CHAPTER 3: Magnetic Method

• The oldest branch of Applied Geophysics

• Von Werde located deposits of ore by mapping variations in the magnetic
field in 1843.
• In 1879, Thalen published the first geophysical manuscript entitled The
Examination of Iron Ore Deposits by Magnetic Measurements.
• Uses natural field’s of the earth (Passive Method)
• Relatively easy, cheap, & few corrections are needed

Objective: This is a method applying for

- Mineral exploration
- Locating buried structures (faults, dykes)
- Locating buried pipes, cables, mines,---
- Oil exploration (usually as a reconnaissance mapping for basins)
- Archaeological surveys
- Detection of voids & tunnels
By measuring variation of the earth’s magnetic field intensity over an area of interest.

1
 Contents:
- Basic principles of magnetism
- The earth’s magnetic field
- Rock magnetism
- Measuring the earth’s magnetism
- Magnetic surveying & data processing
- Interpretation
- Areas of Applications
- Paleomagnetism and tectonics

2
 3.1 The Basic principles of magnetism
• Early studies of the magnetism of rocks started with the discovery of “Lodstone”
(magnetic rich rock) by the Chinese several centuries B.C.

• About five centuries ago, the English scientist William Gilbert, explained why the
compass points towards north by proposing, “the earth itself is a large magnet”.

William Gilbert

3
• The basic principle of magnetism is based on ideas about
- How magnets interact with one another
- How magnetism is produced
• The 18th century French Physicist Charles Coulomb described the
interaction of magnets in terms of forces acting at points called
Magnetic poles.

The force F acting on two poles having values of pole

strength P1 and P2, and separated by a distance r, is
expressed by coulomb’s Law,

 = Magnetic permeability (property of the medium)

 = 1 in vacuum
 1 in air & water
 1.3 x 10-6 H/m for most rocks 4
 3 x 4 x 10-7 for Ferromagnetic minerals
 Forces Associated with Magnetic Monopoles
• Assume that there is a negative magnetic pole, p1 < 0.0, located at a point x=-1
and y=0. Now, lets take a positive magnetic pole, p2 > 0.0, and move it to some
location (x,y) and measure the strength and the direction of the magnetic force
field.

As described by Coulomb's equation, the size of the arrows should decrease as the
square of one over the distance between the two magnetic poles* and the direction
of the force acting on p2 is always in the direction toward p1 (the force is
attractive)**. 5
• If instead p1 is a positive pole, this time located at x=1, the plot of
the magnetic force acting on p2 is the same as that shown above
except that the force is always directed away from p1 (the force is
repulsive).

• The magnetic monopoles that we have been describing have never

actually been observed!! Rather, the fundamental magnetic element
appears to consist of two magnetic monopole, one positive and one
negative, separated by some distance. This fundamental magnetic
element consisting of two monopoles is called a magnetic dipole. 6
 Magnetic Dipoles
• Any magnetic substance consists of two poles, positive and negative (North &
south) poles, because of their opposite effect.
• A magnet doesn’t loose its magnetism even if it is broken into small pieces. To
break a magnet is to immediately create two new magnets. Thus we use dipole to
describe a magnet.
•Only heat destroys magnetism. Magnetic materials loose their permanent
magnetism (become neutral) when they are heated to temperature (550oC)
•The force generated by a dipole is simply the force generated by one monopole
added to the force generated by a second monopole.

If we add these forces together using vector addition we get the green arrows. 7
• The magnetic force appears to originate out of the north pole,N, of
the magnet and terminate into the south pole, S, of the magnet.

8
 Magnetic Fields
• Since a magnet has the capacity to exert force (repeal or
attract) on other magnets or iron objects, it is said to be
surrounded by a “field of force” called its Magnetic field.

• Since the earth has the ability to attract another body

located on/above its surface, it has a field of force called
gravity field.

