Module -4

Highway Drainage and Highway Economics

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Syllabus
Highway drainage: Significance and requirements, Surface drainage
system and Examples, Subsurface drainage system, design of filter
materials, Types of Cross Drainage Structures, their Choice and
Location.
Highway Economics: Highway user benefits, VOC using charts only –
Examples. Economic analysis – annual cost Method – Benefit Cost
Ratio Method – NPV –IRR methods – Examples.

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What is Highway Drainage?

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What is Highway Drainage?

• Highway drainage is a process of removing and controlling excess

surface and sub-soil water within the right of way.

• It includes interception and diversion of water from the road surface

and sub grade.

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Significance of Drainage

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Significance of Drainage

• Excess moisture in soil subgrade causes considerable lowering of its

stability.

• Increase in moisture cause reduction in strength of many pavement

materials like stabilized soil and water bound macadam.

• Sustained contact of water with bituminous pavements causes failure

due to stripping of bitumen from aggregates like loosening or
detachment of some of the bituminous pavement layers and formations
of potholes

• Excess water on shoulders and pavement edges causes considerable

damage. 7
Significance of Drainage

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Significance of Drainage

• In clayey soil variation in moisture content causes considerable

variation in volume of sub grade.

• High moisture content causes increases in weight and thus increase in

stress and simultaneous reduction in strength of soil mass.

• Erosion of soil from top of unsurfaced roads and slopes of

embankment, cut and hill side is also due to surface water.

• In cold regions presence of water in the subgrade and a continuous

supply of water from the ground water can cause considerable damage
to the pavement due to frost action.
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Requirements of Highway Drainage

• The surface water from the carriageway and shoulder should

effectively be drained off without allowing it to percolate to sub grade.

• Surface water from adjoining land should be prevented form entering

the roadway.

• Side drain should have sufficient capacity and longitudinal slope to

carry away all surface water collected.

• Flow of surface water across the road and shoulders and along slopes
should not cause formation of cross ruts or erosion.
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Requirements of Highway Drainage

• Seepage and other sources of under ground water should be drained

off by the subsurface drainage system.

• Highest level of ground water table should be kept well below the
level of subgrade, preferably by at least 1.2m.

• In waterlogged areas special precautions should be taken.

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Surface Drainage

• During rains,
Ø Part of the rain-water flows on surface
Ø Part of it percolate through the soil mass as gravitational water until it
reaches the ground water below the water table.
• Removal and diversion of surface water from the roadway and
adjoining land is termed as surface drainage.
• Diversion and removal of excess of soil water from the subgrade is
termed as Sub-Surface Drainage.

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Methods of Surface Drainage

1. By Longitudinal side drains.

2. Catch basins and Inlets in urban areas
3. Providing damp proof course
4. Providing proper camber
5. Providing sufficient slope to the sides
6. Keeping the level of carriage way at least 60 cm above the HFL

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Components of Surface Drainage System

• Cross slope or camber

• The road side drains
• Cross drains

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Cross Slope or Camber

• Water from the pavement surface and shoulders is first drained off
within the help of cross slope or camber.
• Rate of slope depends on:
ØType of the pavement surface
ØAmount of rainfall in a region
• Recommended range of camber
ØFor earth road: 1 in 25 or 4%
ØFor bituminous road: 1 in 60 or 1.7%
ØFor earth shoulders: 4 to 5%

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Cross Slope or Camber

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Road-Side Drain

• The road-side drains of highway are generally open or unlined.

• If provided to parallel to road alignment-longitudinal drains.

• On plain terrain with embankment-provided on both sides.

• On sloping terrain (cross slope < 4%), provided on one side only.

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Surface Drainage

Longitudinal side drains.

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Surface Drainage

1. Longitudinal side drains.

• It is necessary to provide side drain on one side or both sides, when
road is constructed in embankment.

• Side drains should be at least 2.0 m away from bottom edge of an

embankment.

• Depth of side drains is kept 1.0 to 1.5 m to prevent the entry of drain
water into the embankment.

