APPRAISAL OF TIMBER AS A SUSTAINABLE

CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE FOR RESIDENTIAL

HOMES IN NIGERIA

ADELOKUN Adebola Gideon

16/30GB015

OCTOBER 2022

I
 APPRAISAL OF TIMBER AS A SUSTAINABLE
CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE FOR RESIDENTIAL HOMES
IN NIGERIA

ADELOKUN, Adebola Gideon

16/30GB015

A Project report submitted to the Department of Civil Engineering,

Faculty of Engineering and Technology, University of Ilorin, Nigeria.

In partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of Bachelor of

Engineering (B.Eng.) in Civil Engineering.

SUPERVISED BY:

PROF. A.A. ADEDEJI

OCTOBER 2022

ii
 DECLARATION
I, Adelokun Adebola Gideon sincerely declare that I carried out all the work

reported in this report submitted to the Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty

of Engineering and Technology, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria, under the

supervision of Prof. A.A. Adedeji. All the sources of my knowledge are duly

reported and acknowledged.

______________________________________

ADELOKUN, Adebola Gideon

16/30GB015

I
 CERTIFICATION
This project report titled: Appraisal of Timber as A Sustainable Construction

Technique For Residential Homes In Nigeria has been certified to have met the

requirement of the Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and

Technology, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria, for the award of Bachelors of

Engineering (B.Eng.) Degree.

_ ________________________

Prof. A.A. Adedeji Date

Project Supervisor

_________________________

Prof A. A. Jimoh Date

Head of Department

_________________________

Engr. Prof. J. I. Aguwa Date

External Examiner

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
To God (our Father); for giving us the means, the mind and limbs. To family, the

one that made me and the ones I’ve made along the way.

My deepest gratitude goes specifically to my parents for the many supports

granted me in the course of my undergraduate years.

I would like to thank my lecturers, who have all imparted me with priceless

knowledge at one time or the other.

I also appreciate my supervisor for his valuable inputs and guidance.

iii
 ABSTRACT

Although concrete is the most commonly used building material, not only has

the cost never decreased, but also the extraction of respective raw materials has

been contributing to environment degradation. There is a need for investigating on

other sources of local materials, especially based not only on their potential

performance and affordability, but also on their green aspects. Wood is

considered as one of these sources; a material for the future and presented its

different advantages, architects and engineers are encouraged to reconsider

concrete and steel materials and instead use sustainably harvested wood to reduce

the amount of carbon dioxide associated with construction. The purpose of this

study is to assess properties of some selected hardwood considered suitable for

construction, especially as it relates to compressive strength and bending

resistance. Timber is already in heavy use in the construction industry here in

Nigeria – though for non-structural applications such as for making formwork of

RCC structure, staircase, ceiling, flooring. Although 40% of constructions in

North America are timber based, Nigeria still largely shies away from making use

of Timber as structural members – frames, beams and columns. Many still

question the durability and its ability to resist fire and as a result, tend to lean

towards other conventional building materials such as blocks, steel, concrete and

the likes.

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION .............................................................................................................................i
CERTIFICATION ......................................................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................ iii
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................... v
LIST OF TABLES....................................................................................................................... viii
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................ 1
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Project Background................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Aims and Objectives .................................................................................................. 6
1.3 Statement of the Problem.......................................................................................... 6
1.4 Project Significance ................................................................................................... 7
1.5 Scope of Study ............................................................................................................ 8
1.6 Area of Study ............................................................................................................. 8

CHAPTER TWO ......................................................................................................................... 11

LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................................... 11
2.1 Overview................................................................................................................... 11
2.2 Timber Frame Construction................................................................................... 12
2.3 Qualities Of Timber As A Building Material ........................................................ 15
2.4 Limitations of Timber As A Building Material .................................................... 18
2.5 Sustainability in Nigeria.......................................................................................... 21
2.6 Timber in South Africa ........................................................................................... 26
2.7 Timber in America .................................................................................................. 27
2.8 Nigerian Timber Sources. ....................................................................................... 30
2.9 Sustainable Timber Management .......................................................................... 33
2.10 Mechanical Properties of Selected Hardwood. ..................................................... 35

CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................... 38

METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................................. 38
3.1 Introduction to Methodology.................................................................................. 38
3.2 Laboratory Tests ..................................................................................................... 38

CHAPTER FOUR ....................................................................................................................... 44

DESIGN, DATA AND DISCUSSIONS ................................................................................. 44

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 4.1 Mechanical Properties of Selected Hardwood ...................................................... 44
4.2 Statistical Calculations and Discussions ................................................................ 47
4.3 Results From Compression Test on Wooden Cubes ............................................ 49
4.4 Wood Beam Design.................................................................................................. 50
4.5 Timber Frame Construction Process ..................................................................... 53

CHAPTER FIVE ......................................................................................................................... 54

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS................................................................... 54
5.1 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 54
5.2 Recommendations.................................................................................................... 55

References .................................................................................................................................... 56

vi
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Outdoor and exterior views of a commercial building (bar &

restaurant) constructed with timber ………………………………………………… 5

Figure 1.2 An example of Timber framing using pine wood…………………… 5

Figure 2.1 A typical cottage house in America constructed entirely using Timber

[with glass window frames] ………………………………………………… 30

Figure 2.2 Mahogany timber log…………………………………………………… 36

Figure 2.3 Silver Oak timber log…………………………………………………… 37

Figure 3.1 compression test on wooden cube……………………………………… 41

Figure 3.2 Load is being applied on wooden beam in 10ton Buckton UTM

………………………………………………………….…………………………………43

Figure 3.3 Scheme of strength and elasticity modulus tests by four-point bending

method………………………………………………………….……………………… 43

Figure 4.1 When the load is applied parallel to grains …………………………49

Figure 4.2 When the load is applied perpendicular to grains ………………… 49

Figure 4.3 Simply Supported timber beam…………………………………… 51

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1 Strength properties of some selected hardwood. David W. Green et. al

(1999) ………………………………….…………………………………………………44

Table 4.2 Strength properties of some selected hardwood according to Henry R.

Clauser, McGraw-Hill, (1975) ……………………………….………………………45

Table 4.3 Strength properties of some selected hardwood according to wood-

database.com (2014) ………………………………………………………………….46

Table 4.4 Descriptive statistical analysis of Tables 4.1, 4.2 & 4.3 ………… 47

viii
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Project Background

Concrete is the world’s most consumed man-made material (Naik, 2008). It is

normally used on its own or in combination with other materials. Its great

versatility and relative economy in filling wide range of needs has made it a

competitive building material (Sashidar and Rao, 2010). According to the cement

Sustainability Initiative, CSI (2009), consumption of concrete is expected to be

equal to 2 billion tons per year which means above 3.8 tons per person per year in

the world. It is anticipated that the need for concrete will further increase to

almost 7.5 billion m3 (about 18 billion tons) a year by 2050 (Monteiro, 2015).

Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse granular material (the

aggregate or filler) embedded in a hard matrix of material (the cement or binder)

that fills the space between the aggregate particles and glues them together

(Zongjin, 2012). While concrete is very tough and strong in compression, it is

very weak and virtually with no strength in tension. To improve the strength of

concrete in tension, reinforcing bar (rebar) is cast into concrete to carry the tensile

loads on a structure. For a number of reasons, reinforcement plays a very vital

role in structural concrete such as handling tensile stresses (due to bending, direct

tension and shear), ductility, crack bridging and confinement. materials which

I
possess adequate tensile strength could be used conceivably in concrete as

reinforcement. The most used rebar material in concrete is steel. In some

constructions, the use of steel cannot be tolerated. For example, Magnetic

resonance Imaging (MRI) machines have very large magnets and need to be

housed in non-magnetic buildings. Also, there is a struggle towards attaining self-

sufficiency by developing countries coupled with resulting high cost of building

materials such as steel. For these purposes, some structures have been constructed

using fibre-reinforced plastic rebar, grids or fibres and timber concrete composite.

