1.2.

Proton
A proton is a subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom. It is the smallest and lightest
positive ion was obtained from hydrogen and was called proton. This positively charged
particle was characterised in 1919.

Discovering the proton.

Positive rays were discovered by Goldstein (He experimentally proved the existence of
positive charges in matter).
An electrical discharge carried out in the modified cathode ray tube led to the discovery of
particles carrying positive charge, also known as canal rays.
Here, a perforated cathode was used in a discharge tube along with air at very low pressure,
and with a very high voltage of about 10,000 volts, applied across the electrodes.
When the cathode was activated, a faint red glow was observed behind the perforated cathode.

Fig 12: production of canal rays

When the high voltage is applied, its electric field accelerates the small number of ions
present in the gas. These collide with atoms of the gas, knocking electrons off of them and
creating more positive ions. These ions and electrons in turn strike more atoms, creating more
positive ions.
The positive ions are all attracted to the cathode, and some pass through the holes in the
cathode. These are positive rays/ canal rays. (because they were produced by the holes or
channels in the cathode)

The rays are not exactly formed at the positive electrode or anode, since they are formed
away from the cathode close to the anode, they were also known as anode rays or positive
rays.

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How molecules/atoms are ionized

Example: If there is H2 gas in the cathode ray tube, the H2 molecules collide with the cathode
surface and become atoms and then ionize.

H2(g) H(g) + H+(g)

H(g) H+ (g) + e

Here the positive beam is the H+ ion beam.

The + ions formed in this way are quickly attracted to the cathode (-), that is, the + rays move towards
the cathode. When the cathode (-) is perforated, the + ions move behind the cathode through the holes.
(There is a glow on that surface).

These + ions move back towards the cathode and collide with electrons to form neutral atoms and
molecules. Those molecules/atoms are ionized again and again to form cathode rays (-) and positive
rays (+). This is a cyclic process.

Positive radiation does not originate from the anode.

Properties of positive rays /canal rays (Experimental observations)

➢ They travel in straight lines as they cast a shadow of the objects placed in their way. They have
particle properties and momentum, as they can move a paddle wheel placed in their path.

➢ The behaviour of these particles in the magnetic or electrical field is opposite to that observed
for electron or cathode rays.

➢ Unlike cathode rays, the positively charged particles depend upon the nature of gas present in
the cathode ray tube.
➢ These are simply the positively charged gaseous ions. Therefore, the charge to mass ratio of
the particles is found to depend on the gas from which these originate. Different gases give
different types of positive rays, which contain particles having different masses and different
charges.

➢ Thus, the lightest positively charged particle in nature, H+ was named as ‘the proton’
by Lord Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937). That is, the proton was introduced by Ernest
Rutherford.

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 ➢ Other positive particles were later found to be multiples of the mass of the lightest positive
particle (H+).

That is, this H+ must be a subatomic particle, it is the proton.

Absolute mass of the proton =1.6726 ×10−27 kg 1.007276 u or Da

Relative mass of the proton =1
Charge of the proton, is equal and opposite to the charge on the electron.
Absolute charge of the proton = 1.6021 × 10−19C
Relative charge of the proton, =+1

1.3 Neutron
Subsequent studies, mainly based on mass spectroscopy revealed that the masses of atoms
were much greater than the masses of protons and electrons present. Therefore, another
subatomic particle should be present to contribute towards the mass of the atom.
In 1932 Sir James Chadwick (1891-1972) a British scientist discovered the ‘neutron’. The
charge of a neutron is 0 (zero) and its mass is 1.6749 x 10-24g or 1.008665 amu.

1.4 Behaviour patterns of subatomic particles in a magnetic and electric

field.

Electrons and protons change direction in a magnetic field and electric field (because they are
charged). But the trajectory of neutrons does not change. (Because neutrons are electrically free)

Behaviour patterns of subatomic particles in an electric field.

protons and electrons change direction in an electric field, Electrons are attracted to the anode. i.e.
electrons are negatively charged.
Protons are repelled by the anode and protons are attracted to the cathode. That is, protons are
positively charged.
It does not change the
trajectory of neutrons, i.e.
neutrons should be electrically
neutral.

Fig 13: Behaviour of Beams

Protons, Neutrons, and
Electrons in an Electric Field.

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Behaviour patterns of subatomic particles in a magnetic field.

Electrons and protons change direction in a magnetic field (because they are charged). But the
trajectory of neutrons does not change. (Because neutrons are electrically free)

Fig 14: Behaviour patterns of subatomic particles in a magnetic field.

1.4 Atomic Models

Observations obtained from the experiments mentioned in the previous sections have suggested that
Dalton’s indivisible atom is composed of sub-atomic particles carrying positive and negative charges.
Different atomic models were proposed to explain the distributions of these charged particles in an
atom. Two of these models, proposed by J. J. Thomson and Ernest Rutherford are discussed below.

1.4.1 Thomson's atomic model (plum pudding model)

J. J. Thomson, in 1898, proposed that an atom possesses a spherical shape (radius approximately 10–
10 m) in which the positive charge is uniformly distributed. The electrons are embedded into it in such
a manner as to give the most stable electrostatic arrangement (Fig. 12)

Fig 15: Thomson’s model of atom (plum pudding model)

This model can be visualised as a pudding of positive charge with plums (electrons) embedded into it.
An important feature of this model is that the mass of the atom is assumed to be uniformly distributed
over the atom. Although this model was able to explain the overall neutrality of the atom.

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Later, this model was shown to be incorrect in an experiment by Geiger and Marsden led by
Rutherford.

1.4.2 Rutherford’s gold foil experiment

The way the test was done was to take a very thin sheet of gold metal and direct a stream of high
energy α–particles from a radioactive source (uranium) to it. The thin gold foil had a circular
fluorescent zinc sulphide
screen around it.
Whenever α–particles
struck the screen, a tiny
flash of light was produced
at that point. Accordingly,
the behaviour of alpha rays
can be studied.

Fig 16: Rutherford’s gold foil experiment with Geiger and Marsden\

Observations of the experiment:

(i) Most of the α– particles passed through the gold foil undeflected.
(ii) A small fraction of the α–particles was deflected by small angles.
(iii) A very few α– particles ( 1 in 20,000) bounced back, that is, were deflected by nearly
180°.

Rutherford came to the following conclusions about the atomic structure based on the
observations.

Conclusions of the experiment:

(i) Most of the space in the atom is empty as most of the α–particles passed through
the foil undeflected.
(ii) The deflection of a few positively charged α– particles must be the result of a strong
repulsive force, indicating that the atom's positive charge is not dispersed throughout
the atom as Thomson had assumed. To resist and deflect the positively charged α-
particles, the positive charge needs to be concentrated in a very tiny space.
(iii) The volume occupied by the positively charged particles in an atom is very small
as compared to the total volume of an atom as very few of the α-particles were
deflected back.

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 Fig 17: Results of gold
foil experiment proved that the
Rutherford is correct

➢ The results of scattering experiment were quite unexpected. According to Thomson model of
atom, the mass of each gold atom in the foil should have been spread evenly over the entire
atom, and α– particles had enough energy to pass directly through such a uniform distribution
of mass. So, the particles would slow down and change directions only by a small angle as
they passed through the foil.

➢ These results show that Thomson's atomic model is incorrect. Rutherford introduced a new
atomic model to explain the experimental results.

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