacity when there is a constraint to limit wind plant output in real time operations.
Page 167
Several technologies were tested to examine their impact on the system strength and a summary is listed in
Table C.1.1.
Table C.1.1 Comparison of System Strength Enhancement Options
Synchronous Static Var Compensator Variable Frequency

Condenser (SVC) Transformer (VFT)
Option
(SC)
√ √ √
Dynamic
Reactive
Support
√ − √
System
Strength
$$ $$ $$$
Cost
Some key observations are:
 Synchronous condensers are a good option for improving system strength by increasing short circuit levels.
Other positive attributes of synchronous condensers include high overload capability, good reactive power
support under low voltage conditions, contributions to system inertia, and harmonics-free operation.
 Utilizing SVCs instead of synchronous condensers produced an oscillatory response and it confirms that the
SVC option does not really address the fundamental system strength issue. It may be possible to mitigate
this result by tuning the SVC controls to resolve the oscillatory response, but it is not desirable to rely on a
complicated coordination of many power electronic controls. Furthermore, the necessary tuning would likely
require a reduction in the SVC response time which would defeat one of the primary advantages in selecting
an SVC. Thus, the SVC option does not appear to be appropriate for the purpose of system strength
enhancement. The same conclusion applies to STATCOMs since STATCOMs also do not address the
system strength issue.
 The use of VFTs appears to be a viable alternative to synchronous condensers. However, the contribution
of the VFT is dependent on the strength and appropriate modelling of the adjacent SPP system and additional
analysis is recommended to assess the impact of variations in the SPP equivalent model.
Based on the results in Table C.1.1, synchronous condenser was determined to be the best transmission
upgrade option to provide system strength enhancement. It should be noted that additional study may be
required to address the potential susceptibility of synchronous condensers to sub-synchronous Resonance
(SSR) issues when the proposed synchronous condenser is close to the series compensated transmission
lines.
 Series Compensated Transmission Line: The CREZ projects include several series compensated
transmission line to reduce the electrical impedance of transmission lines and increase transfer capability.
However, the added series capacitance can potentially result in sub-synchronous resonance for both
conventional and wind generation projects [5]. An actual sub-synchronous interaction issues had occurred
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at a wind power plant in ERCOT in 2009 [6][7] and the proposed NPRR 562 to manage this issue is currently
been reviewed in the ERCOT stakeholder process [8].
References
[1] S.-H. Huang, J. Schmall, J. Conto, J. Adams, Y. Zhang, C. Carter, "Voltage Stability Concerns on Weak
Grids with High Penetration of Wind Generation: ERCOT Experience," Proceedings of 2012 IEEE PES
General Meeting, July 22-26, 2012, San Diego
[2] Y. Cheng, M. Sahni, J. Conto, S-H. Huang and J. Schmall, "Voltage profile-based approach for developing
collection system aggregated models for wind generation resources for grid voltage ride-through studies",
IET Renewable Power Generation, Vol 5, Issue 5, September 2011
[3] Competitive Renewable Energy Zone Program Oversight, CREZ Progress Report, available at
http://www.texascrezprojects.com/default.aspx
[4] ERCOT CREZ Reactive Compensation Study, available at