Although concrete is the most commonly used building material, wood as a

natural organic material has been used in construction of different structures

including but not limiting to houses and bridges. Construction industry is one of

sectors which have been developing fast in Nigeria from last 15 years, many

infrastructure facilities are being put in place and while artificial modern building

materials such as concrete are in demand throughout the country, not only have

their costs never decreased, but also the extraction of respective raw materials has

been contributing to environment degradation. There is a need for investigating on

other sources of local materials, especially based not only on their potential

performance and affordability, but also on their green aspects. Wood is

considered as one of these sources. Globally, wood has been in use from

prehistory to current times, and even with apparition of other more modern

construction materials, wood still is considered. Wood is considered as a material

2
for the future and presented its different advantages, and architects and engineers

are encouraged to reconsider concrete and steel materials and instead use

sustainably harvested wood to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide associated

with construction. Timber is a highly sustainable building material, as it is an

environmentally friendly, affordable, flexible in usage and durable materials;

while the problems associated with its usage such as attack by insects, fungi, fire,

depletion of natural resources etc. can be ameliorated with the aid of preservative

treatments, fire retardant and afforestation. However, in some countries wood is

too expensive for local people and concrete becomes the major construction

material instead; and as alternative solution some innovative ideas are under

consideration such as waste-wood composite. In general timber/wood has many

good properties such as module of elasticity, compressive to parallel grain, shear

strength, hardness, impact bending etc., (for example bamboo as one of wood

species traditionally used even in western countries) and can be competitive to

materials more commonly used. Wood products are used for construction and

furniture in Nigeria. There are a number of wood species available on the local

market. The most used include Eucalyptus (45%), Grevillea and Cypress,

Bamboo, Pinus, etc. Wood materials have been in use from prehistoric time until

today with different types of timber under application in various structures even

multi storied buildings. Wood is an environmentally friendly material; from the

time it is planted to when it is processed into timber and used as a construction

3
material. In Nigeria, while the plantation of trees has been promoted, their

application in construction was still limited to simple houses in rural areas or in

some cities where attention was made to touristic expression. Traditionally,

people used to construct their houses using timber for wall components and then

fill their voids using mud mortar. Currently, the use of timber can be found in a

variety of application, from housing to commercial, residential, and industry

buildings, especially in roof structure where eucalyptus is mostly used. The lastly

developed application field has become tourism. The timber is also used for

making formwork of RCC structure, beam, column, staircase, ceiling, flooring

etc. Because of its intense usage in construction industry, the government of

Nigeria has set a target of increasing the national forest cover from the present 10

per cent to 30 per cent of the national territory by the year 2020

(www.rema.gov.rw). As far as the wood application in local modern housing is

concerned, it is still limited due to lack or little information on its full potentials

for more important structures. Some of buildings constructed using timber are

presented below.

4
Figure 2.1 Outdoor and exterior views of a commercial building (bar & restaurant) constructed with timber

Figure 1.2 An example of Timber framing using pine wood

5
1.2 Aims and Objectives

The purpose of this study includes;

(a) to assess properties of some selected hardwood considered suitable for

construction.

(b) To compare laboratory data on strength performance of selected

hardwood presented by researchers. These hardwoods include; African

Mahogany (Khaya spp.), Teak (Tectona grandis), Oak (Quercus spp.).

(c) Design of timber beam based on the statistical average of those data.

This research will seek to explore the image of timber as a construction

material for residential buildings, and of timber frame houses in particular.

1.3 Statement of the Problem

While artificial modern building materials such as concrete and steel are in

demand throughout the country, not only have their costs never decreased, but

also the extraction of respective raw materials has been contributing to

environmental degradation. There is a need for investigating on other sources of

local materials, especially based not only on their potential performance and

affordability, but also their green aspects. Wood is considered as a material for the

future and presented its different advantages, architects and engineers are

encouraged to reconsider concrete and steel materials and instead use sustainably

harvested wood to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide associated with

construction.

6
There’s also the matter of costs; the cost analysis conducted by researchers

showed that timber material was still at 21% more affordable than conventional

materials such as steel. According to Okereke (2006), a sustainable material

should possess the following characteristics; easily available and affordable,

preferably locally. Considering this, and the fact that due to ever increasing

demand, the cost of more common construction materials such as steel and

concrete have never decreased, it is safe to say the most sustainable material we

have at our disposal is Timber.

1.4 Project Significance

The promotion of timber as an alternative to more popular construction material

techniques is significant for the following reasons;

- Promoting the idea of environmentally sustainable green housing.

- Discouraging the continued use of construction materials that emit high

level of CO2.

- Comparative analysis between timber and other popular construction

materials, in terms of cost, strength, environmental impact and

availability.

- Investigates as to why although wooden housing can be seen in many

European and North American countries to be the most common,

economical, and practical solution for construction, construction is still

7
 predominantly based on sand-crete blocks and concrete buildings in

Nigeria.

- Weighs the pros and cons of Timber application in construction and

decides which outweighs the other.

1.5 Scope of Study

The scope of this study is to conduct research into the concept of timber

application in construction, examine why it is underused in the study area

(Nigeria) and seek to promote its use by highlighting its advantages over more

conventional building materials such as sand-crete blocks.

1.6 Area of Study

Generally, the provision of affordable housing for low-income workers in

developing countries has become a cause for concern for Governments. This

problem is very acute in the urban areas with the continuous drift of the masses

from the rural areas to the urbanized areas in search of greener pasture. With an

estimated population of about 300 million, population growth rate of about

3.55%, GDP growth of 6.81% and annual urbanization rate of change of 3.5%, the

nation is in dire need of affordable homes for the teeming population. As one of

the fastest growing economies in the world, it is saddled with so many on-going

projects, both technological and infrastructural, executed by Governments and by

the private sector, in the form of small scale and largescale projects, all competing

8
to meet up with the high demand created by the nation’s large population and the

high rate of rural-urban migration. Not minding all the efforts that have been put

in place and the massive urbanization taking place, the ultimate goal of making

affordable houses available for the masses remain a mirage due to high cost of

building materials. This high cost of building materials has been severally

confirmed by many researchers as the leading cause of sharp practices that have

been responsible for the frequent building collapse that occurs in Nigeria.

According to Ede (2014), It must be known that over 95% cases of collapsed

building structures verified in Nigeria over the years involved concrete and sand-

crete block structures. This must not be unconnected to the limited ductile

behaviour of sand-crete blocks which very often are exposed to absorbing

excessive loads. The vast variation of the properties of concrete is another great

problem to contend with. Every proportion of the components of concrete

including the aggregate size has an enormous effect on the quality such that the

general compressive strength is very easily compromised. Faced with the

escalating cost of conventional building materials, most often imported into the

country with hard earned foreign exchange, there is urgent need to explore new

ideas that seek to encourage the adoption of locally available building materials

which will lead to cheaper rural and urban structures accessible to the masses. The

good news is that the nation is highly blessed with abundant timber which has not

been maximally utilized to the nation’s advantage. Nigeria is highly enriched with

9
a surplus supply of timber, with various species of trees that are suitable for

construction. The locally grown timber for building construction can be easily

obtained from the available sawmills. This method of construction also presents

environmental advantages and since the superstructure is light, the use of concrete

or brick columns as support foundations at the edges of the building is made easy.

10
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Overview

Wood as a natural organic material has been used in construction of different

structures including but not limiting to houses and bridges (Mbereyaho, et all.,

2019). Timber is a complex building material owing to its heterogeneity and

species diversity, and Nigeria is one country that has it in surplus quantity (Jimoh

& Rahmon, 2018). Ramage, et al (2017) states that, in many parts of the world,

forest products are mostly timber that is used for construction and in order to

make sure that it is available in the nearer future, deforestation has to be

controlled. The author also states that, preserving of the forests will not only

supply timber products but also help in controlling the amount of carbon emitted

into the atmosphere. Adesogan, (2013) states that, timber is locally sourced and

available in Nigeria, although recent studies have shown that at present, Nigeria

might be a wood deficit nation due to deforestation and lack of afforestation.