The earth is surrounded by Gravity

lines of force

9
• Similarly, the magnetic field around a magnet is represented by magnetic lines
of force as shown in the fig. below

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11
 +Po m (test mass)
rn rp
r
-P +P M

F-p = -1 PPo Fg = GMm

 r 2n r
2

F+p = 1 PPo
 r2p Gravity field: Force per unit
mass exerted by the earth on
the test mass.
g = Fg = GMm = GM
m r2 m r2
Magnetic field
Force per unit Pole strength exerted on the test pole, Po ,
B = Fp
P0
The magnetic field strength B or H is the magnetic analog to the gravitational
acceleration, g. 12
H -p = F-p = -1 P
Po  r2n
H= 1 P =F
 r2 P
H+p = F+p = 1 P
Po  r2p
Units of H:
1 dyne = 1 Oersted
1 UPS

1 gamma = 10-5 Oersted

13
 Origin of magnetism
Hans Christian Oersted (19th century) => observed that a wire carrying electric
current could change the bearing of a compass needle

Oersted's discovery

Additional experiments => show that the magnetic field of a dipole of pole
strength P & length l could be duplicated by passing electric current through a
coil of wire

The magnetic moment M (A measure of the strength of the dipole)

M = Pl = niA
P = niA A= cross-sectional area of the coil
l n=number of turns of wire
i= current 14
This implies pole strength can be expressed as the product of current
& length.
• The SI unit of pole strength is ampere-meter
• In cgs system 1 oersted = 1 dyne
abampere-cm

• The basic SI unit of Magnetic field intensity is the Tesla () named
after the famous inventor Nikola Tesla.
1 tesla = 1 Newton
ampere-meter
1 tesla =104 oersteds
1nT = 1 gamma = 10-5 oersteds

NOTE: For purposes of exploration Geophysics, usually, we use nT and

gamma units
15
• Conclusion: moving electric charges that are either free or bound
to atoms in mater create magnetic fields. Therefore, all magnetic
fields & magnets originate from electric charges in motion or
electric current.

Q) Is the reverse working? (Can a moving magnet generate an electric current?)

Yes, it does! It is explained by Electromagnetic theory

* When a proton spins inside the nucleus, it creates a magnetic field.

* Electrons are also orbits the nucleus and at same time appear to spin on an axis
like the earth turns on its axis while following in orbit around the sun.

* Because of these orbital & spin motions each electron & proton produces its own
dipole magnetic field. (i.e. a field with two poles, N&S). Metals have an
extremely large number of free electrons.

* In Fe, Co, Ni, & a number of alloys, adjacent atoms line up parallel to each other,
forming domains of atoms in which the magnetic moments point in the same
direction. 16
3.2 The Earth’s Magnetic Field (H or B)

• The total Magnetic Field on the earth’s surface

 Strongest in the polar regions
 70,000 gammas
 Diminishes near the equator
 30,000 gammas 17
 Where are the magnetic poles?
In reality, the surveyed magnetic pole is not a single point, but more likely an
area where many "magnetic poles" exist.
• south magnetic pole is located Northern Canada
• north Magnetic pole is located Antarctica class
The pole areas are not fixed points, but move tens to hundreds of kilometers
because of daily variations and magnetic storms,
Year Latitude Longitude
(°N) (°W)
2001 81.3 110.8
2002 81.6 111.6
2003 82.0 112.4
2004 82.3 113.4
2005 82.7 114.4

Observed position of the north Magnetic Pole

2001 64.7° S 138.0° E
Source: Canadian Geologic Survey

The most recent survey, completed in May, 2001, determined an updated position for
the Pole and established that it is moving approximately northwest at 40 km per18year.
 Origins Of The Earth’s Total Magnetic Field (BT)
• The earth’s magnetic field is generated by electric currents that are deep within
the Earth (internal) and high above the surface (external). All of these currents
contribute to the total geomagnetic field.
BT = Bext + Binter
• Bext (External Magnetic Field)
- Produced by electric currents in the earth’s ionosphere consisting of particles
ionized by solar radiation and put into motion by the solar tidal force.
- Causes BT to vary on a daily basis (diurnal variation)
- It is 0.5% BT

• Binter (internal field)

– The dipole field (BD)
– The field of rock magnetism (Brm)
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• BD (The Main Magnetic Field)
 Generated by the fluid outer core
 Accounts for the very large regional variations in the field
intensity & direction
 Accounts for 99% of BT

• Brm (The Anomalous Magnetic Field)

 Produced by ferromagnetic minerals in the earth’s crust
(magnetized crustal rocks)
 It is of principal interest to Exploration Geophysicists
20
Therefore, the total earth’s magnetic field is the sum of
BT = BD + Brm + Bext

21
The Earth’s magnetic elements
• The earth’s magnetic field (B, vector) at an observation site is
described by seven parameters (X, Y, Z, H, I, D, B) called Magnetic
Elements.
B = the total field intensity
D = declination angle b/n geographic N and direction
of magnetic pole (positive east of north)