http://www.ercot.com/content/news/presentations/2010/CREZ%20Reactive%20Power%20Compensation%2
0Study.pdf
[5] ERCOT subsynchronous resonance workshop, http://www.ercot.com/calendar/2013/09/20130909-SSR
[6] P. Belkin, "Event of 10-22-09", CREZ Technical Conference, January 26, 2010, Electric Reliability Council of
Texas
[7] M. Sahni, et all, "Sub-synchronous Interaction in Wind Power Plant - Part II: An ERCOT Case Study,"
Proceedings of 2012 IEEE PES General Meeting, July 22-26, 2012, San Diego
[8] Available at http://www.ercot.com/mktrules/issues/nprr/551-575/562
Page 169
C.2 GE - Operating Experience
Application of wind plants in weak systems can raise concerns about system stability, voltage regulation and
post-fault power swings. Some connecting utilities require conditions such as ‘wind plants must not trip during
faults and other system disturbances.’ Handling of post fault electromechanical swings in the power grid can be
particularly challenging in weak grid applications. This section reports on the experience of one manufacturer
and how these challenges have been addressed.
The latest generation of wind turbine-generator controls can include Wind Farm Management Systems (WFMS)
and Low-Voltage Ride-Through (LVRT) among other features. The addition of these control features to a wind
plant applied in a weak grid location can provide much improved performance over previous generations of wind
generation equipment.
Low Voltage Ride-Through
Figure C.2-1 shows the response of a wind plant, consisting of 108 GE 1.5 MW wind turbine generators, to sixty
minutes of highly variable wind speed. This wind plant is connected to the grid by a dedicated 75 km 230 kV
transmission line. The short circuit capacity at the remote point of grid interconnection is quite low compared to
the rating of the wind plant, approximately 670 MVA, which is a short-circuit ratio of approximately 4.1. At the
wind plant collector system, the short circuit ratio is much lower, less than 2.5.
Figure C.2.1 Demonstration of voltage regulation performance during variable power output
conditions.
Page 170
The specifications of this particular system required regulation of the voltage at a remote point of grid
interconnection. To avoid dependence on telecommunications, the wind plant control system line drop
compensating feature was used to synthesize the voltage at the point of interconnection, 75 km from the
measurement points at the wind plant substation.
Despite the challenges of a very weak grid and the requirement of regulation of a remote voltage, performance
of this system has been excellent. The upper chart of Figure C.2-1 shows the wind plant voltage and the voltage
at the point of grid interconnection. The wind velocity is also shown, but without a scale. In the lower chart of
Figure C.2-1, the same wind velocity is shown, along with the wind plant power output. Despite rather large
variations in generated power, the voltage at the interconnection bus is quite invariant. The voltage flicker index,
Pst, is less than 0.02 for this high stress condition – well within industry expectations. Most of the voltage
variations are within a few hundred volts on the 230kV system. [1], [2]
This example demonstrates that with proper control algorithms and coordination, in this case WFMS and LVRT,
the performance of a wind plant can be improved even in weak grid applications.
Power-Swing Stability
Power-Swing stability deals with the electromechanical oscillations between areas in a large interconnected
power system. In the application of a wind plant to a remote, weaker part of the grid, these oscillations can be
challenging. If the wind plant is applied on a radial line, the challenges are exacerbated.
In one investigation the power-swing stability trends were show as root-locus plots. The system modelled
consisted of four generators; two are in the east area and two are in the west. The smaller of the two generators
in the west system were modelled as a synchronous generator and then again as the aggregate representation
of a large wind plant. The results of this investigation are shown in Figure 7.4.2-2. The inter-area mode locus for
the case with a synchronous generator is shown as a dashed line, and that of the wind-turbine generators is
shown as a solid line. Note that the wind-turbine generators become more stable as the active power dispatch
approaches nominal, while the synchronous generator exhibits the opposite characteristic. [2]
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Fig. C.2-2. Root locus showing comparison of inter-area mode for synchronous generator (dashed)
and wind-turbine generators (solid). [2]
In other studies it has been observed that when a wind plant is applied at the end of a long radial line, weak grid
conditions may require the addition of a synchronous condenser to improve the local short circuit strength. A
synchronous condenser can provide many helpful benefits including improving the short circuit ratio and
increasing local inertia as well as helping to regulate voltage in place of an SVC or STATCOM. In the case
where a wind plant with a local synchronous condenser can become isolated from the grid, the synchronous
condenser becomes the grid. As is always the case in an AC power system, if more power is produced than is
being consumed system frequency will tend to increase. Wind turbine controls do not regulate frequency but
tend to follow the frequency of the grid.
Simulations have demonstrated that under the right conditions, it may be possible to over-speed the rotor of a
synchronous condenser. This may also be possible in extreme cases of power-swing. It is recommended that
a synchronous machine applied to support a remote wind plant should be equipped with over-speed protection.
References:
[1] N. Miller and P. E. Marken, “Facts On Grid Friendly Wind Plants,” presented at IEEE PES General
Meeting, Minneapolis, MN, July 2010.
[2] R. Piwko, N. Miller, J. Sanchez-Gasca, X. Yuan, R. Dai, and J. Lyons, “Integrating Large Wind Farms
into Weak Power Grids with Long Transmission Lines”, presented at IEEE PES Transmission and
Distribution Conference and Exhibition: Asia and Pacific, Dalian, China, 2005.
Page 172
C.3 Vestas - Weak Grid/Low SCR Interconnection Experience
A wind power plant (WPP) connecting to the Bulk Electrical System (BES) where the minimum fault level MVA
at the WPP’s medium-voltage Collector System bus divided by the WPP’s MW capacity is 3-to-1 or less can be
considered as a “weak grid” interconnection. Such a weak connection is often due to a long radial transmission
line, in a remote section of the BES that extends to the WPP. The subject of this example is a 265 MW WPP
with a 33kV Collector System, included such a radial line of 270 km, resulting in an SCR of 1.79 under Normal
Grid Operations and 0.79 under an N-1 condition. These low SCR values led to Stability Limits for the WPP to
only 148MW and 74 MW, respectively.
Figure C.3.1 Schematic representation of the study system
Without further mitigations, issues that may arise from operations under these conditions are:
In the Steady State:
‐ WPP inability to comply with Transmission System Operator (TSO) requirements for Power Factor
capability
‐ Voltage Constraints leading to poor voltage regulation along the line as WPP P & Q varies
‐ High sensitivity to Reactive Power changes, meaning small changes in Q can lead to large variations of
voltage on the BES
In the Dynamic State:
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‐ Poor dynamic recovery after a fault on the BES due to WPP reactive current injection and inability for
the grid to absorb Q
‐ Possible risk of WTGs tripping on overvoltage
‐ Possible retriggering of WTG LVRT schemes
Studies
Dynamic simulation studies were performed in EMT-based PSCAD software to determine proper WTG parameter
settings.
Figure C.3.2 PSCAD representation of the study system
WTGs were aggregated into groups according to similarity of performance to improve computational time.
Figure C.3.3 Aggregation of WTGs
These settings were then applied in RMS-based software simulation studies of the Grid/WPP/WTG for
contingencies defined by the TSO.
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Mitigations
Supplementing the WPP and WTG coordinated control, studies identified that a combination of additional MVARs
from both a STATCOM and a Synchronous Condenser would provide the optimum mitigation solution for this
project to avoiding risking a collapse of the grid.
C.4 Enercon - Application Experience
Introduction
Based on ENERCON’s experience, three trends regarding wind power integration can be observed over the
past years in the industry. First, the rating and the number of wind turbines combined to a single wind farm are
continuously increasing. Second, given wind conditions in combination with local installation restrictions lead to
wind farms being connected to geographically and electrically remote points of the network. Third, environmental
constraints together with the characteristics competitive energy markets hinder the expansion of power systems
and reduce their stability reserves. As a consequence, power systems are being obliged to operate near their
stability limits.
In summary, there is a tendency of a steadily decreasing short-circuit ratio (SCR) at the point of common
coupling (PCC) of new wind power plant (WPP) projects.
ENERCON’s first investigations regarding the connection of wind turbines to grids with low short circuit ratios
date from 2005. The reactions of the industry to ENERCON’s first publication in this area [2], in 2011, have
confirmed the increasing importance of this subject at power system level.
This case study intends to demonstrate briefly the ENERCON experience in integrating wind energy to weak
systems as well as to point out the process that is proposed to be applied to projects confronted with weak
networks. The latter consists of the following major steps that will all be explained more in detail in the following
sections:
‐ Preliminary project type evaluation

‐ Evaluation of grid weakness
‐ Evaluation of grid-code and contractual aspects
‐ Operational concepts for grid integration
The work presented is based on an ENERCON test wind farm in Germany, but the steps described below can
be easily transferred to bigger commercial projects.
Preliminary Project Type Evaluation

