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2.3 During normal breathing, humans exchange about 0.5 L of air in their lungs. Calculate the amount

of worked that is performed during one exhalation against atmospheric pressure. How many grams of

ATP need to be hydrolyzed for breathing during a day (30 breath cycles per minute, G0’ (ATP

hydrolysis) = -31 kJ mol-1, M = 507.18 g mol-1). A 100 g bar of chocolate provides about 500 kJ of energy.

How long does the energy last just for breathing?

Answer: The work per exhalation can be calculated as w = -pV = -1.013∙105 Pa∙0.5∙10-3 m3 = -51 J. The

number of exhalations per day is 30 min-1∙60∙24 min = 43 200, which gives a total work for breathing per

day of w = 43 200∙51 J = -2188 kJ. To obtain 2188 kJ from ATP hydrolysis,

n = -31 kJ mol-1/-2188 kJ = 70.6 mol have to be hydrolyzed. 70.6 mol correspond to a mass

m = 507.18 g mol-1 / 70.6 mol ≈ 35.8∙103 g = 35.8 kg ATP.

The energy in a bar of chocolate supports 500 kJ/51 J = 9872 breathing cycles. 9872 breath cycles

correspond to 9872/30 min-1 ≈ 329 min = 5h 29 min.

2.4 A diver grabs a bottle of compressed air. The pressure gauge states p = 200∙105 Pa (200 bar). Just

after the descent into the dive, the pressure is reduced to 190∙105 Pa. Why? The diver has directly

descended to 30 m depth. What are the pressure and the temperature of the surrounding water?

Tair,surface = 30°C.

Answer: The initial pressure decrease is too large to be caused by the few breaths the diver has taken.

The temperature of the water is lower than the temperature at the surface, and the pressure decreases

proportionally to the temperature (2nd law of Gay-Lussac).

The pressure at 30 m is 1.013∙105 Pa from the air and 1.013∙105 Pa per 10 m of water column, which gives

ptot = 4.052∙105 Pa. The water temperature can be calculated from the change in gas pressure according

to the 2nd law of Gay-Lussac as

 190 ∙ 105 𝑃𝑎
𝑇𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟,30 𝑚 = 𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑟,𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 ∙ = 0.95 ∙ 𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑟,𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 288.0 𝐾 = 14.8°𝐶
200 ∙ 105 𝑃𝑎

2.5 The diver breathes enriched air that contains 32% (m/mtot) oxygen and 68% (m/mtot) nitrogen (at

p = p0 = 105 Pa and T = T0 = 25°C). A partial oxygen pressure of > 1.6 105 Pa is lethal for humans. Is it safe

for the diver to dive down to the sea bed at 40 m? The diver starts with a 15 L tank of enriched air at

p = p0. The air needed during descent and ascent can be neglected. How long can the diver stay at 45 m

with his air supply for 0.5 L breathing volume and 30 breathing cycles min-1?

Answer: 1000 g of air contain 320 g oxygen and 680 g nitrogen. From the molar masses M(O2) = 32 g mol-

1
for and M(N2) = 28 g mol-1, we obtain the amount of oxygen and nitrogen as n(O2) = 320 g / 32 g mol-

1
= 10∙mol, and n(N2) = 680 g / 28 g mol-1 = 24.3 mol. The mole fractions are x(O2) = n(O2)/ntot = 0.29 and

x(N2) = 0.71.

From Raoult’s law, the partial pressures can be calculated as p(O2) = x(O2)∙p = 0.29∙105 Pa and

p(N2) = 0.71∙105 Pa under standard conditions. p(O2) exceeds 1.6 105 Pa at a pressure of

p = plethal(O2)/x(O2) = 1.6 105 Pa/0.29 = 5.5 105 Pa, which corresponds to environmental pressure below

40 m. Hence, it is safe for the diver to descend to the sea bed.

The 15 L of gas at 200∙105 Pa correspond to 592 L at 5.065∙105 Pa, the environmental pressure at 40 m

depth. 592 L are sufficient for 1184 breath cycles, or 39.5 min.

2.6 On a winter day (T = -10°C) you adjust the pressure of your car tires to 1.8∙105 Pa. What is the

pressure in summer (T = 30°C)?