I = Inclination angle b/n the field direction and a

horizontal plane (positive downwards & negative
upwards from the horizontal plane)

Let X, Y, Z = are the north, east, & vertical components

of B respectively.
Then
B2 = H2 + Z 2
H2 = X2 + Y2
B2 = X2 + Y2 + Z2
B = H =Z
B cos I sin I
Cos D = X/H
Sin D = Y/H
I = 900 => at the magnetic poles
I = 00 => at the magnetic equator
22
 3.3 Rock Magnetism
• Magnetic anomalies are produced by contrasts in rock magnetism

• All materials (elements, compounds, etc) are affected in some way by a

magnetizing field

- When no external field is applied

- Random distribution of the elementary dipoles

B - Application of an external field (B)

- The elementary dipoles are aligned along the external
field.

• When the external field is removed;

o The alignment disappear (loses its magnetization), and
o In some materials the alignment of the elementary magnets persist

23
• When a magnetic material, say iron, is placed within a magnetic field, H (B),
the magnetic material will produce its own magnetization. This phenomena
is called induced magnetization.

• The strength of the magnetic field induced from the magnetic material by the
inducing field is called the Intensity of Magnetization, I.

I = M (magnetic moment per unit volume)

V 24
 The intensity of magnetization, I, is related to the strength
of the inducing magnetic field, H, through a constant of
proportionality, k, known as the Magnetic Susceptibility.
+I

-H +H
- H can be changed by Varying the
coil current (i )
-I - Values of I corresponding to Small
H changes in H are plotted along a
straight line
i I= KH

The magnetic susceptibility (K) of the substance indicates the materials

capacity to acquire magnetism.

 From the graph, by reducing H to zero, I also become zero.

o This implies no permanent magnetism is retained
o This kind of magnetism, w/c is directly proportional to the magnetizing field, is
called Induced Magnetism. 25
 Magnetic Induction (B)
- An external field ( H ) applied to a magnetic body will have the
magnetic elements of the body aligned.

- The body magnetized & generate a field of its own H’

• Therefore, Let B is defined as the total field with in the body. Then,

B = H + H’ H’ = 4I and I=KH

B = H + 4k H
B = (1+4K) H = 1+4k
B = H

26
27
Let the magnetism of the bar changes in response to large variations of the
magnetizing field.
induced magnetic flux density
+I saturation - When there is no current (i) through
3 2 the coil
1 I=0
-B 4 7 +B
B=0
5
6 - By increasing the current, i
-I  B in creases
B  I also increasing & reaches a
maximum at point 2, where the
i
bar is said to become
magnetically saturated
- Further increase of B will not change I. Why?
· Because no more alignment of the elementary dipoles (magnetic domains) is
possible.
- When B is reduced to zero, some permanent magnetism I remains in the bar. This
is called Remnant Magnetization.
· I appears to “lag” behind B so that the bar retains some permanent 28
magnetism. This lagging effect is called Hysteresis.
• The balance of bonding energy and thermal energy can produce
freely reversible movements of the domain walls(magnetism) in
response to small changes in B.

• But larger changes require much greater shifts of the domain walls,
& these shifts are impeded by impurities & imperfections in the
crystal structure of the substance

• These impediments (obstacles) to free movement of domain walls

cause the Hysteresis effect.

• Materials can be classified in three groups according to their

magnetic Properties as
1. Diamagnetic
2. Paramagnetic, and
3. Ferromagnetic materials.

29
1. Diamagnetic Substances
• Small magnetic Fields produced by particle motions are randomly
oriented & cancel each other out, leaving atoms & ions with no net
magnetic field.
• It is characteristically observable in materials in which all electron
spins are paired.
• When placed in a magnetic field the orbital paths of the electrons rotate
so as to produce a magnetic field in opposition to the applied field.
 Small induced field produced opposite to applied field

 Thus total field is slightly less than the applied field

 Consequently, the susceptibility of diamagnetic substances is weak and
negative (Negative K)
 When the applied field removed; induced field disappears