Wood can easily be acquired from local suppliers and transported to construction

sites using small vehicles. Government policy at a national level support, and in

turn is supported by, the use of local timber as a sustainable construction material.

The local timber resource plays a vital role in delivery of the Government’s twin

aims of a sustainable economy and a low carbon future. Reffat (2004) states that,

sustainable construction does not only emphasize on the construction materials, it

11
also involves other amenities such as, housing and the social, commercial and

transport infrastructures which should be built in sustainable ways aligning with

environmental and economic terms. They must be socially sustainable. They must

support the quality of living standards for the community and residents. The

author also states that, sustainable development is also understood as an

integrative and holistic process of maintaining a dynamic balance between the

needs and demands of people for equity, prosperity and quality of life, and what is

ecologically possible. Sustainable construction entails not only new construction

designs that adapt environmentally orientated techniques, but also should be

environmentally friendly in its operations and maintenance strategy. This implies

that the production of construction elements and materials should be in a

sustainable way and their use must also meet its new requirements based off

results from holistic environmental conditions.

It is therefore necessary to highlight the necessity for substantially changing

consumption and production patterns in order to ensure present needs are met,

without compromising the ability of future generations and other world regions to

meet their own needs, as defined in the Brundtland report (1987).

2.2 Timber Frame Construction

According to De Araujo et al (2013), due to its wide availability in the ecosystem

and the ability to handle its production, it has been used to a high degree in the

12
construction industry. The author also states that, some of the major attributes of

wood is the fact that it can be recycled, renewed, and it is biodegradable, and

when managed properly in forests it can help both socially and can benefit the

environment. The authors also noted that wood-frame buildings when compared

to concrete buildings, emit less carbon. The use of locally processed or otherwise

recycled timber in structural buildings without loss in structural integrity is very

crucial to the growth of developing countries. Also, with the advancement in

technology, new applications and potentials of materials are emerging. This is

corroborated by Andreas (2005) that ‘’There is no law, no principle, based on past

practice, which may not be overthrown in a moment, by the arising of a new

condition, or the invention of a new materials.” The author also notes that timber

is classified as - structural; ply woods, glue laminated timber (Glulam). cross

laminated timber (CLT), particleboards, and the likes, and non-structural:

fiberboards (MDF and HDF) particleboards (MDF and HDP) and the likes. Wood

frame houses can be divided into two construction types based on their wall

framing: platform and balloon-frame. These two wood frame styles are

distinguished from timber frame building by their use of lightweight, thin,

factory-milled lumber, and simply cut with nailed connections. Proper lumber

manufacturing requires compact crews, a minimally-skilled work force, and

rudimentary tools (Lanier and Herman 1997). Balloon-frame is a type of wooden

light-frame, formed by skeletons made of long pieces of timber, and sealed with

13
robust freestanding wooden panels. According to Anderson (1975), balloon-

frames have studs that extend from the sill of the first floor to the top plate or the

second-floor after, whereas the platform-framed wall is complete for each floor.

The platform-frame is the modern and rationalized evolution of balloon.

American Wood Council adds that its first floor wood beams are entirely covered,

forming a platform upon which the exterior and interior walls are erected. Thallon

(2008) state the platform is the most popular housing system in use today in North

America. Timber was the most predominantly used building material until the

second half of the 19th century (Douglas, 1995). Today, advocates of timber as a

building material opined that the material is attractive while its opponents argued

that its unreliable strength and weak fire resistance are the most common 21st

century human habitat issues. Östman (2010) states that, the combustibility of

timber is one of the main reasons that too many building regulations and

standards strongly restrict the use of timber as a building material. Fire safety is

an important contribution to feeling safe, and an important criterion for the choice

of materials for buildings. The main precondition for increased use of timber for

buildings is adequate fire safety. Worldwide, several research projects on the fire

behaviour of timber structures have been conducted over about the past two

decades, aimed at providing basic data and information on the safe use of timber.

Novel fire design concepts and models have been developed, based on extensive

testing. The current improved knowledge in the area of fire design of timber

14
structures, combined with technical measures, especially sprinkler and smoke

detection systems, and well-equipped fire services, allow safe use of timber in a

wide field of application. As a result, many countries have started to revise fire

regulations, thus permitting greater use of timber.

2.3 Qualities Of Timber As A Building Material

The qualities of timber as a building material include availability, physical and

aesthetic qualities, workability and versatility, environmental sustainability,

flexibility of space arrangement, dry construction, industrial production and

comparative cost effectiveness (Gregory, 1984; Nolan, 1994 and Whitelaw,

1990).

• Availability and Acceptability

Timber is locally available in Nigeria. It can be purchased from local suppliers

and transported to site using even small vehicles. Timber is accepted as an

attractive building material in most cultures.

• Physical and Aesthetic Qualities

Timber has a high strength to weight ratio making it an attractive framing

material. Some species are highly resistant to rot. Timber withstands humidity

with less structural change than other building materials. It is very durable and

there are numerous finishes available to protect and enhance the natural beauty of

the material. These sealants and protective finishes promote its durability. If well

15
protected and well installed, timber can last for centuries with minimum

maintenance (Sturges, 1991). Timber is more heat resistant than bare steel, as

charring forms an insulating layer that protects the inner core of the material.

Heavy timber construction is less prone to damage by short-term high

temperatures allowing for a longer period for evacuation in case of fire.

• Workability and Versatility

Timber can easily be shaped by simple hand tools. It can be cut, planed and

chiselled. There are many ways to connect timber to timber or to other materials

since timber can easily be secured or fastened with nail, screws, bolts and other

connectors. There are many design options possible with wood that are not

practical with inorganic materials such as concrete or steel. The design

performance required by a particular building application can be more flexibly

matched by selecting timber of the appropriate density, compressive and tensile

strength, colour, texture and fire resistance (Anderson, 1970).

• Environmental Sustainability

Environmental sustainability recognises that human activity over time and the

health of the environment are interdependent and that environmental health has

necessary social, political and economic determinants. Probably the most

significant environmental benefit of timber is its renewability and

biodegradability (Resource Assessment Commission, RAC, 1991). It has low

16
manufacturing process energy and benign air emissions (Townsend and Wagner,

2000). Timber is an excellent insulator against hot or cold weather. The old ‘’log-

house’’ remains a model for minimum energy consumption in buildings

(Ogunsote, 1993).

• Flexibility of Space Arrangement

Partitions made from timber can easily be moved around to change layout in

response to new functional requirements.

• Dry Construction

Unlike concrete floors, timber floors do not require a curing period before

achieving maximum strength. Construction is therefore faster. Finishing is also

faster, since timber walls can be painted immediately, unlike plastered walls

which require several days to dry.

• Industrial Production

Timber is especially well suited for mass production. Standard components such

as doors, windows, boards for walling construction, floor, ceiling and roof tiles as

well as skirting can be purchased in standard sizes.

• Comparative Cost Effectiveness

The local availability of high-quality wood and the abundance of local millers

make timber production less dependent on imports. Prices are relatively stable,

since they are less influenced by the volatile foreign currency exchange market.

17
This gives timber a cost-comparative advantage over other materials that have

high import content.