Answer: We assume the volume of the tires as constant. The final pressure is

𝑇𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 303.15 𝐾
𝑝𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 ∙ = 1.8 ∙ 105 𝑃𝑎 ∙ = 2.1 ∙ 105 𝑃𝑎
𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 263.15 𝐾
2.7 The enthalpy change for the reaction of glucose (C6H12O6) to CO2 and H2O is -2800 kJ mol-1, for the

reaction of ethanol to water it is -1370 kJ mol-1. What is the enthalpy change during fermentation of

glucose to ethanol? Is fermentation a useful metabolic pathway?

Answer: The reaction schemes are

(1) C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 H2O + 6 CO2 H01 = -2800 kJ mol-1

(2) C2H5OH + 3 O2 → 3 H2O + 2 CO2 H02 = -1370 kJ mol-1

(3) C6H12O6 → 2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2

We can express the reaction scheme (3) as (1)-2∙(2) and calculate H03 from the Hess law:

H03 = (H01 - 2H02 = -2800 kJ mol-1 - 2∙(-1370 kJ mol-1) = -60 kJ mol-1. Fermentation thus only provides

the organism with a small fraction of the energy compared to the complete oxidation to CO2 and H2O.

2.8 The heat capacity of water (Cp = 75 J mol-1 K-1) is much higher than the heat capacity of air

(Cp = 20 J mol-1 K-1). Calculate the temperature change when 10 kJ of heat is transferred to 1 m3 of water

or air. (H2O) = 1 g cm-3; (air) = 1.2 mg cm-3.

Answer: 1 m3 = 106 cm3 water corresponds to 106 g water = 106 g/18 g mol-1 = 55.5∙103 mol. The mean

molar mass of air is Mair = (0.21∙32 + 0.79∙28) g mol-1 = 28.84 g mol-1. 1 m3 = 106 cm3 of air corresponds to

1.2∙103 g air or 1.2∙103 g/28.84 g mol-1 = 41.6 mol. The temperature change of water is

𝛿𝑞 10 𝑘𝐽 ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝐾
∆𝑇𝐻2 𝑂 = = = 2.4 ∙ 10−3 K
𝐶𝑝 75 𝐽 ∙ 55.5 ∙ 103 𝑚𝑜𝑙

For air, the temperature change is

𝛿𝑞 10 𝑘𝐽 ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝐾
∆𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑟 = = = 12 K
𝐶𝑝 20 𝐽 ∙ 41.6 𝑚𝑜𝑙
2.9 Calculate the change in entropy for the conversion of 1 mol ice (H2O(s), 0°C) into vapor (H2O(g),

100°C) at constant pressure. Sublimation enthalpy Hsubl = 47 kJ mol-1, vaporization enthalpy

Hvap = 41 kJ mol-1, Cp = 75 J mol-1 K-1.

Answer: The melting enthalpy can be calculated from the Hess law as Hmelt:

Hmelt = Hsub - Hvap = 6 kJ mol-1. The entropy change during melting is

Smelt = Hmelt/T = 6 kJ mol-1/273.15 K = 22.0 J mol-1 K-1. The entropy change during heating from 0°C to

100°C is dS = Cp/T·dT. By integration, we obtain Sheat = Cp ln(373.15 K/273.15 K) = 23.4 kJ mol-1 K-1. The

entropy change during evaporation is Svap = Hvap/T = 41 kJ mol-1/373.15 K = 110 J mol-1 K-1. The sum of

these entropy changes is Stot (1 mol) = 155 J mol-1 K-1.

2.10 Calculate the entropy change when 200 kJ of heat are transferred to water at 0°C and 100°C

(isothermal conditions). Explain the difference from the statistical interpretation of entropy.

Answer: The entropy change at 0°C is S (0°C) = 200 kJ / 273.15 K = 732 J K-1, the entropy change at 100°C

is S(100°C) = 200 kJ / 373.15 K = 536 J K-1. At 373.15 K, the disorder of water is higher than at 273.15 K.

Therefore, adding the same amount of heat produces less additional disorder at higher temperature.

2.11 Our metabolism generates heat of about 100 J s-1. Calculate the change in entropy of the

surrounding per hour at 25°C.