It is already worldwide accepted that the integration of inverter based technologies to weak systems should be
taken with care and commercial projects should be handled individually [1]. Once found that the wind farm may
be confronted with low short circuit levels in normal operation or under contingency conditions, there is a need
of a more detailed but still preliminary project evaluation.
This step serves to identify the qualitative technological characteristics of the complete system consisting of
wind farm and grid. The input required for this evaluation goes beyond the usual data received from grid
operators to characterize the grid behind the PCC (rated voltage, X/R ratio and short circuit level). At this stage,
Page 175
there is a need of evaluating further grid characteristics that are also relevant when aiming for a stable operation
of the complete system even near physical stability limits, such as:
 Topology characteristics (radial vs. meshed systems, long lines vs. short lines, overhead lines vs. cables,
etc)
 Existence of equipment providing voltage support (OLTC Transformers, Shunt Capacitors, Synchronous
Generators, STATCOMS, etc)
 Loads (locations, preliminary information about type, quantities and major dependencies)
 Information about other generating units connected at the same grid area and their operation schemes
This preliminary information should allow a first project type evaluation that will give project planners a more
detailed idea of possible technological challenges for the wind farm in order to achieve stable and secure grid
operation.
In 2010 ENERCON made some modifications in a wind farm consisting of eight ENERCON wind turbines in
order to further explore this topic and to build up significant knowledge and experience with the connection of
wind farms to weak AC networks. Two ENERCON E-82 wind energy converters (WEC), with 2MW rated power
each, were temporarily decoupled from the main grid through additional air core reactors and thus connected to
the main grid via a high impedance grid. Figure C.4.1 both illustrates and allows a first preliminary analysis of
the grid characteristics on the configuration of the new formed micro Wind Power Plant (WPP).
Figure C.4.1 ENERCON micro Wind Power Plant (WPP) connected to the grid via a high impedance.
Evaluation of Grid Weakness

At this stage there is the need of a more detailed analysis of the project and, therefore, of assessing the relevant
aspects and components identified at the preliminary project type evaluation. The additional data needed at this
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stage goes beyond the standard data required to perform steady-state studies and should allow an
understanding of the major system dynamics as well as an overview of all possible or relevant scenarios with
which the wind farm may be confronted with.
Concerning the electrical equipment, besides the standard load flow data, information regarding loading levels,
relevant contingency scenarios and their possible resulting topologies, characteristics of other generating units
connected to the same grid area and equipment used for voltage support (operating schemes, parameters and
time constants) may be necessary to complete the assessment.
Furthermore, there is a need of understanding the chosen global voltage control scheme used in the relevant
grid area and its major actors and their characteristics, since maintaining all bus-voltages within acceptable
ranges should be seen as the main task when looking for a stable operation of the complete system near physical
stability limits.
It is very difficult to assess, at the previous stages, the amount of efforts needed for the evaluation of grid-
weakness, since each project has its own particularities and the investigations depend on the amount and quality
of the information provided at the preliminary project type evaluation stage.
In the special case of the ENERCON test micro WPP, the evaluation of grid weakness was straight forward,
since all the grid information needed for the assessment was, after careful and extensively measurements,
available in the required level of detail. Additionally, the project type corresponding to this micro WPP can be
seen as the most simplified one, analogous to a Thévenin equivalent, in which the generation is connected to
the grid via a high impedance, and the only voltage support mechanism in the vicinity of the PCC is the one
provided by the micro WPP itself.
Preliminary analysis of this project allowed the understanding that connection of the additional air core reactors
reduced the short circuit power at the new PCC of the micro WPP to 3.7 MVA. Considering the rated power of
the micro WPP (4MW), a SCR < 1 can be theoretically achieved with this configuration. The actual SCR depends
on the injected power and this is adjustable by curtailing the maximal power output of the micro WPP.
Furthermore, a more systematic evaluation of all possible operating points, following the approach adopted in
[3] was conducted to determine the voltage characteristics at the WPP’s PCC as well as to yield indication of
voltage control requirements for the WPP.
The insights and results from these analyses, together with the information of technological, financial and
contractual boundaries (see next section), served as the fundamentals for the proposed solution, which takes
all these aspects into consideration and aims a maximal robust and stable operation of all system components
consisting of WPP and grid. Details of this solution can be obtained from [3], [4] and [5].
Evaluation of Grid-Code and Contractual Aspects

The integration of WPPs to weak networks requires specific project analysis. However, this specific analysis
does not comprise only the technical analysis and should also include contractual and grid-code considerations.
As previously stated, maintaining the system stability should be seen as the main objective when integrating
WPPs to weak systems. On this basis, the proposed solution may yield the need of reviewing some legal aspects
in conjunction with customer and system operator.
As an example, Figure C.4.2 shows the required U-Q/Pmax profile as per ENTSO-E [6] and compares two of
its required points with the voltage characteristic profile for the micro WPP’s PCC (with the axis of Active Power
P and Reactive Power Q normalized through the Short Circuit Power of the PCC).
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As it can be seen from Figure C.4.2 this requirement can only be applicable for high Short Circuit Ratio (SCR)
levels (enclosed by the blue lines). Once the SCR decreases (area enclosed by the red lines), the required
operating points may have no longer physical interpretation or relevance for normal operation.
Figure C.4.2. U-Q/Pmax profile of a Park Module from ENTSO-E versus corresponding operating points
on the Voltage Characteristic diagram from the ENERCON micro WPP.
At this stage such considerations were illustrated by an example concerning the required reactive power
capabilities of generating units in Europe. However, such considerations may also be expanded for other grid
code requirements and a compromise has to be found between all involved parties, always having the system
stability as main objective. For the ENERCON’s micro WPP such considerations were not relevant, since it was
a WPP specially designed for development purposes.
Operational Concept for Grid Integration