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Surface Drainage

Side drains for Road in Cutting

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Surface Drainage
2. Catch Basin and Inlets in Urban Areas

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Surface Drainage
2. Catch Basin and Inlets in Urban Areas

• Catch basin is a structure like chamber constructed on a sewer line.

• Water from pavement surface is collected in catch basin and

discharged to the sewer line.

• The catch basin (catch pit) is provided with grating to prevent the entry
of rubbish into the drainage system.

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Surface Drainage
2. Catch Basin and Inlets in Urban Areas
Inlets

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Shoulder Drainage

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Shoulder Drainage
• For a quick drainage it is necessary to ensure that shoulder surface is
properly sloped and free from irregularities and depressions.

• In impervious type, it is practiced to extend the subbase course with

drainage across the shoulder up to side drain.

• Alternatively we can provide continuous layer of 75-100 mm thick laid

under the shoulder at the bottom layer of sub base about 150 mm thick
extended up to the edge.

• The paved shoulder should be at least 0.5% steeper then camber

subjected to min of 3%.
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Shoulder Drainage
• The unpaved shoulder should be further 0.5% steeper along the
horizontal curve, Shoulder on inner side of the curve should have
slope steeper than that of pavement.

• On the outer side, the shoulder should be made to drain away from the
pavement, a low rate of super elevation are provided.

• On the other hand, where higher rate of super elevation, the outside
shoulder are kept level or rounded.

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Median Drainage

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Median Drainage
• Except for a median less than 5m wide, it is not desirable to drain the
median area towards the pavement surface.

Ø 1.2-1.8 m wide median - Provided with Kerbs and always paved.

Ø 1.8-5 m wide median - Usually turfed and crowned so that surface

water could run towards the pavement maybe with or without Kerbs.

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Median Drainage
• If carriage way slopes towards the median, central drain maybe made
to carry the runoff and slope should not be steeper than 6:1.

• When the median has only earthen surface, it should not be crowned
because it can result in soil particles being carried to the pavement
surface making it slippery.

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Sub-Surface Drainage
• Removal or Diversion of excess soil-water from sub-grade is termed as
sub-surface drainage.

• The change in moisture of sub-grade are caused by the following

ØFluctuations in Ground Water Table
ØSeepage Flow
ØPercolation Of Rainwater
ØMovement of Capillary Water.

• In sub-surface drainage it is practiced to keep the variation of moisture

in sub-grade to a minimum.

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Sub-Surface Drainage

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Lowering Water Table
• In order to that the sub-grade and pavement are not subjected to
excessive moisture the water table should kept at least 1.0 to 1.2 m
below the sub-grade.

• In places where water table is high to take the road formation on

embankment of height not less than 1.0-1.2m is the best approach.

• But when the formation level is at or below the general ground level it
is necessary to lower the water table.

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Lowering Water Table in Permeable Soils

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Lowering Water Table
(a) If soil is relatively permeable, it may be possible to lower WT by
constructing longitudinal drainage trenches with drain pipe and filter
sand and top of trenches is covered with clay seal.

• The depth of trench depend on:

(i) The required lowering of water table
(ii) distance b/w the drainage trenches
(iii) Types of soil

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Lowering Water Table in Permeable Soils

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Lowering Water Table in Permeable Soils

(b) If the soil is less relatively less permeable, the lowering of ground
WT may not be adequate.

• Hence in addition to longitudinal drains transverse drains have to be

installed at suitable intervals.

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Control of Seepage Flows

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Control of Seepage Flows

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Control of Seepage Flows

• When the general ground as well as impervious strata below are

sloping, seepage flow is likely to exist.

• If seepage zone is at depth less than 0.6-0.9 m from sub-grade level,

longitudinal pipe drain in trench filled with filter material and clay seal
may be constructed to intercept the flow.

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Control of Capillary Rise

• If the water reaching the sub-grade due to capillary rise is likely to be

detrimental, it is possible to solve the problem by arresting the
capillary rise.
• It can be done by following methods:
(a) A layer of granular materials of suitable thickness is provided during
the construction of embankment, between the sub-grade and the highest
level of sub surface water table.
(b) Alternate method is providing the capillary cut off is by inserting an
impermeable or a bituminous layer in place of granular blanket.