Answer: 1 h corresponds to 3600 s. The transferred heat is q = 100 J s-1∙3600 s = 3.6∙105 J. The associated

change in entropy is

𝑞 3.6 ∙ 105 𝐽
∆𝑆 = = = 1.2 𝑘𝐽 𝐾 −1
𝑇 298.15 𝐾
2.12 0.1 mol of a reactant react to products in an isobaric reaction at 25°C and 105 Pa. During the

reaction, 20 kJ of heat are transferred to the surroundings. Calculate G0, H0, and S0 for this process.

Answer: The heat released is q = 200 kJ mol-1 at standard pressure and temperature. H is the heat

exchanged at constant pressure. The heat is released from the system, and is therefore negative:

∆𝐻 = ∆𝐻 0 = −200 𝑘𝐽 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1

S is the exchanged heat (under reversible conditions) divided by the temperature:

−200 𝑘𝐽 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1
∆𝑆 = ∆𝑆 0 = = −671 𝐽 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 𝐾 −1
298.15 𝐾

From the Gibbs-Helmholtz equation, we obtain

∆𝐺 0 = ∆𝐻 0 − 𝑇 ∙ ∆𝑆 0 = 0 𝑘𝐽 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1

2.13 Calculate the reaction enthalpy, entropy, and free energy, H0r, S0r, and G0r, for the amidation

of glutamate to glutamine (1) at standard temperature, (2) at 37°C, and (3) at 75°C (a) taking into account

the temperature dependence of H and S, and (b) assuming that H and S are temperature-

independent. What can you conclude about the importance of Cp? What does the result mean for

organisms that live at moderate temperature (37°C; mesophilic organisms) and thermophilic organisms

that live at 75°C?

Glutamine: H0f = -826 kJ mol-1, Cp,m = 184 J mol-1 K-1, Sm = 195 J mol-1 K-1

Glutamate: H0f = -1010 kJ mol-1, Cp,m = 175 J mol-1 K-1, Sm = 188 J mol-1 K-1

H2O: H0f = -290 kJ mol-1, Cp,m = 75 J mol-1 K-1, Sm = 70 J mol-1 K-1

NH4+: H0f = -133 kJ mol-1, Cp,m = 80 J mol-1 K-1, Sm = 113 J mol-1 K-1

Answer: The reaction scheme is

glutamate + NH4+ → glutamine + H2O

Under standard conditions, we can calculate the reaction enthalpy, entropy, and free energy as well as

the change in heat capacity as

∆𝐻𝑟0 = ∑ ∆𝐻𝑓0 (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠) − ∑ ∆𝐻𝑓0 (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠) = +27 𝑘𝐽 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1

∆𝑆𝑟0 = ∑ ∆𝑆𝑚 (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠) − ∑ ∆𝑆𝑚 (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠) = −36 𝐽 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 𝐾 −1

∆𝐶𝑝0 = ∑ 𝐶𝑝 (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠) − ∑ 𝐶𝑝 (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠) = −4 𝐽 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 𝐾 −1

∆𝐺𝑟0 = ∆𝐻𝑟0 − 𝑇∆𝑆𝑟0 = +37.7 𝑘𝐽 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1

For temperature-dependent H and S, we use Kirchhoff’s law

∆𝐻𝑅 (𝑇) = ∆𝐻 0 + ∆𝐶𝑝 (𝑇 − 𝑇0 )

and obtain Hr (310.15 K) = 27.0 kJ mol-1, Hr (348.15 K) = 27.2 kJ mol-1. The temperature-dependent

change in entropy is

𝑇
∆𝑆𝑅 (𝑇) = ∆𝑆 0 + ∆𝐶𝑝 𝑙𝑛
𝑇0

which gives Sr (310.15 K) = -35.8 J mol-1 K-1, Sr (348.15 K) = -35.4 J mol-1 K-1. From the Gibbs-Helmholtz

equation, Gr = Hr - T∙Sr , we obtain Gr (310.15 K) = 38.2 kJ mol-1, Gr (348.15 K) = 39.5 kJ mol-1.

For temperature-independent H and S, Hr = H0r and Sr = S0r. The change in free energy is again

calculated from the Gibbs-Helmholtz equation: Gr (310.15 K) = 38.2 kJ mol-1, and

Gr (348.15 K) = 39.5 kJ mol-1.