Examples: Salt, Gypsum, Calcite, Quartz, Graphite,…

30
 2. Paramagnetic substances
• When one or more electron spins is unpaired, the net magnetic
moment of an atom or ion is no longer zero. The resultant magnetic
moment can align with a magnetic field.
• The small fields don’t cancel each other out but leave the atoms or
ions with net magnetic fields. However, since the atoms are
randomly arranged, the substance as a whole has no net magnetic
field. In these substances two effects occur;
1. Small induced field produced opposite to applied field
2. Small magnetic fields already existing are partially lined
up in same direction as applied field.
- Effect 2 is greater
- Net effect is total field larger than applied field
- Produces small positive Magnetic Anomaly (+K)
- Induced field disappears when applied field removed
Examples:- Olivine, Pyroxene, Amphibole, Biotite,--- 31
3. Ferromagnetic substance
Three effects:
1. Small induced field produced opposite to applied field
2. Domains w/c are oriented in a favorable direction grow larger
3. Domains may rotate to a more favorable direction
Effects 2 and 3 are very large effects
- The result is: a total field is considerable lager than applied field.
- Remove applied field,
Effect 1 and 3 disappears
Effect 2 remains & the substance becomes “permanently magnetized”
Examples: Iron, cobalt, Nickel & their alloys
- Ferromagnetic substances can be subdivided into
 True ferromagnetic
 Anti ferromagnetic
 Ferrimagnetic substances

• The strength of the magnetization of ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic substances

decreases with temperature and disappears at the Curie temperature. Above this
temperature inter atomic distances are increased to separations which preclude
electron coupling, and the material behaves as an ordinary paramagnetic
substance. 32
 I =0
I

I I
Figures: Schematic picture of spin moment alignment in substances; a) ferromagnetic
substance; b) antiferromagnetic; c) ferrimagnetic; d) canted antiferromagnetic
33
(modified after O’Reilly 1984)
 The magnetic properties of rocks and minerals
• Most common rock-forming minerals exhibit a very low magnetic
susceptibility and rocks owe their magnetic character to the generally small
proportion of magnetic minerals that they contain.

• By far the most common magnetic mineral is magnetite, which has a Curie
temperature of 578°C.

• Although the size, shape and dispersion of the magnetite grains within a rock
affect its magnetic character, it is reasonable to classify the magnetic
behaviour of rocks according to their overall magnetite content.

• Basic igneous rocks are usually highly magnetic due to their relatively high
magnetite content. The proportion of magnetite in igneous rocks tends to
decrease with increasing acidity so that acid igneous rocks, although variable
in their magnetic behaviour, are usually less magnetic than basic rocks.

•Common causes of magnetic anomalies include dykes, faulted, folded or

truncated sills and lava flows, massive basic intrusions, metamorphic
basement rocks and magnetite ore bodies. 34
Histogram showing mean values and ranges in susceptibility of common rock types.
35
(After Dobrin & Savit 1988).
The magnetic properties of rocks

36
The magnetic properties of minerals

37
 3.4 Measuring the Earth's Magnetic Field
• Geophysicists measure the earth’s magnetic field using
instruments called Magnetometers.
• Magnetometers are used
- To measure the strength of the field (in magnetic field
surveying)
- To measure the strength of magnetization of rock
samples (in the labs.)

• Several types of magnetometers have been invented to measure

one or another of the basic magnetic elements.
• From these the two main types commonly used now a days are:
- Proton precession magnetometer, and
- Fluxgate magnetometers
38
1. Proton precession magnetometer
• Measures the total magnetic field strength with out its direction
 Shows a total magnetic field intensity anomaly
• It is the most commonly used in ground surveys.
• It’s principle
- The sensor has a container with any liquid rich in hydrogen
(water, kerosene,---) & surrounded by a coil
- But mostly kerosene is chosen b/c it will not freeze in cold
weather

- The proton inside the Hydrogen atom acts as a tiny magnet and aligns with any
magnetic field
39
• When current flows in the coil
– produces a field larger than the earth’s field
– the protons align along it

• When the current switched off

– the protons realign with the earth’s field
– each proton is spinning(wobble) about the direction for a few seconds,
called precession

• Frequency of precession is proportional to the strength of the field

• A measurement of the frequency can be converted to give the

value of the field

40
2. Fluxgate Magnetometer
• Measures the vertical component of
the field
 In ground surveying
• It also measures the total field & its
direction
 In Aero magnetic &ship born surveys
• It’s principle:
- The sensor has two identical bars of
magnetic material wound by primary
coils in clockwise & counter clockwise
directions
- The detector coil (secondary coil) wound
around both bars.
- In the absence of external field the net
magnetic field induced is zero (b/c they
are equal and opposite).
41
• When the bars are aligned parallel to a component of the earth’s
field, one bar will produce a field in the same sense as the earth’s
field & strengthen it, where as the other will be in opposition to
the field

• The difference is proportional to the strength of the external

field(Horizontal or Vertical component of the earth’s field)

• Therefore, the instrument can Measures the component of the

earth’s field parallel to w/c the bars are aligned.