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Control of Capillary Rise

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Design of Subsurface Drainage System
• The size and spacing of the sub-surface drainage system depend on
the quantity of water to be drained off, the type of soil and type of
drain.

• The filter material used in sub-surface drains should be designed to

have sufficient permeability offering negligible resistance to the flow.

• And also resist the flow of the fine foundation soil resulting in soil
piping.

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Design of Subsurface Drainage System
• The Steps are as follows:
• Draw grain size distribution curve on log scale %passing vs. particles
size for the foundation soil.

• Find the value of D15 size of foundation soil.

• The size of filter material should be 5 times more than the size of
foundation soil.

• D15 of filter/D15 of foundation > 5

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Piping failure

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Design of Subsurface Drainage System
To fulfill the condition to prevent piping.
• D15 of filter/D85 of foundation <5
• Hence plot a point represent the upper limit of D15 size of filter given
by 5*D85 of foundation.
• Find the size of the perforation in the drain-pipe or the gap in the open
jointed pipes and let this be =Dp
• Plot a point representing D85 size of filter given by the size 2Dp.
• The Shaded area thus obtained represents the region within which the
grain size distribution curve of satisfactory filter material should lie.

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Design of Subsurface Drainage System

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Road Construction in Water-Logged Areas

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Road Construction in Water-Logged Areas
• In case of sub-grade subjected soil water to soaking cond., capillary
rise, and in extreme condition, Even flooding for prolonged periods is
termed as water-logged areas.

• In such areas construction and maintenance of road is a problem.

• Methods adopted to Overcome
Ø Raising the road level by constructing embankment
Ø Providing a capillary cut off to arrest capillary water
Ø Providing Cement Concrete Block
Ø Depressing the sub surface water level by drainage system.

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Cross Drainage Structure
• In an irrigation project, when the network of
main canals, branch canals, distributaries, etc.
are provided, then these canals may have to
cross the natural drainages like rivers,
streams, nallahs, etc at different points within
the command area of the project.

• The suitable structures must be constructed at

the crossing point for the easy flow of water of
the canal and drainage in the respective
directions. These structures are known as
cross-drainage works.
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Necessity of Cross Drainage Structure
• The water-shed canals do not cross natural drainages. But in actual
orientation of the canal network, this ideal condition may not be
available and the obstacles like natural drainages may be present
across the canal. So, the cross drainage works must be provided for
running the irrigation system.

• At the crossing point, the water of the canal and the drainage get
intermixed. So, far the smooth running of the canal with its design
discharge the cross drainage works are required.

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Necessity of Cross Drainage Structure
• The site condition of the crossing point may be such that without any
suitable structure, the water of the canal and drainage can not be
diverted to their natural directions. So, the cross-drainage works must
be provided to maintain their natural direction of flow.

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Types of Cross Drainage Structure
• Type I (Irrigation canal passes over the drainage)
(a) Aqueduct
(b) Siphon aqueduct
• Type II (Drainage passes over the irrigation canal)
(a) Super passage
(b) Siphon super passage
• Type III (Drainage and canal intersection each other of the same level)
(a) Level Crossing
(b) Inlet and outlet

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Type I (Irrigation canal passes over the drainage)

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Aqueduct

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Aqueduct

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Aqueduct
• The aqueduct is just like a bridge where a canal is taken over the deck
supported by piers instead of a road or railway.

• Generally, the canal is in the shape of a rectangular trough which is

constructed with reinforced cement concrete. Sometimes, the trough
may be of trapezoidal section.

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Aqueduct
• An inspection road is provided along the side of the trough.

• The bed and banks of the drainage below the trough is protected by boulder
pitching with cement grouting.

• The section of the trough is designed according to the full supply discharge
of the canal.

• A free board of about 0.50 m should be provided.

• The height and section of piers are designed according to the highest flood
level and velocity of flow of the drainage.