Changes in heat capacity during chemical reactions are often very small, and the temperature-

dependence of H, S, and G is also small. Thermophilic organisms therefore do not necessarily face

special energetic challenges.

2.14 The energy of one photon is E = h∙ = hc/. How many photons of light with  = 680 nm have to

be absorbed to synthesize an ATP molecule (degree of efficiency 100%)? In what wavelength range is one

photon sufficient for the synthesis of two ATP molecules? G0’ of ATP synthesis: -31 kJ mol-1.

Answer: The energy of one photon is E = hc/ = 6.626∙10-34 J s∙3∙108 m s-1/680∙10-9 m = 2.92∙10-19 J. The

energy required for synthesis of one molecule of ATP is 31 kJ mol-1/NA = 1.93∙10-19 J. Absorption of one

photon of 680 nm is sufficient for synthesis of one molecule of ATP.

For the synthesis of two ATP molecules, 3.87∙10-19 J is required. E = hc/  3.87∙10-19 J gives  < 514 nm.

2.15 Protein-protein interactions reduce the number of particles from two to one, which corresponds

to a decrease in entropy. Why can the interaction nevertheless be entropically favorable and under what

conditions?

Answer: Water is excluded from the area that is covered upon complex formation. This release of water

is associated with an increase in entropy that is often larger than the loss of entropy due to the association

of the two proteins. The effect is larger for hydrophobic than for hydrophilic interfaces.

2.16 How much does an ionic interaction between two oppositely charged side chains contribute to

protein stability at the surface and in the interior of the protein?

Answer: In both cases, the two side chains are flexible and interact with water molecules in the unfolded

state. In the folded state, the charged side chains in the hydrophobic interior of the protein are

conformationally restricted. Further restriction of the side chains in a salt bridge only causes a small extra

loss of entropy (slightly unfavorable). The water molecules bound to the side chains in the unfolded state

are released upon folding, associated with an increase in entropy (favorable). The electrostatic interaction

is associated with a decrease in enthalpy (favorable), but interactions with water are lost (slightly
unfavorable). Overall, formation of the salt bridge in the interior is energetically favorable. The charged

side chains that remain on the surface are not conformationally restricted, and formation of the salt bridge

is entropically unfavorable. Furthermore, these side chains can still interact with water in the folded state,

and the entropy increase and enthalpy decrease due to water release is small. As a consequence, the

contribution of the salt bridge on the surface to protein stability is small.

2.17 You mix 10 mL glycerol and 90 mL water to obtain a 10% glycerol solution. The density of the

mixture is mix = 1.02567 g cm-3. What are the mole fraction of glycerol and the volume of the mixture?

What is the reason for the volume change? What can you conclude for the necessity to take volume

changes into account when stabilizing proteins by using 10% glycerol buffers? M(glycerol) = 92.09 g mol-

, M(H2O) = 18 g mol-1, (glycerol) = 1.25802 g cm-3, (H2O) = 0.99708 g cm-3.

1

Answer: 10 mL of glycerol correspond to 10 cm3. The mass is m = (glycerol)∙V(glycerol) =

92.09 g cm-3∙10 cm3 = 12.5802 g. 12.5802 g are n = 12.6 g / 92.09 g mol-1 = 0.1366 mol. For water, the

volume is V = 90 cm3, the mass is m = 89.7372 g, and the amount is n = 4.9854 mol. The mole fraction of

glycerol is

𝑛(𝑔𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑙)
𝑥(𝑔𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑙) = = 0.0267
𝑛(𝑔𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑙) + 𝑛(𝐻2 𝑂)

The volume of the mixture is Vmix = mtot/mix = 102.3174 g / 1.02567 g cm-3 = 99.76 cm3 = 99.76 mL. It is

smaller because the partial molar volumes of water and glycerol are smaller than their molar volumes.

However, the volume reduction is 0.24/100 = 0.24%, and can be neglected.