42
• Given the ease of use of the proton precession magnetometer, most
exploration geophysical surveys employ this instrumentation and thus
measure only the magnitude of the total magnetic field as a function
of position.

Surveys conducted using the proton precession magnetometer do not

have the ability of determining the direction of the total field as a
function of location.

43
3.5 Magnetic Surveying
• There are three types of magnetic survey
1. Ground Magnetic surveying
Like gravity surveys, magnetic surveys are also commonly
conducted on foot or with a vehicle. Ground-based surveys may
be necessary when the target of interest requires more closely
spaced readings than are possible to acquire from the air.

44
2. Aero magnetic surveying
Both fluxgate and proton precession magnetometers can either be
mounted within or towed behind aircraft, including helicopters.

45
3. Ship borne magnetic survey
Magnetic surveys can also be completed over water by towing a
magnetometer behind a ship.

46
Ground Magnetic survey
The field procedures for ground magnetic survey are;

i. Traverse directions and station spacing are 1stchoosen.

- Across the strike direction Depends on:

of the target
- Parallel traverses
with few crossing lines
- whether the survey is a detailed or reconnaissance
- dimension of the target
larger targets need larger spacing
- expected depth of targets
larger depth=> wider spacings (b/c their
anomaly spread out over a large area )
For detailed = narrow spacings
(Eg. In Mineral exploration)
For regional survey = wide spacings
(Eg. In oil exploration)

47
ii. Remove all metallic objects from the observer like rings, watches, knives, keys,
coins, compass, GPS, etc.

>10 m

iii. Avoid carrying out magnetic survey close to high power lines, railway lines,
automobiles, buried pipes, houses made of iron sheets, etc..

iv. Select a base station (at a location where the influence of the target is minimum)

v. Measure the location ( using GPS) & Time

48
 Aero magnetic Surveying
- Developed in 1930’s after the development of fluxgate magnetometers
- Requirements:
1. Continuously measuring and highly sensitive instruments
2. Positioning of the readings (Aerial photography, GPS,…)
3. Magnetic effects of the air craft (generated in the engine & other
moving part must be avoided. HOW?
By towing the magnetometer
behind the air craft by a long cable
(100-500 ft), in an apparatus called
a BIRD

In airborne magnetic surveying the magnetometer may be mounted rigidly

on the airplane at the end of a boom (A), or towed in an aerodynamic
49
housing behind the plane (B).
4. Flight altitude
• 50 to 75 m => for mineral exploration
• up to 2 kms => for oil exploration
5. Flight pattern
– the flight lines are closed contour loops.
– their spacing depend on the coast and scale of the survey (detail or
regional surveys)

50
Advantages of Aero magnetic surveys
1. Large area coverage in a relatively short time
2. For extensive areas, the field cost compared to ground
magnetic surveys is less (cheap)
3.Survey over inaccessible areas like dense forests, swamps, etc can
be carried out
4.Near surface artificial features like buildings, pipes don’t produce
anomalies (noises) in the records

Disadvantages
• Less Accuracy of data (esp. for mineral exploration)
• Expensive for detailed surveys (minimum requirement of an Air
craft)
51
 Ship borne Magnetic Surveys
• The fluxgate, proton precision, & optical pumping magnetometers are
commonly used.
• Minimize the magnetic effect of the ship,
by towing the instrument (called FISH) behind the
ship using a cable of length at least twice of the survey ship.

• Some applications are:-

- Playing a major role in the acceptance of the sea floor spreading & continental
drift
- Depths to the basement of H-C bearing thick offshore sedimentary basins
- Location of buried treasures, sunk ships, pipelines, cables, buried cities,---- 52
 Temporal variations
• Like the gravitational field, the magnetic field varies with time and it is called
temporal variation.
• These Temporal variations can be classified into three types.
1. Secular Variations - These are long-term (changes in the field that occur over
years) variations in the main magnetic field that are presumably caused by fluid
motion in the Earth's Outer Core. Because these variations occur slowly with
respect to the time of completion of a typical exploration magnetic survey, these
variations will not complicate data reduction efforts.