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Aqueduct
• The piers may be of brick masonry, stone masonry or reinforced
cement concrete.

• Deep foundation (like well foundation) is not necessary for the piers.

• The concrete foundation may be done by providing the depth of

foundation according to the availability of hard soil.

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Siphon Aqueduct

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Siphon Aqueduct
• The siphon aqueduct, the bed of the drainage is depressed below the
bottom level of the canal trough by providing sloping apron on both
sides of the crossing.

• The sloping apron may be constructed by stone pitching or cement

concrete.

• The section of the drainage below the canal trough is constructed with
cement concrete in the form of tunnel. This tunnel acts as a siphon.

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Siphon Aqueduct
• Cut off walls are provided on both sides of the apron to prevent
scouring.

• Boulder pitching should be provided on the upstream and downstream

of the cut-off walls.

• The other components like canal trough, piers, inspection road, etc.
should be designed accordingly to the methods adopted in case of
aqueduct.

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Type I (Irrigation canal passes over the drainage)

Advantages of Type1:
1. The canal running perennially is above ground and is open to
inspection.
2. Damage done by floods is rare.
Disadvantages of Type1:
1. During high floods, the foundation can be scoured or the water way
of the drain may be chocked with trees.

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Type2-Drainage passes over the irrigation canal:
• In this type of cross drainage work, drainage is taken over the canal.

• This condition involves the construction of the following:

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Super Passage

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Super Passage
• The super passage is just opposite of the aqueduct. In this case, the
bed level of the drainage is above the fully supply level of the canal.

• The drainage is taken through a rectangular or trapezoidal trough of

channel which is constructed on the deck supported by piers.

• The section of the drainage trough depends on the high flood

discharge.

• A free board of about 1.5 m should be provided for safety.

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Super Passage
• The trough should be constructed of reinforced cement concrete.

• The bed and banks of the canal below the drainage trough should be
protected by boulder pitching or lining with concrete slabs.

• The foundation of the piers will be same as in the case of aqueduct.

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Siphon Super Passage

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Siphon Super Passage
• It is just opposite siphon aqueduct.

• In this case, the canal passes below the drainage trough. The section
of the trough is designed according to high flood discharge.

• The bed of the canal is depressed below the bottom level of the
drainage trough by providing sloping apron on both sides of the
crossing.

• The sloping apron may be constructed with stone pitching or concrete

slabs.

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Siphon Super Passage
• The section of the canal below the trough is constructed with cement
concrete in the form of tunnel which acts as siphon.

• Cut-off walls are provided on upstream and downstream side of

sloping apron.

• Other components are same as in the case of siphon aqueduct.

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Type2-Drainage passes over the irrigation canal:
Advantages of Type2:
1. C.D works are less liable to damage then the earthwork of canal.

Disadvantages of Type2:
1. Perennial canal is not open to inspection.

2. It is difficult to clear the silt deposited in the barrels of the C.D. work.

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Type3-Drainage and Canal intersection at the same level
In this type of work, the canal water and drainage water are permitted
to intermingle.

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Level Crossing

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Level Crossing
• The level crossing is an arrangement provided to regulate the flow of
water through the drainage and the canal when they cross each other
approximately at the same bed level. The level crossing consists of the
following components:

• Crest Wall: It is provided across the drainage just at the upstream side
of the crossing point. The top level of the crest wall is kept at the full
supply level of the canal.

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Level Crossing
• Drainage Regulator: It is provided across the drainage just at the
downstream side of the crossing point. The regulator consists of
adjustable shutters at different tiers.

• Canal Regulator: It is provided across the canal just at the

downstream side of the crossing point. This regulator also consists of
adjustable shutters at different tiers.

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Inlet and Outlet
• In the crossing of small drainage with small channel no hydraulic
structure is constructed. Simple openings are provided for the flow of
water in their respective directions. This arrangement is known as inlet
and outlet.

• In this system, an inlet is provided in the channel bank simply by open

cut and the drainage water is allowed to join the channel.

• At the points of inlet and outlet, the bed and banks of the drainage are
protected by stone pitching.