2.18 Calculate the difference between and µ0 and µ0’ for protons in aqueous solutions.

Answer: The chemical potential is a state function. Its value must therefore be independent of the

reference state. With the reference state 1 M (solute), the chemical potential is
 𝑐
𝜇𝐼 (𝐻 + ) = 𝜇0 (𝐻 + ) + 𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛 ( )
1𝑀

With the reference state pH 7 (10-7 M), the chemical potential is

𝑐
𝜇𝐼𝐼 (𝐻 + ) = 𝜇0 (𝐻 + ) + 𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛 ( −7 )
10 𝑀

The difference is

𝑐 𝑐 10−7 𝑀
𝜇𝐼 (𝐻 + ) − 𝜇𝐼𝐼 (𝐻 + ) = 𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛 ( ) − 𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛 ( −7 ) = 𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛 ( ) = 40 𝑘𝐽 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1
1𝑀 10 𝑀 1𝑀

2.19 Is mixing of two liquids to an ideal solution a spontaneous process?

Answer: Compare the free energy G of the individual, unmixed components and of the mixture.

G before mixing is

𝐺𝑢𝑛𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 = 𝑛𝐴 𝜇𝐴∗ + 𝑛𝐵 𝜇𝐵∗

(* for pure component). The free energy of the mixture is

𝐺𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑛𝐴 𝜇𝐴 + 𝑛𝐵 𝜇𝐵 = 𝑛𝐴 (𝜇𝐴∗ + 𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛𝑥𝐴 ) + 𝑛𝐵 (𝜇𝐵∗ + 𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛𝑥𝐵 )

The difference is

∆𝐺𝑚𝑖𝑥 = 𝐺𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 − 𝐺𝑢𝑛𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 = 𝑅𝑇(𝑛𝐴 𝑙𝑛𝑥𝐴 + 𝑛𝐵 𝑙𝑛𝑥𝐵 ) = 𝑛𝑅𝑇(𝑥𝐴 𝑙𝑛𝑥𝐴 + 𝑥𝐵 𝑙𝑛𝑥𝐵 )

with nA = xA∙n and nB = xB∙n. Both mole fractions are smaller than unity, xA < 1, xB < 1, hence the logarithmic

terms are both negative. G is therefore negative for all mixing ratios of A and B, and mixing is a

spontaneous process.
2.20 A polysaccharide solution (c(PS) = 10 g L-1 in H2O) has an osmotic pressure of 5∙103 N m-2. What is

the molar mass of the polysaccharide? What is the vapor pressure of the solution compared to pure

water?

Answer: The osmotic pressure is  = cRT with c = n/V = and n = m/M. By combining these equations and

converting the concentration c = 10 g L-1 = 10 000 g m-3 we obtain

𝑅𝑇 𝑚
𝑚𝑚 (𝑃𝑆) = ∙ = 4957 𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1
𝑝 𝑉

The vapor pressure of the solvent in the ideal solution is

𝑝(𝐻2 𝑂) = 𝑥𝐻2 𝑂 ∙ 𝑝𝐻∗ 2 𝑂

(Raoult’s law). The mole fraction of the polysaccharide is

𝑛(𝑃𝑆)
𝑥(𝑃𝑆) =
𝑛(𝑃𝑆) + 𝑛(𝐻2 𝑂)

For a dilute (ideal) solution, we can approximate

𝑛(𝑃𝑆) 2.02 mmol

𝑥(𝑃𝑆) ≈ = = 3.63 ∙ 10−5
𝑛(𝐻2 𝑂) 55.5 mol

The mole fraction of water is xH2O = 1 - xPS = 0.9999637. Hence, the vapor pressure is reduced by

0.00363% = 0.0363‰.

2.21 Giant sequoia trees reach a height of more than 100 m. They have to transport water into the top

of their crown. Can this be explained by the osmotic pressure due to the solutes in the cytoplasm?

(H2O) = 1 g cm-3.

Answer: We can formulate the equilibrium between upward osmotic pressure and downward pressure

due to gravitation as  = cRT = gh. With the water density  = 1 g cm-3, we obtain c = gh/RT = 0.4 mM,

which is rather high. In fact, capillary forces provide the driving force for transport.
2.22 What concentration of NaCl is required to prevent ice formation at T = -1°C and at T = -5°C? Hmelt

(H2O) = 6 kJ mol-1. The solubility of NaCl in H2O is 359 g L-1, the molar mass M is 58.44 g mol-1. What is the

maximum reduction in freezing point that can be achieved by a saturated NaCl solution?