2.4 Limitations of Timber As A Building Material

i. Weathering and Decay

Timber decay arises from fungal attack in combination with excessive

moisture, while weathering occurs as a result of chemical and light

reactions (William, 1983). Luckily, there are certain methods of curtailing

the effects of weathering such as application of coatings on the surface of

the timber. There are two types of coating; those that form a thin layer on

the surface of the timber and those others that provide protection through

penetration without leaving any layer on the surface. The choice of coating

is dependent upon what is expected to be achieved. However, the

protective benefits of all coatings also depend on proper maintenance of

the coating. No coating will last indefinitely and all need to be periodically

reapplied

ii. Fire

As stated earlier in this chapter, fire safety is an important contribution to

feeling safe, and an important criterion for the choice of materials for

buildings. The main precondition for increased use of timber for buildings

is adequate fire safety. Studies have shown that initial charring in wood

18
 forms an insulating layer that protects the inner core of the material. This

means that a timber structure, if well designed, will remain capable of

carrying the load it has been designed for, even when exposed to fire for a

reasonable time for evacuation. However, the best control in timber

building as with other buildings is prevention in the first place and the use

of fire rated timber in places that are susceptible to fire outbreak.

iii. Termite Infestation

Termite control is of very high importance; however, the likelihood of

termite encroaching into a dwelling is not dependent upon the type of

frame used in construction. All that needs to be done is a simple adherence

to some basic principles of maintenance. Some of the processes involved

in controlling termite infestation are Suppression, Site Management, Soil

Barriers and choice of foundation.

a) Suppression: This involves the systematic location and destruction of

colonies, the inspection of timber products to treat an infested area,

the burning of infested lumber and heat treatment of reclaimed

lumber.

b) Site Management: Site management is another avenue where termite

infestation can be controlled. This can be achieved through the proper

19
 disposal of construction debris, pegs and concrete form works rather

than burying them.

c) Chemical and Soil Barriers: Termite infestation can be controlled by

the application of environmentally friendly chemicals. Sharp sand laid

along the foundation footing has been found to be a very strong

barrier because they are too heavy for the termites to move and the

spacing between them is too small for the termites to squeeze through.

d) Slab and Foundation Details: Foundation walls and slabs can be

designed to inhibit their entering into the building. The detailing of

the foundation with concrete cap will force termites to the surface

where they can easily be detected. Foundations without the concrete

cap allow easy and hidden boring of termites.

iv. Ecological effects of deforestation

Of course, there remains the danger of abuse and overuse if the

application of timber in construction is not properly monitored. Ramage,

et al (2017) states that, in many parts of the world, forest products are

mostly timber that is used for construction and in order to make sure that

it is available in the nearer future, deforestation has to be controlled. The

author also states that, preserving of the forests will not only supply

timber products but also help in controlling the amount of carbon

emitted into the atmosphere. This means that the sustainability of even

20
 timber is dependent upon man-made practices to control and regulate its

usage. Akpan-Ebe (2015) stated that, Nigeria had a rich rainforest, 39%

of the southern part of Nigeria was covered by the rainforest, but

presently only 10% can be accounted for. The author also noted that due

to activities such as over population, urban development and illegal

felling has led to an increase in deforestation. In the same vein, Oriola,

(2009) states that exploitation has also played a role in the depletion of

Nigeria’s forests, the author also states that 60,000 ha is lost yearly and

only 25,000 ha is restored, which is below standard. Also noted is N180

billion which is lost annually which in turn affects the economy of the

country. Also noted is the fact that most of the timber are being cut

down and used as a source of fuel. At this rate, Nigeria will eventually

have to lean on the importation of wood and other timber products.

v. Lack of expertise

There is a disturbing lack of expertise in the area of timber application

especially in Nigeria. This has made it near impossible to promote its

use as most builders and other stakeholders in the construction industry

would rather opt for more familiar construction materials.

2.5 Sustainability in Nigeria.

One of the most important questions in environmental sciences is how we can

continue improving human welfare within the limits of the earth’s natural

21
resources. A possible solution to this dilemma is sustainable development, a term

popularized by ‘’Our Common Future’’, the 1987 report of the World

Commission on Environment, chaired by Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Harlem

Brundtland (and consequently called the Brundtland Commission). In the words

of this report, sustainable development means ‘’meeting the needs of the present

without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own

needs’’(Cunninghan,1992). This implies that, sustainable building material is the

one that does not have much negative impact on the environment. It also means

the utilization of resources available to the present generation without depriving

the future generation of resources for their effective living.

Kanayo et al (2013) states that, in recent time, the concept of sustainable

development cannot be overemphasized. Since the early 1980s, the term

'sustainable development' has been used widely and indiscriminately. The term

began to gain popularity, when it became increasingly fashionable to use it as a

way of responding to global environmental concerns, biophysical issues, fairness,

equity and distribution. With this in mind, the Millennium Development Goals

(MDGs) were put up in recent times to address and include the issue of

sustainability in development. In essence, this study is carried out with a view to

enhance the understanding about the analytical content of sustainable

development as well as sensitizing the Nigerian economy to key into the current

wave of sustaining the global economy. In the light of some of the environmental

22
as well as socio-economic challenges permeating the Nigerian economy, it is

therefore required that the Nigerian government concentrate on key areas that can

help boost and sustain its developmental objectives.

Shefii et al (2006), states that, the concept of sustainability in building and

construction has initially focused on issues of limited resources, especially

energy, and on how to reduce impacts on the natural environment with emphasis

on technical issues such as materials, building components, construction

technologies and energy related design concepts. Recently, an appreciation of the

significance of non-technical issues (soft issues) has grown, giving recognition to

economic and social sustainability concerns as well as cultural heritage of the

built environment as equally important. Sustainable construction has different

approaches and different priorities in various countries resulting from the market

economies. Unsurprisingly, there are divergent views and interpretations of the

term between the developed and developing countries.

According to Jiboye, (2019) Sustainable urbanization seeks to pursue

development in harmony with the protection of environmental quality. Providing

an effective housing policy framework constitutes one of the major instruments

required for Sustainable urbanization. One fundamental premise for sustainable

development is the recognition that environment and development is not exclusive

of one another, but is complementary and inter-dependent and in the long run

mutually reinforcing. This complexity explains the difficulty in operationalizing

23
the concept; and in terms of its definition, sustainable development stands on

three pillars adopted by the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development

(WSSD). These pillars include social development, economic development and

environmental protection. The primary objective of sustainable development is to

reduce absolute poverty as adopted and contained in Agenda 21 and produce a

global programme of action for sustainable development in the 21st century. Thus,

Agenda21 stresses the importance of good governance through effective

partnerships among stakeholders in improving social, economic and

environmental quality in the urban areas.

According to Okereke (2006), a sustainable material should possess the following

characteristics:

- Easily available and affordable, preferably locally;

- Meets with the requirements as specified in National Standards; in terms

of durability and maintainability;

- Should be environmentally friendly and should not constitute any health

hazard;

- Should be versatile in usage, that is, it could be used for different

purposes (as walling materials, flooring, etc).

It is obvious that timber has these qualities. Timber apart from its warmth

creates a welcoming environment and also blends naturally with nature while

24
 at the same time creating an authentic appeal that most other materials do not

have. Wood is also a natural product that degrades after its life cycle without

much impact on the environment. The strength and durability of wood is

evident in many heritage buildings that can be found worldwide. Timber

construction can therefore be seen as agents of green architecture. A green

design reduces resource consumption both by ensuring that a structure lasts

and that it can be easily adapted if necessary:

Wood structures require less energy to build and to operate, which reduces our

reliance on fossil fuels. Wood can be recycled and renewed, again and again and

only few other materials can match the unique combination of benefits; strength,

affordability and environmental sustainability of wood. The embodied energy of

materials in buildings forms a significant component of the total life cycle energy

consumption. This measures the total energy required to transform raw materials

into ready- to- use building products. It is expressed in gigajoules per tonne (GJ/t)

or megajoules per kilogram (MJ/kg). Embodied energy includes: (a) the energy

required to obtain raw materials and to process them; (b) the energy used in

transporting the material (at all stages); and (c) the energy used in construction.