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Inlet and Outlet

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Type3 - Drainage and Canal intersection at the same level
Advantages of Type3:
1. Low initial cost

Disadvantages of Type3:
1. Regulation of such work is difficult & requires additional staff
2. The canal has to be designed to carry the increased flood discharge of
drain.
3. The faulty regulation of the gates may damage the canal.
4. There is additional expenditure of silt clearance.

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Proper Site for Drainage Crossing
The site selected for the cross-drainage works should have the following main
characteristics,

1. It should be such that it requires minimum disturbance regarding the

approach and tail reaches of the drainage channel.

2. Suitable foundation soil should be available at reasonable depth.

3. Sufficient headway is available for the super structure of the aqueduct over
the H.F.L of the natural stream.

4. Suitable existing topography, geological and hydraulic conditions for the

cross drainage works at reasonable costs.

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Selection of type of cross-drainage works

• Relative bed levels

• Availability of suitable foundation

• Economical consideration

• Discharge of the drainage

• Construction problems
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Selection of type of cross-drainage works

• When the bed level of the canal is much above the H.F.L. of the
drainage so that , sufficient headway is available for floating rubbish
etc., and also of the structure element of the work and aqueduct is the
obvious choice.

• Similarly, if the bed level of the drain well above the F.S.L. of the
canal, super passage is provided.

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Selection of type of cross-drainage works

• The necessary headway between the canal bed level and the drainage
H.F.L. can be increased by shifting the crossing to the d/s of the
drainage.

• If, however, it is not possible to change the canal alignment, or if such

a shifting does not sufficient headway between the two levels, a
syphon aqueduct may be provided.

• Thus, in the case of syphon aqueduct, the H.F.L. of the drain is above
the bed of the canal.

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Selection of type of cross-drainage works

• When the canal bed level is much lower, but the F.S.L. of the canal is
higher than the bed level of drainage, a canal syphon is preferred.

• When the drainage and the canal cross each other practically at the
same level, a level crossing may be preferred. This type of work is
avoided as far as possible.

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Highway Economics

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Purpose of Economic Evaluation
• Preparation of highway plans at the national regional and local
level.

• To rank schemes within highway sector plan competing for scarce

resources in order of priority.

• To compare mutually exclusive schemes and select the most

attractive one.

• To determine whether a scheme under consideration is worth

investment at all.

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Purpose of Economic Evaluation
• To evaluate alternative strategies stage construction or full
construction;

ØAlternative specification such as flexible pavement or rigid

pavement
ØAlternative policies such as increased outlay of maintenance
or rehabilitation
ØAlternative design standard and
ØAlternative policy options on axle loads.

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Basic Concepts of Economic Analysis
• National view-point.

• Difference between economic analysis and financial

analysis.

• Analysis is a study of future.

• All possible alternatives should be considered.

• Cost and benefit components of equal magnitude.

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Basic Concepts of Economic Analysis
• Marginal differences

• All consequences should be considered

• Analysis period should not extend beyond the period of

reliable forecasts

• All future cash flows to be brought to a common time datum

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Aspects of Project Appraisal
• Engineering Aspects
• Managerial Aspects
• Financial Aspects
• Economic Aspects

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Engineering Aspects
• Deal primarily with the technical construction process
and the operating of the project after it is completed,
as well as with the estimates of capital and operating
costs.

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Managerial Aspects
• Deal with the multitude of management and staffing problems
involved in constructing and operating the project.

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Financial Aspects
•Deal with the cost and revenue of the enterprise
responsible for the project.

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Economical Aspects
• Deal with the economic costs and benefits from the point of
view of the country as a whole.

• To estimate the economic cost two adjustments are necessary;

ØTaxes and customs duty must be deducted.
ØThe foreign exchange component must be shadow-priced.

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Total Transportation Cost

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Construction Cost
• Survey, Investigation and Design Cost

• Land Acquisition Cost

• Construction Costs

• Physical Contingencies

• Supervision, quality Control And Administration Charges.