Answer: From

2
𝑅𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡
∆𝑇 = 𝑥𝐵
∆𝐻𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡

we obtain xB = 0.009 for -1°C and xB = 0.048 for -5°C. With the approximation that nB << n(H2O), this

corresponds to a 0.5 M NaCl solution to prevent ice formation at -1°C, while at -5°C, a 2.68 M solution is

required. A saturated solution with 359 g L-1 has a concentration of c = 359 g L-1 / 58.44 g mol-1 = 6.14 M.

With the approximation that nB << n(H2O), this corresponds to a mole fraction of

xB ≈ 6.14 M / 55.5 M = 0.11. The maximum decrease in freezing temperature is T = -11.4°C.

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Plants and
their children
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: Plants and their children

Author: Frances Theodora Parsons

Illustrator: Alice Josephine Smith

Release date: October 23, 2023 [eBook #71942]

Language: English

Original publication: New York: American Book Company, 1896

Credits: Bob Taylor, the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at

https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from
images generously made available by The Internet
Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PLANTS AND

THEIR CHILDREN ***
 PLANTS

AND THEIR CHILDREN

BY

MRS. WILLIAM STARR DANA

AUTHOR OF “HOW TO KNOW THE WILD FLOWERS”

ILLUSTRATED BY
ALICE JOSEPHINE SMITH

NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
 Copyright, 1896, by
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY.

DANA’S PLANTS.

W. P. 2
 PREFACE

A CHILD’S reading book, it seems to me, should secure for the

child three things,—practice in the art of reading, amusement,
and instruction. Whether my little book is fitted to attain this threefold
object, others must decide; but in laying it before the public, let me
urge careful attention to a few suggestions.
1. As the book is arranged so as to begin with the opening of the
school year and to follow it to its close, the interest of pupils will be
increased by reading the different chapters during the seasons to
which they refer.
2. The teacher should exercise judgment as to the omission of any
chapter or group of chapters which may seem beyond the
comprehension of the class. With a little care, such an omission may
nearly always be made without injury to the usefulness of the rest of
the book.
3. Specimens of the objects described, when these can be found
in the locality, should always be on exhibition in the schoolroom.
Whenever possible, the children themselves should collect and
handle these specimens. If for any reason this collection by the
children cannot be accomplished, the teacher should not fail to
anticipate the readings, and to provide the objects mentioned.
 By the observance of these simple and practicable suggestions, it
is believed that, while the children are being trained in the art of
reading, their powers of observation and of reasoning will be
developed, and that they will be inspired with a lifelong interest in
nature. The child’s mind is peculiarly alive to the charm of nature
when she is studied in detail, and through her it can be trained to
observe accurately and to reason logically.
Through the neglect of nature study, the wits of the country child
lose just the sharpening they most need, to say nothing of a stimulus
and delight which can ill be spared by one whose mental life is apt to
be monotonous.
The wits of the city child may secure in other ways the sharpening
so essential to success in life; yet the training afforded by a logical
study of plants, and the pleasure which such a study, rightly directed,
is sure to yield, are as invaluable to him as to his country cousin.
Experience having proved to my keenest satisfaction that almost
invariably children can be interested in stories of plants and their
children, to the children of the land I offer this little book, in the
earnest hope that its pages may lead at least some few of them to
find in life a new joy and a deeper meaning.
The aid derived from many sources in the preparation of “Plants
and their Children” is heartily acknowledged; but more especially I
wish to extend my thanks to Messrs. Holt & Co. for their courtesy in
allowing the reproduction of several cuts from their valuable and
interesting publication, “The Natural History of Plants,” translated
from the German of Kerner von Marilaun.
 CONTENTS