53
2. Diurnal Variations - These are variations in the magnetic field that occur over the
course of a day and are related to variations in the Earth's external magnetic
field. This variation can be on the order of 20 to 30 nT per day, and should be
accounted for when conducting exploration magnetic surveys.

54
3. Magnetic Storms - Occasionally, magnetic activity in the ionosphere will abruptly
increase. The occurrence of such storms correlates with the occurrence of
enhanced sunspot activity. The magnetic field observed during such times is
highly irregular and unpredictable, having amplitudes as large as 1000 nT.
Exploration magnetic surveys should not be conducted during magnetic storms.

55
 Magnetic data corrections/reduction
1. Correcting for Main Field Variations
-Corrections for variations in the strength of the Earth's main magnetic field are
referred to as geomagnetic corrections.

-One commonly used method of accounting for these variations is to use one of
the many models of the Earth's main magnetic field that are available.

-The commonly used models of the main field is referred to as the International
Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF).

- The IGRF models are regularly updated to account for secular variations.

- Given the latitude and longitude of some point on the Earth's surface, the total
field strength of the Earth's main magnetic field can be calculated.

56
57
 70,000 gammas (at the poles)

30,000 gammas (at the equator)

• So to remove the normal latitudinal variation, it increases 7 gammas/km in

N-S direction

• But mostly applied in regional surveys.

58
2. Diurnal variation correction

 daily fluctuations that occur mostly during the daylight hours

 when a portion of the ionosphere is exposed to direct solar
radiation
 It is stronger in the equatorial region & diminishes at higher
latitudes
 and it is somewhat larger during the summer than during the
winter

• This corrections are done by making a base station during the

survey, similar to the tidal correction during gravity survey.

59
3. Magnetic storms
- sudden change in magnetic field intensity when streams of charged particles
released from the sun bombard the earth.

- No correction is possible, the survey must be terminated during magnetic storms.

- Too strong & erratic to be adjusted

4. Instrument error correction

- Temperature & other effects on the instrument

H (gamma)

At the end of the

survey
time
Measurement
at the Start of
the survey
60
Magnetic Anomalies & their Interpretations

• The final step in

data processing is
the preparation of
profiles curves &
contour maps that
display magnetic
anomalies of the
geologic interest
or target.

61
62
63
64
65
66
• The interpretation of magnetic anomalies is similar in its procedures and
limitations to gravity interpretation as both techniques utilize natural potential
fields based on inverse square laws of attraction. There are several differences,
however, which increase the complexity of magnetic interpretation.
• Its more difficult to interpret magnetic anomalies than gravity anomalies. Because;
In gravity:
– the shape of the resulting gravity anomaly is a function of the subsurface
density distribution only
– the gravity anomaly will not change shape if the density distribution is moved
to a different location on the Earth, say from the equator to the north pole.
In magnetics:
– Magnetic anomalies are a function of two independent parameters;
• the subsurface distribution of susceptibility and
• the orientation of the Earth's main magnetic field.
– magnetic anomalies over the same susceptibility distribution will be different if
the distribution is at different locations, say one located beneath the equator
and one located beneath the north pole.
– the magnetic anomaly over a two-dimensional body such as a tunnel will look
different depending on the orientation of the tunnel, say east-west or north-
south, even if the magnetic profile is always taken perpendicular to the trend of
the tunnel. 67
Magnetic Anomaly: Magnetized Sphere at the North Pole

68
Magnetic Anomaly: Magnetized Sphere at the Equator

69
Magnetic Anomaly: Magnetized Sphere somewhere in the
Northern Hemisphere

70
The corrected field magnetic data are presented in the form of either
anomaly contours or profile plots
Anomaly contour maps
- the values thus reduced/corrected are contoured.
- contours connecting equal values and drawn on the map to give
what are known as ANOMALY CONTOUR MAPS

- magnetic anomaly maps of this type have been extensively used for
interpretation of magnetic data

x
x A’
x x

Adjusted Z 
x

x
x
x13
x X- data points
x
x x x12
x
x x x11
x
A A’
x A Dist along profile 

Contour plot Profile plot along AA’ 71

Figure Total field aeromagnetic data.
72
 Profile section plots
- are drawn and done along preferentially selected (intensity vs
distance along profile) cross-section.