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Maintenance Cost
• Ordinary repairs

• Periodic repairs

• Operation expenses

• Supervision and operational charges.

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Road User Cost

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Benefits from Highway Improvements
Road User Benefits

• Vehicle operating cost saving

• Value of travel time savings

• Value of savings in accident cost

• Savings in maintenance cost

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Benefits from Highway Improvements
Social benefits
• Improvement in administration, Law and order and
defense.

• Improvements in health and education.

• Improvements in agriculture, industry, trade, mining and

environmental standards.

• Appreciation in value of land adjacent to roads.

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Factors Affecting the Road User Cost
Roadway factors
• Pavement width
• Surface type and riding quality
• Vertical profile
• Horizontal geometry
• Number of junctions per Km.
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Factors Affecting the Road User Cost
Vehicle factors
• Type
• Age
• Make
• Engine horse power
• Power weight ratio.
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Factors Affecting the Road User Cost
Traffic factors
• Traffic volume
• Traffic composition
• Speed
• Congestion
Environmental factors
• Weather, rainfall, temperature
• Altitude of the place.
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Stages Involved in Economic Evaluation

• Identification and definition of project.

• Collection of economic based data.
• Traffic surveys in existing facilities.

• Selection of policy variable for analysis and decision.

• Inventory of existing roads.

• Traffic projections.
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Stages Involved in Economic Evaluation

• Engineering design of proposed alternative schemes.

• Estimation of cost of new facility as per all alternatives

considered.

• Traffic analysis of existing road and new facility.

• Estimation of user benefits.

• Economic analysis.
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Vehicle Operating Cost (VOC)
Important Factors Contributing to the Cost of Vehicle Operation:
(i) Fuel

(ii) Tyre life

(iii) Lubricants

(iv) Spare parts

(v) Maintenance labour (These are distance-related components).

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Vehicle Operating Cost
Important Factors Contributing to the Cost of Vehicle Operation:
(vi) Depreciation

(vii) Crew costs or wages

(viii) Value of passenger time

(ix) Value of commodity in transit.

(x) Fixed costs-interest on capital, registration fee taxes, insurance, toll

charges on roads, Road permit charges for trucks.
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Vehicle Operating Cost
The VOC depends on;
• Cost dependent on time expressed as cost per year such as interest on
capital, depreciation cost, registration fee, insurance charges etc.,

• Cost dependent on distance driven expressed as cost per vehicle-

Kilometer (fuel, oil and tyres).

• Cost depending on speed include cost of fuel, oil, tyre per vehicle-
Kilometer-time-cost of vehicles, travel time value of passenger etc.,

• Cost dependent on type of vehicle and its condition.

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Vehicle Operating Cost
The VOC depends on;
• Cost dependent on road condition, geometrics (pavement surface,
magnitude and length of gradient, radius and number of curves).

• Cost dependent on traffic factor such as congestion, volume to

capacity ratio, flow characteristics.

• Value of occupant’s time

• Accident Costs

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Vehicle Operating Cost

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Vehicle Operating Cost

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Methods of Economic Evaluation

• Annual Cost Method.

• Net Present Value Method (NPV).

• Benefit / Cost Ratio Method (B/C).

• Internal Rate Of Return Method (IRR).

110
Net Present Value Method (NPV)
• In this method the stream of costs/ benefits associated with the
project over an extended period of time is calculated and is
discounted at a selected discount rate to give the present value.

• Benefits are treated as positive and cost as negative and the

summation gives the net present value (NPV).

• Any project with positive NPV is treated as acceptable.

• In comparing more than one project, a project with higher NPV

should be accepted.
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Benefit / Cost Ratio Method (B/C)
• In this method all costs and benefits are discounted to
their present worth and the ratio of benefit to cost is
calculated.

• Negative flows are considered as costs and positive

flows are benefits.

• If the B/C ratio is more than one the project is worth

undertaking.
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Internal Rate Of Return Method (IRR)
• The internal rate of return is the discount rate, which
makes the discounted future benefits, is equal to the
initial outlay.

• The higher the rate of return the greater the economy.

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Thank You

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