Once the grid-weakness has been deeply investigated and the system technological, financial and legal
boundaries are known, there is still a need of finding the ideal operational concept for the WPP and grid that
takes all aforementioned requirements into consideration. Furthermore, depending on the grid and on the
relevance of the WPP, this may not be an easy task and can only be done in conjunction with the system
operator.
The concept development should consider, among others, the existing voltage support schemes, their
technological limits and controller’s characteristics, the network operation concept and its characteristics (which
may also vary seasonally) and, last but not least, the protection concept of the grid area.
Additionally, it is important to emphasize that the final concept for a successful grid integration, which aims for
the most robust and stable operation of the complete system, may require a significant change on the operational
characteristic of the grid area, in which the WPP was connected.
Page 178
ENERCON developed special controllers and strategies for the integration of the micro WPP to the weak grid in
order to provide a most stable and reliable operation of the complete system. Changes on both WEC level as
well as on the wind farm control unit (FCU) level were done. More details can be found in [3], [4] and [5].
Different test programs were conducted at this ENERCON micro WPP in order to support the development and
validation of these special controllers and strategies and the results confirm that a stable operation of the WECs
was possible even under very low SCR levels. Some results and the most relevant findings can be obtained
from [3], [4] and [5].
Furthermore, this experience gained with the operation of ENERCON WECs in weak systems allowed as well
the understanding that maximizing wind power in high impedance grids means operating WPPs close to physical
limits of the grid and is therefore extremely challenging. Although it was possible to achieve a stable operation
with controllers and strategies specially developed for weak systems both on WEC and FCU levels, designed
with focus on the stable operation of the complete system and therefore prioritizing the voltage maintenance,
the increasing role that network characteristics play when approaching the stability limits should not be
neglected. As shown in Table C.4.1, extracted from [3], the combination of the variable characteristic of wind
and the increasing voltage sensitivities to active and reactive powers when maximizing the injected power can
lead to increased flicker levels.
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Table C.4.1 Investigations of the limits of maximizing wind power and impact on voltage flicker [3]
Conclusions
The present study case describes a successful grid integration of a WPP, consisting of two ENERCON E-82 2
MW, to a weak network. The required steps to achieve the final operational concept aiming at the most robust
and stable operation of the complete system are explained and are can be also applied to commercial projects.
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The results and the experience with the integration of WPPs to weak systems allow the understanding that such
projects are challenging and should be handled individually. Voltage maintenance and, therefore, system
stability should be taken as main objective of the grid integration process.
Furthermore, as to be understood from the previous sections, a successful grid integration of WPP to weak
systems is to be best achieved in a good work in conjunction with all parties involved in the project since the
planning phase.
References
[1] “IEEE Guide for Planning DC Links Terminating at AC Locations Having Low Short-Circuit Capacities”, IEEE
Std 1204-1997, June 1997.
[2] Diedrichs, V.; Beekmann, A.; Adloff, S. Loss of (Angle) Stability of Wind Power Plants – The Underestimated
Phenomenon in Case of Very Low Short Circuit Ratio. 10th International Workshop on Large-Scale Integration
of Wind Power in Power Systems as well as on Transmission Networks for Offshore Wind Farms, Aarhus
(Denmark), 25-26 October, 2011.
[3] Diedrichs, V.; Beekmann, A.; Busker, K.; Nikolai, S.; Adloff, S. Control of Wind Power Plants Utilizing Voltage
Source Converter in High Impedance Grids. 2012 IEEE Power & Energy Society General Meeting, San
Diego, USA, 22-26 July 2012.
[4] Diedrichs, V.; Beekmann, A.; Busker, K.; Nikolai, S.; Kentler, F. Operation of Wind Power Plants in High
Impedance Grids – Loss of Stability Control for Maximizing Wind Power vs. Power Quality. 11th International
Workshop on Large-Scale Integration of Wind Power in Power Systems as well as on Transmission Networks
for Offshore Wind Farms, Lisbon (Portugal), 13-15 November, 2012.
[5] Diedrichs, V.; Lorenzen, H.; Beekmann, A.; Busker, K.; Nikolai, S. Loss of Stability Margin Assessment during
Wind Power Plant Operation in High Impedance Grids. 12th International Workshop on Large-Scale
Integration of Wind Power in Power Systems as well as on Transmission Networks for Offshore Wind Farms,
London (England), 21-24 October, 2013.
[6] ENTSO-E Network Code for Requirements for Grid Connection Applicable to all Generators, March 8th
2013.
Page 181
C.5 State Grid Corporation of China - Experience
C.5.1 Introduction
Over the past decade, wind power had experienced a very rapid development in China. By the end of 2014, the
installed capacity of wind power reached 95.8 GW. In the case of that wind farms located at the peripheral of
the grid in China, which means the AC power transmission line for the wind farm is around several tens of
kilometers long, even more than hundred kilometers in some case, the grid strength could be deemed
comparatively weak. Concerning wind farms connected to a weak AC grid, small variations of active or reactive
power output might bring relatively large voltage fluctuation at PCC, and the stability also might be deteriorated
which could be represented by a low stability margin. In Chinese practices of wind power grid integration, the
voltage control issue and the Low Voltage Ride Through (LVRT) issue are the two very considerable issues with
high priority.
C.5.2 Connection of wind farms into weak AC network – Case study description
The installed capacity of Tuanjie wind farm, located in Baicheng County, Jilin Province is 250MW, equipped with
DFIG based wind turbines. The wind farm is connected into 220kV Taonan substation with a 100 km long AC
transmission line. The network structure of Baicheng is shown in figure C.5.1, with the backbone mesh grid of
220kV system.
Figure C.5.1 The network structure of Baicheng Grid
Changshan Thermal Power Plant with total 600MW installed capacity, operates as the main synchronous power
source in this area. Beside the Tuanjie wind farm in this area, Taonan wind farm, Taobei wind farm, Da’an wind
farm are also developed and connected into the lower voltage level grid with 66 kV. In the condition of the local
load demands are met, the surplus wind power could be transmitted to the external grid. The short circuit
Page 182
capacity of the Baicheng networks are shown in figure C.5.2, without considering wind power’s contribution, and
the PCC’s short circuit capacity of Tuanjie wind farm is 521MVA.
TaoNan WindFarm TaoBei WindFarm DaAn WindFarm
0. MVA 0. MVA 0. MVA