The consumption of energy during each of the above stages can have similar

environmental impacts to the consumption of energy in the operation of the

building. Manufacturing of wood-based semi-finished and finished products also

requires little energy (Baba, 2014).

25
Research activities are now been sponsored, supported and carried out by

government, organizations and academia in an effort at analyzing, quantifying and

comparing environmental impact of building materials and design with

alternatives been sought for in natural products. However, little research effort has

been directed towards quantitatively determining the level of awareness and

perception of populace on the sustainability potentials of building materials

especially in Nigeria. Although, building materials specifications ideally comes

from the building consultants (especially architects), this cannot be without the

input and agreement with the client. Evidently, public perception of qualities of a

building material could to a great extent influence their choices. According to

Florez et al. (2010), market demand is a critical factor to be considered in

realizing sustainability goals since inappropriate materials choices may hinder the

desired sustainability objectives.

2.6 Timber in South Africa

Now let us assess a different study area on the same continent for better scope;

According to Sawmilling, South Africa (2019), CLT (Cross-Laminated Timber)

industry is still in its infancy. “Restrictive legislation is a hurdle that must be

overcome before we will be able to build very tall wood buildings here”, says

Stretton. “Alternative building methods face a lot of resistance.” This highlights

the importance of a research project like the ‘Hout Bay House’, which can help

identify the best solutions for our unique climate and context. South Africa was

26
the first country in Africa to implement a locally developed green building rating

tool and has a growing number of rated green building projects. South Africa is

considered a leader in commercial tree farming and therefore their saw timber

plantations associated with structural members are managed to world class

standards. These South African structural pine plantations are typically managed

on a 25-year rotation and would have undergone acute silvicultural management

in terms of on time pruning and thinning. The main aim would be to produce high

quality logs that yield structural grade lumber.

Nigeria would do well to follow in the steps of her African counterpart, and could

go further by checking the resistance to timber construction by encouraging the

conduct of research into the awareness level of the populace and perception on the

sustainability potentials of building materials and ways to improve such.

2.7 Timber in America

The United States is fortunate in having supplies of timber sufficient to support

large and diverse forest industries. Timber products in the United States comprise

about one-fourth of all raw materials used for manufacturing and for construction.

Nearly 80 cubic feet of wood products, or more than 2 cubic meters, is used by

the average American each year.

Ameria's rapidly expanding population - which is likely to double before the end

of the century - is making increasing claims on its forest, not only for greater

27
wood production but also for nontimber uses of the forest such as recreation and

water. Moreover, substantial withdrawals of timber land for such purposes as

highways, reservoirs and agriculture are in prospect. Thus, American foresters

face a real challenge in continuing to supply in the years ahead enough wood of

the right quality at reasonable prices and enough other forest services to meet

potential demands much larger than those of today.

Wood is one of the main features for housing construction in the United States.

Although there are more resistant materials such as brick and concrete, wooden

houses continue to be the favorite element in the American construction sector. In

this section, we are going to examine some reasons why Americans prefer

wooden houses.

• Origins

At the end of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th century, Europeans,

especially the British, arrived in North America, which led to the need to build

many houses in a very short time. Using wood was ideal because it allowed house

construction to be faster than using cement and brick. Wooden houses began as a

need to build houses quickly but ended up becoming an identity hallmark for

Americans.

• Material availability

28
In the United States, there are large forests where tree cutting takes place. For this

reason, it is very easy to find this material. Wood is also easy to work with, repair,

and locate.

• Economy

Derived from the previous point, the great abundance of wood in the United

States allows the prices to be significantly less than the material used in other

continents, like brick and cement.

• Mobility

There are numerous studies that indicate that Americans have a high mobility

rate. They can change their homes up to five times, so building wooden houses

quickly and affordably allows them to relocate. This high mobility encourages

cheap house construction in a fast way.

• Reduced taxes

Depending on the state in which the house is built, taxes on wooden houses can be

much lower than taxes on houses built with cement and brick.

• They are easy to build

If you are skilled, you can build a wooden house. Not so long ago, there were

numerous kits in the US market that allowed the owner to build their own wooden

house. These packages included everything you needed so that in a few months

you could build, for example, a house in the countryside at a very low cost. Of

29
course, you must be very crafty and have some architecture knowledge, but, in

short, working with wood is very simple.

• They are safe

Unlike brick, wood is a flexible material capable of withstanding low-intensity

earthquakes or light tornadoes. However, in areas that usually suffer this type of

inclement weather, houses have a brick basement where to shelter. If the house

suffers any damage from a tornado or earthquake, it is cheaper to repair it if it is

made of wood because the material is affordable.

Figure 2.2 A typical cottage house in America constructed entirely using Timber [with glass window frames]

2.8 Nigerian Timber Sources.

Nigeria has a number of wood types used in the construction and furniture sector,

Adesogan (2013) identifies them to be: Omo (Cordia millenii) which is rarely

30
used, Opepe (Nauclea diderrichii), Ayo (Holoptalia grandis), Agba

(Gossweilerodendron balsamiferum), Erun (Erythrophum suavecolens), Apado

(Conluea gradiflora), Iroko and Afara (T.ivorensis) which are mostly used during

construction or projects. The building projects consist of about 90 and in the zone

involving the use of ‘Omo’, while 86 use ‘Afara’. Iroko (M.exelsa), Opepe (N.

diderrichii), Ayo (H.grandis) Agba (G.balsamiferum), Erun (E.suavecolens),

Apado (C.gradiflora) are wood species that are not in high usage. ‘Omo’ and

‘Afara’ are highly favored in modern building construction due to the fact they

can be used in various ways, they are used for structural, functional and

aesthetical purposes. Teak (Tectona grandis), Nigerian Mahogany (Khaya

ivorensis), Arere (Triplochiton scleroxylon), Apa (Afzelia africana), Oro

(Nasogoidonia papaverifera) have moderate attention and can also be used for

both structural, functional and aesthetical purposes. Iroko, Opepe, Agba, Erun and

Apado are found only to serve structural purposes. They are usually restricted in

building projects for purposes aside from structural. This accounts for their low

demand. Omo and Afara are readily available in Southwestern Nigeria markets.

Good quality wood of this species can be found in Ibadan but good quantities of

Iroko, Ayo, Erun etc. are not available to meet their user demands even though

they have good mechanical characteristics. Omo and Afara are mostly used

because of their mechanical properties. Afara one of the most important species,

has a yellowish-brown colour, rather coarsely textured with somewhat variable

31
grain. Afara is known to be more compactable with seasoning, good stability and

has increased strength characteristics when dry. It works well (including turning)

and stains and polishes excellently. According to Brough (1964) as cited in

Adesogan (2013), Omo is known to have a good scent, strong, and durable; it

adheres well to glue and stain and its known to be soft and polishable. The colour

differs from a pale yellow to a deep pinkish red. Known for its outdoor usage, its

highly regarded because of its durable and resilience characteristics. Iroko which

is different from Omo is a fine wood, also known as “African teak” but of a

different species. It has good working qualities. It is a strong, moderately hard,

very durable timber of fairly open grain, its color varies from pale to dark brown

and of good appearance. Iroko has a good appearance and can be used in indoor

and outdoor motives. Due to depletion and exhaustion from the forest, these good

quality wood species are not seen in modern built projects. Opepe is generally

yellow or yellowish-brown in colour, grain is interlocked, though a few straight

grained planks can be obtained, when quarter sawn it has an attractive ribbon

stripe shape. Treating with preservatives is not easy and is prone to beetles. Opepe

wood has a coarse textured and has high chance to split or check while seasoning.