From the resulting plots, interpretation may be done either qualitatively

or quantitatively.

Quantitative Interpretation

Magnetic data are also interpreted quantitatively to obtain information

on the depth, the susceptibility, etc. of the causative body,
although these interpretations are less accurate and more difficult.

- the depth can be approximated from 1

Z max


Z  1.3 X 1 2 2

by measuring X1/2 from the plot.

x1 2 x

Qualitative Interpretation
- qualitative interpretation is accomplished from close examination of
73
the resulting anomaly maps or profile plots and one can obtain
the information on
From the plots of magnetic anomalies various information about the
subsurface bodies can be obtained
1. Structural trends (narrow linear features) are indicated by patterns of linear
anomalies & alignments of anomalies.
2. The location- region of concentration of contours showing high magnitude/
amplitude anomaly regions
- depending on the position of the closing of contours and/or the
maxima/minima of the profile sections
3. The shape of the target
- various profiles are observed over objects of various shapes
- Examples
BZ BZ

x x x
x
x x x
74
14 dip
Spherical target Fault Cylinder (pipe) Vertical sheet
(prism)
4. Depth of the target
- The flattening of the profile plot is an indication of the depth
- Deeper targets produce broadened anomalies of low amplitude/magnitude
than shallower targets
5. Susceptibility contrast b/n the target & the host rock
-The slope of the profile section (around the cross over point or the region
where the curve is increasing) is an indication to the contrast in
susceptibility b/n the surrounding medium & the anomalous target.
- steep slope shows higher magnetic susceptibility contrast

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 Magnetism in other solar system planets?
Mercury: Little magnetic dynamo, 1% earth’s field strength.
Venus: Field at least 100,000 less than earth’s field. Why? The planet almost
certainly has a liquid iron core like the earth. But, Venus only rotates once every 220
days.
Mars: No primary field now, but evidence for magnetic remanence. Small planetary
radius means the liquid iron core solidified in first Ga.
Jupiter: largest dynamo of planets, 14
times stronger field than earth. Dynamo
is core of liquid hydrogen.

Saturn, Uranus, Neptune: all have

magnetic dynamos and strong fields.

Jupiter Aureo Borealis

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Palaeomagnetism & Plate Tectonics
• The Earth’s PRIMARY magnetic field interacts with rocks to provide a
REMANENT magnetic field record.
– Provides a fossil compass record
• It is used to ascertain conditions of the formation of the rocks
• It can be used to track the movements of the rocks
– Can also be used to investigate the subsurface for mineral exploration
– Understanding its origin due to flow of conductive iron liquid in outer core is
fundamental to understanding evolution of earth’s atmosphere.
• Palaeomagnetism utilizes the fossil magnetism preserved in rocks
– Can be used to measure the movements of the rocks
• Can be due to plate movements
• Can result from tectonic tilting
• Palaeomagnetism requires an understanding of how rocks acquire a
remanent magnetization
• Palaeomagnetism requires access to the rocks 77
• The Earth’s magnetic field does not align
with the Earth’s rotational axis
 Presently tilted 11.5°
 Magnetic North differs from geographic (true) N
 Termed declination
• The Earth’s magnetic field lines intersect
the surface of the Earth at an angle
 At the poles, it is nearly vertical
 At the equator, it is nearly horizontal
 Termed inclination
• Can be measured with a compass
• Positive when points down
• Negative when points up

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• Magnetic equator and magnetic latitude are defined
• The Earth’s magnetic field is symmetric about the magnetic axis
• The magnetic inclination and magnetic latitude are related by
• From observatory records going back a
few hundred years, we know that the
magnetic axis continually changes
direction
• Slow and somewhat irregular and
Called secular variation

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 Earth’s Past Magnetic Field
• From palaeomagnetic (fossilized magnetic remanence) records in
rocks, we find that the Earth’s magnetic axis wobbles about the
rotational axis
• Completes a cycle in around a couple of thousand years
• Using average inclination to calculate magnetic latitude, we can find the true
palaeolatitude
• At times in the Earth’s history, the magnetic poles have been
interchanged
• Polarity reversals
• Occur at irregular intervals, on order of million years
• Time for reversal to take place is on order of thousand years
• Geologically short, it´s rare to find rocks from the transitions
• Current state of the field is normal (N)
• Reversed state is termed reversed (R) polarity
• Excursions of the magnetic poles also occurs
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• Rocks retain magnetism acquired long ago, often when they formed
Called paleomagnetism
• Consider a pile of Tertiary lavas each eruption cools in a few years
• Records instantaneous magnetic field direction