PART I.—FRUITS AND SEEDS

PAGE
In the Orchard 9
The Story of the Bee 16
The Apple’s Treasures 19
What a Plant lives for 21
The World without Plants 24
How the Apple shields its Young 27
Some Cousins of the Apple 31
Uneatable Fruits 34
More Cousins of the Apple 36
Still more Cousins 39
In the Woods 41
Why Seeds travel 50
Some Little Tramps 52
Seed Sailboats 56
Winged Seeds 61
Shooting Seeds 63
The Chestnut and Other Seeds 67
Some Strange Stories 69
PART II.—YOUNG PLANTS
How the Baby Plant lives 75
A Schoolroom Garden 79
A Schoolroom Garden (Concluded) 85
Seeds as Food 89
An Impatient Plant Baby 91
A Humpbacked Plant Baby 94
PART III.—ROOTS AND STEMS
Root Hairs 99
Roots and Underground Stems 102
Above-ground Roots 106
What Few Children know 112
Plants that cannot stand alone 114
Some Habits of Stems 117
Stems and Seed Leaves 119
“Well done, Little Stem” 122
PART IV.—BUDS
Buds in Winter 125
A Happy Surprise 127
Some Astonishing Buds 129
PART V.—LEAVES
How to look at a Leaf 135
The most Wonderful Thing in the World 138
How a Plant is built 142
How a Plant’s Food is cooked 143
A Steep Climb 147
How a Plant perspires 148
How a Plant stores its Food 149
Leaf Green and Sunbeam 151
Plant or Animal? 154
How we are helped by Leaf Green and Sunbeam 156
How a Plant breathes 158
The Diligent Tree 160
Leaves and Roots 162
Leaf Veins 165
Leaf Shapes 167
Hairy Leaves 170
Woolly and “Dusty” Leaves 172
Prickles and Poison 174
Some Cruel Traps 176
More Cruel Traps 181
The Fall of the Leaf 184
PART VI.—FLOWERS
The Building Plan of the Cherry Blossom 187
Lilies 191
About Stamens 193
Flower Dust, or Pollen 196
About Pistils 197
The First Arrival 202
Pussy Willows 205
Alders and Birches 207
The Great Trees 209
The Unseen Visitor 211
Plant Packages 214
Underground Storehouses 216
Different Building Plans 217
A Celebrated Family 222
Clever Customs 225
Flowers that turn Night into Day 228
Horrid Habits 230
The Story of the Strawberry 232
A Cousin of the Strawberry 235
Another Cousin 238
Pea Blossoms and Peas 240
The Clover’s Trick 243
More Tricks 244
An Old Friend 247
The Largest Plant Family in the World 248
Robin’s Plantain, Golden-rod, and Aster 251
The Last of the Flowers 254
PART VII.—LEARNING TO SEE
A Bad Habit 257
A Country Road 261
A Holiday Lesson 264
PLANTS AND THEIR CHILDREN
 Part I—Fruits and Seeds

IN THE ORCHARD

I S there a nicer place in which to play than an old apple orchard?

Once under those favorite trees whose branches sweep the
ground, you are quite shut off from the great, troublesome, outside
world. And how happy and safe you feel in that green world of your
own!—a world just made for children, a world of grass and leaves
and birds and flowers, where lessons and grown-up people alike
have no part.
In the lightly swinging branches you find prancing horses, and on
many a mad ride they carry you. The larger ones are steep paths
leading up mountain sides. Great chasms yawn beneath you. Here
only the daring, the cool-headed, may hope to be successful and
reach the highest points without danger to their bones.
Out here the girls bring their dolls, and play house. Nothing can
make a more interesting or a more surprising house than an apple
tree, its rooms are so many and of such curious shapes. Then, too,
the seats in these rooms are far more comfortable than the chairs
used by ordinary people in everyday houses. The doings of the
Robin family are overlooked by its windows. One is amazed to see
how many fat worms Mother Robin manages to pop down the
yawning baby throats, and wonders how baby robins ever live to
grow up.
From these windows you watch the first flying lesson; and you
laugh to see the little cowards cling to the branch close by, paying
little heed to their parents’ noisy indignation. All the same, you wish
that you too might suddenly grow a pair of wings, and join the little
class, and learn to do the one thing that seems even more delightful
than tree climbing.
That you children long to be out of the schoolroom this minute, out
in the orchard so full of possibilities, I do not wonder a bit. But as the
big people have decided that from now on for some months you
must spend much of your time with lesson books, I have a plan to
propose.
What do you say to trying to bring something of the outdoor places
that we love into the schoolroom, which we do not love as much as
we should if lessons were always taught in the right way?
Now let us pretend—and even grown-up people, who can do
difficult sums, and answer questions in history and geography better
than children, cannot “pretend” one half so well—now let us pretend
that we are about to spend the morning in the orchard.
Here we go, out of the schoolroom into the air and sunshine, along
the road, up the hill, till we reach the stone wall beyond which lies
our orchard.
Ah! it is good to get into the cool of the dear, friendly trees. And
just now, more than ever, they seem friendly to you boys and girls;
for they are heavy with apples,—beautiful red and golden apples,
that tempt you to clamber up into the green sea of leaves above.
Now let us “pretend” that you have had your fill, and are ready to
gather quietly about me on the long grass. But first, please, one of
you bring me an apple. Let it be well-grown and rounded, with a rosy,
sun-burned cheek; for, as we are to spend some little time with this
apple, the more perfect it is in shape, the richer in color, the sounder
all the way through, the better. It is good to be as much as possible
with things that are beautiful and wholesome and hearty, even
though they are only apples.