Agba has a yellowish-pink to reddish-brown color, known to have a straight grain

and a fine even texture. It is easy to work with, but has the tendency to be rather

gummy and prone to beetle’s attack. Oro is red-brown with fine texture, slightly

greasy when touched, durable and easy to pick up when quarter-sawn. It is limited

32
due to the high chance it may warp slightly during seasoning but when fully dried

it becomes stable. ‘Agbonyin’ also called sapwood is light in colour and can

easily be differentiated from the light golden-brown heartwood. This timber is

hard to work with and splits while nailing. It slow while seasoning when dry it

becomes stable and relatively strong. Arere is known to be light in weight. This

timber is soft and it’s naturally pale in colour. Teak as characterized by its texture

is a little coarse and has a greasiness to the touch. The rays are not visible, but

pores can be differentiated. It is relatively hard to work. Shrinkage is slight and it

does not warp or twist. It has very high fore-resisting qualities and is immune to

the attack of the white ant. Its resistance to crushing and transverse strain has

rendered it practically indispensable for railway carriage construction. The timber

stands up well to alternate wet and dry conditions, so it has gained popularity for

decking ships’. Teak is the only Nigerian timber in construction that can rival

British oak.

2.9 Sustainable Timber Management

In order to ensure that the significance of this study is achieved and not

counteracted, proper management techniques must be carried out to sustain

supply of Timber products. The following are some sustainable timber

management practices;

33
2.9.1 Forest management

Deforestation has been a major ecological problem for so long now. Besides the

obvious scarcity of timber and forest products, it also proves to be a harbinger of

forest life decimation. More than one hundred leaders have promised to end and

reverse deforestation by 2030, in the COP26 climate summit’s first major deal.

This is to tell how much of a universal issue it has become. Oriola, (2009) noted

that, in developed countries the term sustainable is only applicable as long as the

source of the resource never runs out, this can be achieved only when the forest is

managed properly and replenished adequately. One major forest that is still

organized even after it was misused by the military is the Teak Forest which is

located in the South Western parts of Nigeria. Attention is not only directed to the

timber but also to the broader picture of forest management. The author states that

management of forest encompasses timber harvest, biodiversity, soil, water

conversation and landscape amenities. This in turn will balance the needs of today

and in return provide for that of future generations.

2.9.2 Waste management

Waste wood is regarded as the byproduct of wood after it has been used for some

activities, it could either be industrial, construction, and furniture and they include

various forms, such as; logging residues such as stumps and branches, byproduct

of sawmills and papermills after primary process has been completed on wood

which come in form of bark, sawdust and shavings, secondary process waste such

34
as pallets, cabinets and the likes, and boxes and pallets which are generally used

for packaging and later degraded (M’hamdi, et al 2017). Also, Neuhäuser, et al

(2014) agrees that wood waste can be used to develop innovative materials and

products because it is a renewable material which is already highly used.Properties

of Selected Hardwood

More viewpoints influence the suitability of use of specific wood. The dominant

viewpoint is the resource availability, which reflects the most important criterion

– material price. In addition, it is necessary to take into account mechanical and

physical properties of selected wood as described below (and as seen in table 4.1

in the next chapter).

2.10 Mechanical Properties of Selected Hardwood.

2.10.1 Teak (Tectona grandis)

Teak (Tectona grandis) is a tropical hardwood tree species in the

family Lamiaceae. It is a large, deciduous tree that occurs in mixed hardwood

forests. Tectona grandis has small, fragrant white flowers arranged in dense

clusters (panicles) at the end of the branches. These flowers contain both types of

reproductive organs (perfect flowers). The large, papery leaves of teak trees are

often hairy on the lower surface. Teak wood has a leather-like smell when it is

freshly milled and is particularly valued for its durability and water resistance.

The wood is used for boat building, exterior construction, veneer, furniture,

35
carving, turnings, and other small wood projects. Tectona grandis is nativeto south

and southeast Asia, mainly; Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar,

Thailand and Sri Lanka, but is naturalised and cultivated in many countries

in Africa and the Caribbean. Myanmar's teak forests account for nearly half of the

world's naturally occurring teak. Molecular studies show that there are two

centres of genetic origin of teak: one in India and the other in Myanmar and Laos.

Teak wood is yellowish. It darkens as it ages. Sometimes there are dark patches

on it. There is a leather-like scent in newly cut wood. Its texture is hard and ring

porous. Density varies according to moisture content: at 15% moisture content it

is 660 kg/m3.

2.10.2 Nigerian Mahogany (Khaya ivorensis)

Khaya ivorensis, often known as African mahogany or Lagos mahogany, is a tall

forest tree in the Meliaceae family with a buttressed trunk. It grows mostly in

lowland tropical rainforests in Angola, Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire, Gabon, Ghana,

Liberia, and Nigeria. It is endangered due to habitat loss.

Figure 2.2 Mahogany timber logs

36
Khaya ivorensis is a mahogany species native to Africa. Gold Coast mahogany,

Ivory Coast mahogany, and Nigerian mahogany are some of the other frequent

names for this wood. It reaches a height of 40–50 meters. The bark is thick and

reddish brown. It produces a large number of white flowers at the tips of its

branches. It has a little, thinner, woody fruit than Khaya grandifoliola.

2.10.3 Oak (Quercus spp.)

Oak is a hardwood that is commonly referred to as the "king of English trees." It

is highly robust, dense, long-lasting, and resistant to fungal attacks, making it less

susceptible to deterioration and decomposition. Oak is regarded as one of the best

and most durable woodworking materials. Its versatility makes it suitable for both

aesthetic and sophisticated building projects.

There are around 600 different species, both evergreen and deciduous. Because of

the high tannin content of oaks, they come in a variety of colors, ranging from the

common golden color to red oak and white oak (Quercus alba). The strength,

durability, and defined grain of European Oak are its main characteristics. It is

resistant to fungal infections due to its robust constitution and lengthy

37

Figure 2.3 Silver Oak timber log

 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction to Methodology

This chapter discusses the methodology used in the study of the appraisal of

timber as a construction technique for residential homes in Nigeria. Because

exhaustive research has been carried out on the scope of study, howbeit with

better experience and available resources, I found it wise that I first document

relevant Laboratory Tests in order to have an overview of the mechanical

properties of wood as a construction material; particularly in terms of

compressive strength and bending resistance. Data & values from these tests

shall be taken over from specialized literature from the following authors; 1David

W. Green et. al (1999), and also 2Henry R. Clauser & McGraw-Hill, (1975). In

addition to this, and in order to highlight my own contribution to this project, I

will be carrying out a step-by-step wood beam design making use of statistical

analysis to obtain the average of the data presented. For the purpose of this

chapter and subsequent ones, the following species of hardwood shall be

considered; Nigerian Mahogany (Khaya ivorensis), Teak (Tectona grandis), and Oak

(Quercus spp.).

3.2 Laboratory Tests

In this section, I document two laboratory tests namely;

38
 a. Compression test on wooden cubes, To determine the compressive
strength of the cubes.

b. Bending Test on Wooden Beam, To determine the Modulus of Elasticity

and Modulus of Rupture of the wood.

These tests were carried out in accordance with the British Standard BS EN

408 (2003) Test for physical and mechanical properties of structural timbers.

3.2.1 Compression Test on Wooden Cubes When the Load is Applied

Objectives;

• To determine the compressive strength of the wooden cubes

• To observe the anisotropic behaviour of the wood.

• To determine the modulus of elasticity and modulus of stiffness

Apparatus; Compaction Test Machine (CTM), Wooden Cubes, Vernier Calliper,

Deflection Gauges.

Procedure;

1. First of all, determine the dimension of all three sides of the wooden cube by

the Vernier calliper.

2. Then fix the cube in the machine as shown in figure.

3. the load was increased in increments.

4. The load and deflection readings on machine and deflection gauges were

noted respectively.

39
Related Theory

The compressive strength of a material simply refers to maximum stress that a

material can bear in compression. The Modulus of Elasticity (E) is the ratio of

unit stress to unit strain. Takuro Hirai, (2005) states that wood has an anisotropic

characteristic arising from its fibrous structure roughly regarded as three

dimensional orthotropy. Modulus of Stiffness (K) is defined as force required

producing unit deformation.