Skss=667. MVA Skss=409. MVA Skss=674. MVA
409. MVA 674. MVA

667. MVA
Changshan Plant(2)
Baicheng/220 Zhenlai/220 Changshan/220

0. MVA 0. MVA Da'an/220 0. MVA
Skss=1013. MVA Skss=1043. MVA Skss=2242. MVA Skss=4190. MVA
0. MVA 451. MVA

406. MVA 637. MVA 166. MVA
2076. MVA 0. MVA
Line_Bai_Tao
Line_Zhen_Bai Line_Da_Zhen Line_Chang_Da External Grid

563. MVA 0. MVA
Line_Chang_Bai
778. MVA
WF/PCC Skss=521. MVA
Taonan/220
0. MVA 521. MVA

Skss=778. MVA
HV
Skss=521. MVA
Line_Wind_Tao
0. MVA
453. MVA Skss=453. MVA

MV
Tuanjie Windfarm
Figure C.5.2 The short circuit capacity of Baicheng Network
Supposing that SCR (Short Circuit Ratio) is defined as:
S min
SCR 
Cw
Smin: Minimum short circuit capacity at PCC without wind power
Cw: Installed capacity of wind farm
The SCR of Tuanjie wind farm equals to 2.08, and that could be deemed as the case of wind farm connected
into a weak AC network.
Page 183
C.5.3 Voltage control issue under steady state condition
C.5.3.1 Reactive power compensation and voltage control
With the inherent fluctuating and intermittent characteristics, the active power output of the wind farm varies as
wind speed changes, and the power variation could lead to the grid voltage fluctuation, especially at the bus-
bars very close to the wind farm. As shown in figure C.5.3, P-V curves and V-Q curves are plotting to illustrate
the impact of power injection to the grid voltage. During the calculation, constant power factor is applied to DFIG
based wind turbines and fixed capacitor banks are also used. Relying on the capacitor banks compensation, the
voltage level at the PCC could be controlled within the range from 1.00pu to 1.03pu.
DIgSILENT
1.10 80.0
u=0.82pu
P=80MW Q=-26Mvar
u=1.03pu P=176MW P=250MW u=0.78pu
u=1.00pu u=1.00pu 40.0 Q=-9Mvar
1.05
0.00
1.00
-40.0
0.95 u=0.72pu
Q=-44Mvar u=0.74pu
P=250MW -80.0 Q=-58Mvar
u=0.90pu
0.90
-120.
0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40
x-Axis: Wind Power: Voltage in p.u.
0.85
0.00 50.0 100. 150. 200. 250. Wind Power: 250MW, Without Compensation
x-Axis: Wind Power: MW Wind Power: 200MW, Without Compensation
WF\PCC: Without Compensation Wind Power: 250 MW, With Compensation
WF\PCC: With Compensation Wind Power: 200 MW, With Compensation
Figure C.5.3 P-V curves and V-Q curves
Through the simulation results in figure C.5.3, it can be seen that:
1) When the output of wind farm is relatively high, large active power transmission could lead to high
reactive power consumption along the line. If reactive power capacity of the wind farm is insufficient, the
regional network needs to absorb more reactive power from the main grid, which results in a
comparatively lower voltage level. In the case of full output operation (250 MW) of wind farm, the voltage
at the PCC is only maintained in a very lower level at 0.89 pu.
2) As a result of being connected to a weak grid, the output variation of wind farm will lead to larger voltage
fluctuation at the PCC. If no reactive power compensation facilities installed in the wind farm, the PCC
voltage will be varying from 0.89 to 1.03 pu under different active power output levels; and If reactive
power compensation facilities are adopted in the wind farm, the voltage could be maintained in the range
from 1.0 pu to 1.03 pu under different output levels.
3) As the output of wind farm increases, the reactive power margin will decrease gradually. Considering
that the output of wind farm is at 200MW, the reactive power margin will be 44 Mvar, and if the output
rise up to 250MW, the reactive power margin will be getting lower only with 9 Mvar.
The short circuit capacities at the PCC of Tuanjie wind farm and maximum power generations under different
grid conditions are shown in Table C.5.1.
Page 184
Table C.5.1 Wind farm’s maximum power under different conditions
Short circuit capacity Wind farm maximum power （

Operation conditions
at PCC（MVA） MW）
Normal operation 521 260
Baicheng-Zhenlai 398 205
Zhenlai-Da’an 398 190