Fig. 1

Here we have (Fig. 1) a fine specimen. What do you know, any of

you, about this apple? Perhaps this seems a strange question. But
when we see something that is fine and beautiful, is it strange that
we wish to know its history? If I see a man or a woman who seems
to me all that a man or woman should be; if he or she is fine-looking
and fine-acting, straight and strong, and beautiful and kind, and
brave and generous,—I ask, “Who is he? Where does she come
from? What have they done?”
Of course, a fine apple is not so interesting as a fine man or
woman, or as a fine boy or girl. Still there is much of interest to learn
even about an apple.
None of you seems anxious to tell the apple’s story, so I shall have
to start you with some questions.
Do you remember playing in this same orchard last spring?
 Yes, you have not forgotten those Saturdays in May. The trees
were all pink and white with apple blossoms. The air was sweet with
fragrance, and full of the voices of birds, and of bees that were
bustling about from flower to flower. No, indeed! you have not
forgotten those happy mornings. What is more, you never will. They
are among the things that will stay by you, and be a rest and help to
you all your lives. I wish there were no child living that might not
carry with him always the memory of May days in an apple orchard.
How has it come about, do you suppose, that these trees which in
May were covered with flowers are now heavy with apples?
Can any of you children answer this riddle? How have these great
apples managed to take the place of the delicate apple blossoms?
There are some children who keep their eyes open, and really see
what is going on about them, instead of acting as if they were quite
blind; and perhaps some such child will say, “Oh, yes! I know how it
happened. I have seen it all,” and will be able to tell the whole story
at once.
I should like very much to meet that boy or girl, and I should like to
take a country walk with him or her; for there are so few children, or
grown people either, who use both their eyes to see with, and the
brain which lies back of their eyes to think and question with, that it is
a rare treat to meet and to go about with one of them.
But I should be almost as much pleased to meet the child who
says, “Well, I know that first the blossoms come. Early in May they
make the orchard so nice to play in. But in a few days they begin to
fall. Their little white leaves come dropping down like snowflakes;
and soon after, if you climb out along the branches and look close,
where there was a blossom before, you find now a little green thing
something like a knob (Fig. 2). This tiny knob keeps growing bigger
and bigger, and then you see that it is a baby apple. As the weeks go
by, the little apple grows into a big one; and at last the green begins
to fade away, and the red and yellow to come. One day you find the
great grown apple all ripe, and ready to eat. But I never could see
just what made it come like that, such a big, heavy apple from such a
little flower, and I always wondered about it.”
 Fig. 2

Now, if we wonder about the things we see, we are on the right

road. The child who first “sees” what is happening around him, and
then “wonders” and asks questions, is sure to be good company to
other people and to himself. (And as one spends more time with
himself than with any one else, he is lucky if he finds himself a
pleasant companion.) Such a child has not lost the use of his eyes,
as so many of us seem to have done. And when the little brain is full
of questions, it bids fair to become a big brain, which may answer
some day the questions the world is asking.
Before I tell you just how the big apple managed to take the place
of the pretty, delicate flower, let us take a good look at this flower.
But in September apple flowers are not to be had for the asking.
Not one is to be found on all these trees. So just now we must use
the picture instead. And when May comes, your teacher will bring
you a branch bearing the beautiful blossoms; or, better still, perhaps
she will take you out into the orchard itself, and you can go over this
chapter again with the lovely living flowers before you.