σ P δ PL 1
𝑬= → 𝝈 = 𝑬𝝐 → = 𝑬 L → 𝜹 = AE 𝑠𝑜 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑎𝑦 𝜹 ∝ E
ϵ A

P
𝑷 ∝ 𝜹 → 𝑷 = 𝑲𝜹 𝑠𝑜 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑎𝑦 𝑲 =
δ

There is a theory on failure mechanisms in different directions applicable to load

application with respect to grains. When the load is applied parallel to grains, the

wooden sample will take more load to fail, the ability of wood to take more load

parallel to grains before failure is because each fiber acts as column to the applied

load and so even after the failure of the single fiber the rest of the fibers will keep

on taking the load. However, when the load is applied perpendicular to the grains,

the wooden sample takes comparatively less load. This is because the failure of

the single fiber will lead to the failure of the whole sample. The strength of the

wooden sample when the load is applied parallel to the grains is about ten times

more as compare to when the load is applied perpendicular to grains.

40
Figure 3.1 compression test on wooden cube

3.2.2 Bending Test on Wooden Beam

Objectives;

• To study the bending or flexural behavior of the beam.

• To determine the Modulus of Elasticity and Modulus of Rupture of

the wood

Apparatus; 10-ton Buckton UTM, Deflection Gauges, Wooden Beam,

Measuring Tape

Procedure;

1. First of all, measure the breath and height of the wooden sample through the

measuring tape.

2. Fix the wooden beam sample in 10-ton Buckton UTM.

3. Fix the dial gauges under the beam as shown in the figure above, according

to the distances shown.

4. Now apply the load gradually on the beam and note down the amount of

deflection against each loading.

41
5. Note down all the deflection up to failure of specimen and finally find the

Modulus of Elasticity, Modulus of Rupture from their respective formulae.

Precautions;

1. Apply the loads gradually so that we can read the deflection against each

reading easily.

2. Remove the gauges before the failure load, otherwise they may get damaged.

Related theory:

- Shear force is the sum of all the forces acting perpendicular to the section or

forces which tend to slides two part of the section on each other.

- Elastic Curve is A line representing the deformed form of the center line of

the beam is known as Elastic Curve.

- Flexural Stress are Stresses produced by the bending moment

- Stresses refer to Internal resistance of the material against loading

- Flexural Equation is the fundamental relationship between the Bending

M σ F
moment and geometry of deformation. Given as; =y=R
l

- Flexural Formula gives a relationship between bending moment and

My
flexural stresses. σ = l

- Modulus of Rupture is the maximum tensile stress which can be developed

in the beam before failure.

42
 Figure 3.2 Load is being applied on wooden beam in 10ton Buckton UTM

Figure 3. 3 Scheme of strength and elasticity modulus tests by four-point bending method

43
 CHAPTER FOUR

DESIGN, DATA AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Mechanical Properties of Selected Hardwood

The mechanical properties presented in the table 4.1 (David W. Green et. al, 1999),

4.2 (Henry R. Clauser, McGraw-Hill, 1975), and 4.3 (according to wood-

database.com, 2014) below were obtained from tests (by seasoned researchers) of

small pieces of wood termed “clear” and “straight grained” because they did not

contain characteristics such as knots, cross grain, checks, and splits. The

laboratory tests, I believe, were properly conducted, taking note of the necessary

precautions and making use of suitably working apparatus.

__________________________________________________________________
Table 4.2 Strength properties of some selected hardwood. David W. Green et. al (1999)

Common and Moistur Specifi Modulu Modulus Compressio Shear

botanical of paralle
name
e c s of n parallel to
Content gravity rupture elasticit grain (kPa) l to
(kPa) y (MPa) grain
(kPa)
Mahogany, African Green 0.42 51,000 7,900 25,700 6,400
(Khaya spp.) 12% 73,800 9,700 44,500 10,300
Teak Green 0.55 80,000 9,400 41,100 8,900
(Tectona grandis) 12% 100,700 10,700 58,300 13,000
Oak, red— Green 0.56 51,000 8,900 20,700 8,100
(Quercus rubra) 12% 0.69 100,000 13,100 48,500 11,400

Concrete 2.5% 2.3 -- 54,000 15,000 6,000

(For comparison) desirable 2.5 30,000 17,000

44
In Table 4.1 above, we are given range values for some strength properties such

as; Specific gravity, Modulus of rupture, Modulus of elasticity, Compression

parallel to grain. This ranges are obtained as a result of iterative tests performed

by the researchers.

I have included corresponding values of the aforementioned properties for

concrete, for the purpose of comparison and it is little surprise that every of the

timber species outperforms concrete in compression. It is general knowledge that

concrete lacks adequate compressive strength hence the need for reinforcements

which gives rise to added costs.

__________________________________________________________________
Table 4.2 Strength properties of some selected hardwood according to Henry R. Clauser, McGraw-Hill,
(1975)

Common and Mois Spec Modul (Flexural) Compressiv Shear Comments

botanical Modulus
name
ture ific us of e Strength paralle (Comparis
Cont grav ruptur of parallel to l to on of both
ent ity e (kPa) elasticity grain (kPa) grain tables)
(MPa) (kPa)
Mahogany, Gree 0.42 51,000 7,900 39,300 6,400 Only
African n 73,800 9,700 45,000 10,30 compressive
strength
(Khaya spp.) 12% 0 differs
Teak Gree 0.55 80,000 9,400 40,700 8,800 Com.
(Tectona n 100,70 10,700 65,000 13,00 Strength &
Shear
grandis) 12% 0 0 slightly
differs
Oak, red— Gree 0.56 53,100 8,890 22,100 7,720 All
parameters
(Quercus rubra) n 0.69 99,000 12,560 48,900 11,40 differ to
12% 0 varying
degrees

Concrete 2.5% 2.3 -- 54,000 15,000 6,000

(For desir 2.5 30,000 17,00
comparison) able 0

45
Comparing tables 4.1 & 4.2. We see that we only record a variance among all

three species for the compressive strength parameter, while there’s a variance of

Shear Strength for Teak and Red Oak species. We shall therefore focus our

statistical studies on these two.

Specific gravity for concrete is much higher than for any of the three timber

species. A clear indication that the strength-to-weight ratio for these timbers is

much more than it is for concrete. A detailed study (available online) on the

strength performance of building materials shows that timber has a strength-to-

weight ratio four to five times better than unreinforced concrete.

Timber’s superior strength qualities provide a versatile and reliable building

material for a wide range of structural applications – from beams, walls and

flooring through to formwork and large timber panels. Backed by several

Building Standards for design and construction, timber framed construction is

tough and reliable. When combined with good design and detailing, it can

withstand some of the most extreme weather conditions.

__________________________________________________________________
Table 4.3 Strength properties of some selected hardwood according to wood-database.com (2014)

Common and Mois Spec Modul (Flexural) Compressiv Comments

botanical Modulus (Comparis
name
ture ific us of e Strength
Cont grav ruptur of parallel to on of the
ent ity e (kPa) elasticity grain (kPa) three
(MPa) tables)
Mahogany, Gree 0.52 91,000 10,600 49,000 All values
African n 0.64 higher

46
(Khaya spp.) 12%
Teak Gree 0.55 97,100 12, 280 54,800 MOE higher.
Other
(Tectona n 0.66 parameters in
grandis) 12% accordance
Oak, red— Gree 0.65 120,00 12, 211 61,000 MOR, Com.
strength
(Quercus rubra) n 0 higher, MOE
12% in accordance

Concrete 2.5% 2.3 -- 54,000 15,000

(For desir 2.5 30,000
comparison) able

Comparing table 4.3 to the previous two (4.1 & 4.2), we find that all parameters

are higher in comparison for African Mahogany, MOE is higher in Teak, while

MOR & compressive strength is recorded higher for Oak.