N-1
Conditions
Changshan Plant-Da’an 398 170
Changshan Plant-Baicheng 350 155
It can be seen from table 1 when Line Changshan Plant-Baicheng is out of service, the regional network will
be shaping from a mesh grid to a radial structure, namely, Changshan Plant-Da’an-Zhenlai-Baicheng-
Taonan. In this case, the electrical distance between Tuanjie wind farm and the main grid is getting much
farther. The main grid’s reactive power support to Tuanjie wind farm is comparatively weak, the short circuit
capacity at the PCC of Tuanjie wind farm is the smallest case, and the maximum power generation of Tuanjie
wind farm is decreased to a very lower level only with 155MW.
C.5.3.2 Q-voltage sensitivity
When wind farm is connected to a weak grid, the voltage at the PCC will have a comparatively high sensitivity
to wind farm’s reactive power output variation, and small change of the reactive power might bring noticeable
impact on the voltage at the PCC. As shown in figure C.5.4, whether the wind farm absorbs 45 Mvar reactive
power from the external grid (0.966 cap. pf) or injects 33 Mvar reactive power to the external grid (0.982 ind.
pf), these two different operating conditions will both bring 20 % change to voltage at the PCC, which means
that 1Mvar variation of wind farm’s reactive power will result in 0.25% change of voltage at the 220kV PCC.
In the actual operation, appropriate control of the reactive power compensation devices are also necessary
according to the operation mode and the voltage level.
Page 185
P=197. MW
Q=10. Mvar WF/PCC u=1.10 p.u.
Taonan/220
u=1.07 p.u. P=-239. MW P=243. MW
Q=-22. Mvar Q=33. Mvar
HV u=1.10 p.u.
Line_Wind_Tao
P=-243. MW
Q=-33. Mvar
P=244. MW
Q=52. Mvar u=1.11 p.u.
MV
Tuanjie Windfarm
Figure C.5.4 Reactive power of the wind farm and voltage level at the PCC
C.5.4 LVRT issue under transient state conditions
C.5.4.1 LVRT of wind farm
With large scale wind power installed capacity and weak grid structure in Baicheng District, Jilin Province, the
wind turbine’s LVRT capability has very important influences on system stability. At 05:07:54, April 9th, 2008,
one phase to phase fault occurred at the location 2.4km away from Baicheng on a 66kV line, and the fault line
was disconnected from the system within 80ms after the fault. Because the wind turbines in Baicheng District
didn’t equip with LVRT capability at that time, all the wind turbines were tripped from the grid, the active power
output of wind farm dropped from 223MW to 0MW, and the power flow in Baicheng district experienced a
magnificent reversion. Because all the capacitor banks are not capable of switching off automatically in time
when the wind turbines tripped, the voltage level of Taonan bus increased up to 244kV from 232kV, the voltage
level in Tuanjie substation also increased from 234kV to 251kV, both exceeding the upper limit. Figure C.5.5
shows the power flow in Baicheng district and the voltage variation of buses closed to wind farms.
Page 186
Figure C.5.5 Power grid operation condition changing during system fault
After the new Chinese grid code published in 2011, the LVRT capability of wind farm was strictly required, and
the dynamic reactive current injection function of wind farm was also required with reference to the wind farms
located in the large wind power bases with installed capacity above 1 GW.
C.5.4.2 Wind farm transient response to system fault
Normally the active power output of wind turbines is relatively small during the low voltage duration of system
fault, and after fault clearance and the terminal voltage recovery, the active power output will be restored.
Supposing that the wind farm is connected to a weak AC grid and its output is high, the voltage level at the PCC
of the wind farm will be more volatile after fault recovery, in some cases the inappropriate LVRT control strategy
of wind turbines may lead to power oscillation of the wind farm. The voltage control ability can improve the
dynamic characteristic of the voltage at the PCC so as to make wind farm’s showing a better response and
support the system voltage recovery after system fault.
In case of a permanent three phase short circuit fault occurred on the 220kV Line from Zhenlai to Baicheng at
simulation time 1s, and the fault line is disconnected at 1.12s, wind farm transient response and system
behaviours are shown in figure C.5.6 to address the differences behaviour in different wind farm output situation.
When output of the wind farm is 130MW, the system can keep stable after fault and the output can return to the
pre-fault level; however when the wind farm output rises up to 180MW, power angle of the system are stable
after fault, but as weak grid has a small inertia, the voltage and power output at the PCC will suffer some large
fluctuation.
Page 187
DIgSILENT
1.20 250.
1.00 180.
0.80 110.
0.60 40.0
0.40 -30.0
0.20 -100.
0.0 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 [s] 8.0 0.0 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 [s] 8.0
WF\PCC: Voltage£¨130MW£© Line_Wind_Tao: Active power£¨130MW£©
DIgSILENT
70.0 52.0
64.0 51.2
58.0 50.4
52.0 49.6
46.0 48.8
40.0 48.0
0.0 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 [s] 8.0 0.0 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 [s] 8.0
Changshan G6: Angle£¨130MW£© Baicheng\220: Frequency£¨130MW£©
Changshan G6: Angle£¨180MW£© Baicheng\220: Frequency£¨180MW£©
Figure C.5.6 The transient behaviour of wind farm without reactive power compensation
With SVC or voltage control devices deployed in the wind farm, their capability of reactive power control can
help to improve the voltage dynamic characteristic at the PCC. Benefit from the SVC’s control ability, the system
can keep stable and there is no power oscillation happened after the system fault in 180 MW case, but assuming
that the wind power output increase to 225MW, the wind farm’s power oscillation will be triggered during system
fault due to the lack of system inertia, shown in figure C.5.7 below.
DIgSILENT
1.30 300.
1.08 220.
0.86 140.
0.64 60.0
0.42 -20.0
0.20 -100.
0.0 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 [s] 8.0 0.0 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 [s] 8.0
Page 188
DIgSILENT
70.0 52.0
64.0 51.2
58.0 50.4
52.0 49.6
46.0 48.8
40.0 48.0
0.0 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 [s] 8.0 0.0 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 [s] 8.0
Changshan G6: Angle£¨180MW£© Baicheng\220: Frequncy£¨180MW£©
Changshan G6: Angle£¨225MW£© Baicheng\220: Frequncy£¨225MW£©
Figure C.5.7 The transient behavior of wind farm with SVC compensation
C.5.5 Conclusions
The voltage control issue and the Low Voltage Ride Through issue are analysed in this part to address the
interaction in the case of wind farm connected into a weak AC grid.
1) The variation of active power output of wind farm will bring comparatively high grid voltage fluctuation. With
reactive power compensation devices equipped and voltage control strategy adopted, the voltage
fluctuation could be suppressed, and grid’s operation voltage level could be improved.
2) When connected to a weak grid, the wind farm’s voltage level has a comparatively higher sensitivity to
reactive power variation. The reactive power compensation devices shall be controlled appropriately
according to the grid’s operation requirements.
3) In order to guarantee the wind farm fully recover to stable operation quickly after system fault, it would be
a best solution that LVRT and dynamic reactive current injection capability are adopted in the wind farm.
4) In the case of large capacity wind power connecting into the weak AC grid with small inertia, voltage at the
PCC will fluctuate comparatively large, and in some cases the inappropriate LVRT control strategy of wind
turbines may lead to power oscillation. The voltage control capability from wind turbines or from dynamic
reactive power compensation facilities could improve the dynamic characteristics of the voltage at the PCC
so as to improve the whole wind farm’s dynamic voltage stability.
Page 189
C.6 WPP Connections in Tasmania, Australia - Experience
C.6.1 Overview
The Musselroe Wind Farm is located at Cape Portland in the far North East of Tasmania, Australia. It is a Class 1A
wind site and is subject to predominate westerly winds of the ‘Roaring 40’s’. Construction of the 168MW wind farm
was complete in late 2013 by Hydro Tasmania.
The wind farm consists of fifty-six 3.0MW wind turbine generators (WTG’s). These are double fed induction
generators. The connection to the Tasmanian network required construction of a new 48km, 110 kV single circuit
transmission line from Derby to the wind farm substation with two 33/110kV 90MVA step-up transformers. The
Connection Point (POCC) at the Derby Substation has a very low fault level (360 MVA) resulting in SCR range at the
wind farm of 2.1. The power system and market is operated by the Australian Energy Market Operator (AEMO).
To meet the performance requirements of the National Electricity Market (NEM) in Australia, reactive plant and control
systems were designed and built inclusive of the following components;
 2 x 14 MVA synchronous condensers for fault level (short circuit ratio) support;
 4 x 4 MVar STATCOMS for transient, dynamic and steady state reactive control reactive control; and
 4 x 10 MVar switched shunt capacitors for steady state reactive power support and harmonic filtering.
A simplified model of the wind farm layout is shown in Figure C.6.1. This configuration was used in simulation software
PSSE for dynamic modeling and analysis.
Figure C.6.1 - Simplified Wind Farm Model
Page 190
C.6.2 Issues and Solutions
This section provides an overview of issues encountered during the design and construction phases of the project
that impacted electrical performance of the wind farm.
Rate of Change of Frequency and Anti-Islanding Protection;
An anti-islanding scheme is a regulatory requirement imposed by the Tasmanian Transmission Network Service
Provider (TNSP) and the market operator (AEMO) to avoid circumstances where electrical loads in the network
become islanded with generating assets. Under such conditions either frequency and/or voltage could be sustained