• Rocks magnetized at the same time but at different latitudes have

different magnetic directions (inclinations)
• Makes it difficult to recognize if those rocks (or the continents they are riding
on) have moved apart
• We calculate the position of the magnetic north pole at the time of
magnetization
• Actually where the pole was relative to the rock sample
• Called the apparent pole
• Example: rock formed at the equator (I = 0°)
• Later moved to the south pole
• I=0° => infer it was magnetized at equator

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 Apparent Pole
• Example: drill cores from lavas formed hundreds of Ma ago which
are now at 10° N latitude.
• The measured declination of the sample is 20° (E of N)
• The measured inclination is +49° => Palaeo-latitude = 30°N
=> North pole was 60° from present position of rocks (90°-30°)
• Palaeopole is 60° along great circle in declination direction (20°).

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• If the apparent palaeopole isn’t at the present magnetic pole
• The rock must have moved
• If the declination is not due north
• The rock must have been rotated
• If the inclination does not correspond to its current latitude
• The rock must have been moved N or S, or tilted
• Because of symmetry of the Earth’s magnetic field
• Cannot determine longitudinal movement
• If a continent has moved N or S over time
• Palaeopoles of rocks of successive ages will change
• Trace out path called Apparent Polar Wander
• We assume that secular variations of the earth’s magnetic pole average to
zero; therefore, true motion of landmasses can be found.
• We can compare the movements of two continents if we look at the APW over
the same time span
• If two continents move apart while at same latitude, their pole remains the same
• Cannot detect movement
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 Apparent Polar Wander
• The two paths for the period Ordovician to Jurassic are not the
same
• They do have same general shape
• If we ‘close the Atlantic’, the paths are same until the Triassic when they
diverge
• Both land
masses were
together
• Longitudinal
information!

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 Magnetostratigraphy
• Reversals of the Earth’s magnetic field
• It is Global, occur abruptly, and easy to recognize
• Allows us to establish stratigraphic order & to date
rocks
• Suppose we have an isolated lava that we measure
both the age and remnant magnetization
• There are reversals at 0.7, 1.6, 1.9 & 2.4 Ma
• Ocean floor spreading at mid-ocean ridges 160 Ma old
• Preserve the magnetic reversals for the past 160 Ma

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Extra Images

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Extra Images

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 Applications of magnetic surveying
Magnetic surveying is a rapid and cost-effective technique and
represents one of the most widely-used geophysical methods in terms
of line length surveyed (Paterson & Reeves 1985).

•It is used extensively in the search for metalliferous mineral deposits. It is capable of
locating massive sulphide deposits, especially when used in conjunction with
electromagnetic methods. However, the principal target of magnetic surveying is iron
ore. The ratio of magnetite to hematite must be high for the ore to produce significant
anomalies, as hematite is commonly non-magnetic

•Mapping of sedimentary basins on the location of prospective areas for hydrocarbon

deposits.

•In geotechnical and archaeological investigations, magnetic surveys may be used to

delineate zones of faulting in bedrock and to locate buried metallic, man-made
features such as pipelines, old mine workings and buildings.
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•Magnetic surveying is a very useful aid to geological mapping. Over extensive regions
with a thick sedimentary cover, structural features may be revealed if magnetic
horizons such as ferruginous sandstones and shales, tuffs and lava flows are present
within the sedimentary sequence.

•Magnetic surveys can be used in regional investigations of large-scale crustal

features. However, it has of limited use in the study of the deeper geology of the
continental crust because the Curie isotherm for common ferrimagnetic minerals lies
at a depth of about 20 km and the sources of major anomalies are consequently
restricted to the upper part of the continental crust.

•Magnetic surveying in oceanic areas has had a profound influence on the

development of plate tectonics theory. The bilateral symmetry of the normal and
reversed linear magnetic anomalies in the oceanic ridges led directly to the theory of
sea floor spreading and the establishment of a time scale for polarity transitions of the
geomagnetic field. Consequently, oceanic crust can be dated on the basis of the
pattern of magnetic polarity transitions preserved in it.

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90
 Quize-3
1. What could happen to our planet earth if there were no
magnetic field?
2. Why some materials are magnetized and some are not?
3. What causes a Hysteresis effect during magnetic
induction?

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