4.2 Statistical Calculations and Discussions

Table 4.4 below gives a comprehensive and descriptive analysis of the tables that

have hitherto been discussed in this chapter, with respect to those parameters in

which variances had been recorded. The comparative means are given as well as

the standard deviations. It can be noted that the range (i.e difference between min

& max values) were all moderately placed except in the case of compressive

strength for Oak.

47
________________________________________________________________________________________
Table 4.4 Descriptive statistical analysis of Tables 4.1, 4.2 & 4.3
Statistics

Compressive (Flexural) Compressive

(Flexural) Strength Shear Modulus of Strength

Modulus of parallel to parallel to Elasticity parallel to

Elasticity Mpa grain (kPa). grain (kPa). Mpa .Oak, grain (kPa).

. Teak. Teak Teak red Oak, red

N Valid 3 3 2 3 3

Missing 0 0 1 0 0

Mean 10793.33 52450.00 10925.00 11278.67 43700.00

Median 10050.00 52850.00 10925.00 11000.00 35500.00

Std. Deviation 1287.491 2573.422 35.355 733.819 14988.996

Range 2230 5100 50 1386 26400

Minimum 10050 49700 10900 10725 34600

Maximum 12280 54800 10950 12111 61000

48
4.3 Results From Compression Test on Wooden Cubes

Figure 4.1 When the load is applied parallel to grains Figure 4.2 When the load is applied perpendicular to grains

Graph 4.1

When the load is applied parallel to grains, the failure of the sample is due to

shear failure, which results in cracks at edges. During load applied perpendicular

to grains, the failure is also shear failure, however we have bulging effect due to

fiber sliding over one another. If we are designing any wood structure, we should

keep in mind that load should be applied on wood to the parallel to its grains

49
 because doing so strength is approximately ten times more than when the load is

applied perpendicular to grains.

4.4 Wood Beam Design

For the purpose of this beam design, the predominant wood type, Iroko (Teak) is

selected. The design of the selected structural member has been broken down into

steps as highlighted below.

I. Find bending moment

II. Determine max allowable stress for grade of timber

III. Determine form factor for rectangular section

IV. Find max allowable bending stress

V. Determine section modulus

VI. Adopt a suitable width ‘b’

VII. From that, determine depth ‘d’

VIII. Check for shear

IX. Find max shear stress in the beam

X. Find bearing stress at supports

XI. Provide suitable beam section

50
Figure 4.3 Simply Supported timber beam

Design for a Teak Timber beam carrying a UDL of 16 kN/m including its self-

weight. It is simply supported at both ends. [Take L = 5.3m, 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 300𝑚𝑚]

wl^2 16 x 5.32
I. bending moment = = = 56.18 kN/m
8 8

II. next, we determine the maximum allowable stress for standard grade of

teak timber (from timber design of structures) 𝝈cp = 10.2 N/mm2

III. Determine form factor for rectangular section as K3

𝐷 2 + 89400
Where; K3 = 0.81 [ 𝐷2 + 55000 ] Assume depth of beam as 400.
4002 + 89400
Then, K3 = 0.81 [ ] = 0.9396
4002 + 55000

IV. The max allowable bending stress (F); Since D>300mm

= K3 X 𝝈cp = 0.9396 x 10.2
F = 9.584 N/mm2
V. Determine the section modulus

𝑀 𝑓 𝑓𝐼 𝐼
; = then, M = but Z = 𝑦
𝑙 𝑦 𝑦
𝑀
⸫ M = f . Z and Z = 𝑓

51
 𝟓𝟔.𝟏𝟖 𝑲𝑵𝒎
Z = 𝟗.𝟓𝟖𝟒 𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐 = 5862.5 cm3

VI. Adopting a suitable width ‘b’. We have the condition that the beam is
laterally supported.
𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛 (𝑚𝑚) 𝑑 5.3 𝑥 103
If b > & b>3 Then, b= = 106 mm
50 50

Then adopt b = 240 mm

VII. From that, determine depth ‘d’

𝑏𝑑2
section modulus Z = 6
240𝑑2
5862479 mm3 = Then, d = 382.8 mm
6

Then adopt d = 400 mm

𝑑 400
= = 133.3 < b <OK>
3 3

VIII. Check for Shear

𝑤𝑙 16 𝑥 5.3
Maximum shear force at edge of the support; V = = = 42.4 𝐾𝑁
2 2

IX. Maximum shear stress in the beam (fsh)

3𝑉 3 𝑥 42.4
fsh = 2 𝑏𝑑 = 2 𝑥 240 𝑥 400 = 662.5 𝐾𝑁/mm2

X. Bearing stress at supports.

𝑉 (𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒) 42.4

= 300 𝑥 240 = 0.59 mm
𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑋 𝑏

⸫ Safe working stress in compression perpendicular to the grain = 2.6

𝐾𝑁/mm2
[from IS833 Design of Timber structures]
2.6 > 0.59 Therefore. Our design is safe.

Provide a rectangular beam section 240 x 400

52
4.5 Timber Frame Construction Process

• Necessary design calculations are made as seen above

• Foundations and floor slab are installed.

• Scaffolding is erected before the walls are started.

• The timber frame (which forms the inner leaf of the main wall) is erected

according to the plans and specifications.

• Internal stud work which forms the rooms is also erected to give the timber

frame rigidity.

• Roof trusses are put in place (after additional bracing to the frame is provided

to avoid distortion to the timber frame), roofing felt is added and any joints in

the breather membrane is taped. The whole building is then given sufficient

time to dry out.

• Once dry the roof tiles are fitted. By doing this the weight of the roof tiles

compresses the timber frame to avoid differential movement between the

timber frame and masonry leaf at a later time.

• Insulation is added to the inside of the timber frame and the vapour barrier is

attached to the inner face of the frame.

• The masonry outer leaf of the wall is erected and tied to the timber frame with

wall ties.

53
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

Based on the outcome of the study, the following conclusions were drawn;

I. Although 40% of constructions in North America are timber based,

Nigeria still largely shies away from making use of Timber as structural

members. This appears to be because of presence of sentimentality

amongst Nigerians on the issue of building materials which affects what

would be their preferred choice. After interviewing an experienced

Engineer, he opines that Nigerian home owners are of the belief that

concrete-built houses provide more security for them and their family

because of the thickness and sheer weight of the sand-crete walls. People

tend to think timber framed houses are poorer quality than houses

constructed in traditional cavity construction.

II. The project was able to highlight the advantages of Timber over concrete

in construction. These include; higher strength-to-weight ratio,

affordability and wider availability, lower carbon emission and

workabilstrenhree selected timber species; African Mahogany (Khaya

spp.), Teak (Tectona grandis), Oak (Quercus spp.). all outperformed

54
 (unreinforced) concrete In compressive strength. This suggests that

timber-based structures are generally less prone to collapse or failures.

III. Timber is an environment friendly material for construction industry. The

study proved again that timber strength performances especially

eucalyptus, were good enough for even more modern constructions, and

its cost was still affordable. However, it was also noted that its application

was still limited mainly to roof construction. In order to promote the

timber application in local modern construction, it is suggested that all

properties and performances should be established, especially through

testing. Finally, such factors as the planting of more trees, improving

laboratory facilities, and training of more experts in the wood and timber

technology would contribute to the application promotion

5.2 Recommendations

I. It would be economically and environmentally beneficial for the Nigerian

government as well as other concerned bodies, to find ways of promoting

the use of Timber in construction and to shift some focus off the use of

concrete and steel.

II. Subsequent studies pointing to the promotion of timber in residential

construction should be encouraged. Researches would go a long way in

correcting the biases of stakeholders concerning the use of Timber

structural members.
55
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58