at levels exceeding values specified in the National Electricity Rules (NER) with conventional protections ether
ineffective or too slow in acting. Traditional anti-islanding schemes have used voltage, frequency and rate-of-change
of frequency (RoCoF) as triggers to detect an islanded condition. However, these schemes may not always
discriminate between low frequency conditions and sustained low frequency due to islanding particularly considering
selected wind turbine technology (no frequency control), wide range of wind farm outputs and likelihood of matching
demand with generation. To avoid this, an intelligent anti-islanding scheme was developed using a synchrophasor
reference methodology. The details of this scheme have been documented in [1].
Another issue with the traditional anti-islanding schemes has been identified and it is caused by reduced inertia in
the Tasmanian power system. In the event of credible contingency events (i.e. fault and trip of a generator), RoCoF
is seen to be reaching levels that would see traditional anti-islanding schemes trigger on their RoCoF protection. This
means there could be a trip of a generator somewhere in the system causing the frequency to deviate at such a rate
that would trigger a cascade of tripping of generating assets with traditional anti-islanding schemes. The issue is
currently managed by activation of network constraints in dispatch engine that would force the system to avoid
arriving at these scenarios. This has the impact of constraining off generation hence increasing the cost to the market.
The devised synchrophasor solution at Musselroe does not suffer from this issue as it does not use RoCoF triggers.
Active Power Control during Fault Ride Through
The WTGs at Musselroe have a control mechanism for handling fault & voltage depressions. This function when
triggered reduces active current and increases reactive current during a voltage depression in order to support the
voltage. The current changes are proportional to the voltage magnitude. Therefore the wind farm active power
ramps down to a very low level during a voltage depression. The trigger for this operation is a voltage threshold (pl
see Figure C.6.2), that was set quite high at 0.85 pu due to the nature of the Musselroe wind farm’s performance
requirements. The Power Plant Controller (PPC) is a PLC based central active and reactive feedback power control
system for overall wind farm control. The PPC is designed to suspend any control during voltage disturbances. The
PPC trigger threshold sensing voltage disturbances should align with the trigger setting on individual WTG’s. During
the occurrence of some shallow faults (high fault impedance) it was observed that the individual WTG actions were
triggered on some WTGs while PPC actions would not suspend. This was due to filtering of the voltage signal on
PPC. In wind sites with low short circuit ratios, changes to voltage magnitude in both upward and downward
directions are very rapid and filtered voltage signal becomes very unreliable when applied to fault detection.
The consequence of this issue was seen when the PPC was trying to apply feedback control to the WTG’s during
transients. Multiple active power feedback loops exist in the PPC control with associated delays in their signals.
Therefore in transient events, there will always be an error seen by the PPC feedback. In the instances when the
WTG’s low voltage triggers were activated but the PPC didn’t ‘freeze’ over all wind farm controls, the WTG’s would
try to recover to pre-disturbance active power level post fault and the PPC was issuing varied levels of set point
targets due to the two aforementioned issues. This consequently excited active power oscillations post fault. This
issue was resolved by customizing the PPC control to be open loop control such that the pre-disturbance set point
Page 191
would be maintained, even if the PPC did not pick up a fault. The issue can be illustrated below in the PPC missing
fault detection.
Figure C.6.2 – Voltage detection leading to conflicting PPC and WTG controls
Availability of Accurate Models and Associated Information
Many issues were experienced in the Musselroe project due to ability of the available models to represent the
performance of the WPP under different (and uncommon) operating conditions and associated documentation. The
NEM in Australia has extremely stringent modeling requirements, particularly for generator proponents. Due to the
complex nature of wind turbines themselves, and the strenuous operating conditions they are subjected to, the
models have to be reviewed and refined. It was believed that a lot of the refinements needed hadn’t been uncovered
in the past but due to the low short-circuit-ratio at the WPP site additional stresses have exposed model limitations.
This was exacerbated by more diligent studies being undertaken on the wind farm performance for that very reason.
As the site includes additional reactive plant, the complete wind farm had to be modeled including the dynamic
performance of each device as well as the interaction between them which is a requirement for wind farms connected
in the NEM. Another NEM requirement is that comprehensive mathematical models have to be produced for the
complete wind farm in diagrammatic or block diagram format. This was an extensive exercise as many manufacturers
and equipment suppliers are reluctant to provide detailed information on their plant and associated control due to
intellectual property concerns. This makes trouble shooting of issues difficult as well as holds up the NEM approval
process if the diagrams are not seen as sufficient by the TNSP or AEMO.
Protection Challenges
Many challenges were associated with coordinating the protection systems. One notable issue was coordinating the
protection such that adequate performance including mitigation of cascading protection operation was maintained
under internal fault scenarios. A complex range of scenarios were explored and modeled in PSCAD and PSSE and
an appropriate inter-tripping matrix was devised to cover off all risks and meet performance requirements. A key
issue to weigh up was trying to keep as much of the wind farm online to maximize production while still meeting
performance requirements.
Page 192
Impact of constraints on hydro generation
As Tasmanian generation system is predominantly hydro, consideration was given to understand the impact of the
wind farm operation on Tasmania’s other hydro generation units. As the wind farm is large relative to the size of the
power system, thermal, voltage, transient and oscillatory dispatch constraints within the region were modified to
enable the system to operate in its new technical envelop. During high output of wind generation, both local
constraints and inter-regional constraints are more onerous and more frequent. These conditions constrain
generation from the traditional hydro generating assets impacting the system inertia, fault level, reactive power
balance and voltage regulation.
Positive impact on network voltages
Due to the remote location of the connection point (PCC), before the wind farm was connected, the local voltage was
difficult to regulate, although this was not considered as a significant issue. Availability of multiple steady state and
dynamic reactive power sources supporting the wind farm improve voltages at the connection point (PCC). A key
point in establishing the steady state voltage control was introduction of a sliding voltage set point which changes
with active power flow (Please see Figure C.6.3).
Figure C.6.3 – Voltage – Power control at the WPP
Synchronous Condenser Instability (pole slipping)
As the WTG operation ramps down active power, upon a detection of a fault on radial supply to the WPP, voltage
angle separation during a fault would see the wind farm voltage angle deviating away from the network and be offset
from its pre-disturbance position once the fault is cleared. As the active power of the wind farm is ramping up on
returning from WTG voltage control operation, some of the initial active power rise was seen as a speed rise absorbed
by the synchronous condenser which caused a further voltage angle deviation from the network. Under some very
weak grid scenarios where voltage angles are widespread across the network, the voltage angle was seen to be
separated by over 360 degrees from the synchronous condensers and the network in this scenario. This would
indicate pole slipping of the condensers. The problem was rectified by slowing down the active power return rate
from WTG operation such that the voltage angle of the farm could be maintained in synchronism with the system
upon recovering from a fault.
Transfer of fault through HVDC
Page 193
The HVDC interconnector connecting mainland Australia to Tasmania, Basslink, blocks active power flow during
faults. A real system event has occurred where a fault on the mainland of Australia saw blocking of active power
flow in Basslink and upon fault recovery, the ramp in active power pulled voltages down to a level which caused
Musselroe WTGs to trigger fault & voltage depressions handling modes . This could be viewed as a transfer of AC
disturbance through a DC link.
Mode Cycling
Various scenarios modeled would see mode cycling of controllers. In some scenarios WTG’s were cycling through
fault & voltage depressions handling modes and other scenarios show the STATCOMs cycling between transient
and dynamic control mode.
The fault & voltage depressions handling mode cycling issue was rectified by modifying control parameters until the
performance was acceptance to the TNSP and AEMO and a demonstration that it is extremely unlikely for the issue
to occur. The cycling of STATCOM modes was rectified by modifying the control logic to allow for an alternative set
of parameters to be applied for a specified time after switching between dynamic and transient control mode.
C.6.3 References
[1] ‘A Synchrophasor Approach For Islanding Protection’, Jimmy Chong, Transend Networks, Cigre Australia
Australian Panel B5, SEAPAC Conference, Brisbane, 12-13 March 2013
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671

Connection of wind farms

Marian Piekutowski AU Peeter Muttik AU Tony Morton AU

Disclaimer notice ISBN : 978-2-85873-374-3

Connection of Wind Farms to

GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SPECIAL TERMS .................................... 8

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................... 11

2 TECHNOLOGY SUMMARY .................................................................... 21

3 ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH WEAK SYSTEMS ........................................... 32

3.3 Technical Issues Identified in Weak Grids ......................................... 34

4 MODELLING SUMMARY ....................................................................... 42

6 QUANTIFICATION OF THE ISSUES ........................................................ 89

7 GUIDE TO WIND POWER PLANT CONNECTION .................................... 121

9 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................. 148

APPENDIX A: GENERIC WIND TURBINE MODELS ........................................ 150

APPENDIX B: CALCULATION OF VOLTAGE SENSITIVITY INDICES ............... 158

APPENDIX C: CASE STUDIES ................................................................... 163

GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SPECIAL TERMS

Abbreviation Full Text

AVR Automatic Voltage Regulator

BTB Back to Back

CSCR Composite Short Circuit Ratio

DFIG Doubly Fed Induction Generator

DSO Distribution System Operator

EirGrid The electric power transmission operator in Ireland

EMT Electromagnetic Transient

ENTSO-E The European Network of Transmission System

ESCR Equivalent Circuit-based Short Circuit Ratio

ERCOT Electricity Reliability Council of Texas

FACTS Flexible AC Transmission Systems

FRRS Fast Responding Regulation Service

FRT Fault Ride-Through

GTO Gate Turn Off Thermistor

HVDC High Voltage Direct Current

HVRT High Voltage Ride-Through

IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers

IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor

LCC Line Commutated Converter

MSC Mechanically Switched Capacitor

MSCR Minimum Short Circuit Ratio

Mvar Mega Volt Ampere Reactive

NSG Non-Synchronous Generator

PCC Point of Common Coupling

PI Proportional and Integral

PLL Phase Locked Loop

PMU Phasor Measurement Unit

POI Point of Interface / Interconnection

PSCAD© Power System Computer Aided Design

PWM Pulse Width Modulation

PU, pu Per Unit

QV, Q-V Reactive Power (Q) - Voltage

RES Renewable Energy Sources

RMS Root Mean Square

RoCoF Rate of Change of Frequency

SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition

SCC Short Circuit Current

SCIG Squirrel Cage Induction Generator

SCR Short Circuit Ratio