The Fundamental Unit of Life
The body of all organisms from the simplest to the
most complex one is made up of tiny microscopic
units which carry out the processes that make the
organisms a living entity. Such a structural and
functional unit of living body is called a cell.
All living beings are composed of cells. A cell is the
structural and functional unit of every living
organism, capable of independent existence. Any
function performed by the organism is the outcome of
the activity of the cell.
Many types of organisms are unicellular with the
whole body comprising a single, free living cell. These
organisms are mostly microscopic bacteria. Amoeba,
Euglena, Chlamydomonas, etc. Other organisms
(animals from sponges to mammals, most algae,
fungi, plants and trees) are multicellular (organisms
comprising of more than one cell).
All these organisms differ in their structure, function
and behaviour. Since all the activities of an organism
are present in miniature form in each and every cell,
therefore, it is called as the basic unit of life.
DISCOVERY OF CELL
The invention of microscope helped in the discovery
of the cell. The first microscope was constructed by
Anton Von Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723). It consisted of
a single biconvex lens and was known as the simple
microscope. Cells were discovered by Robert Hooke in
1665. He studied the piece of cork under his
microscope.
He observed that the cork piece had a large number
of compartments joined together in a honey-comb
like structure. He named these compartments as cells.
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Facts about cell discovery
 Robert Hooke (1665), an English botanist,
observed thin sections of cork of bark of a tree
under a self-designed compound microscope and
noticed honey-comb like compartments. He
coined them as cells. Term cell was derived from a
Latin word cella= a little room. He explained his
observation in a book namely, Micrographia. He
actually observed the rigid cell walls of dead cells.
 Anton Von Leeuwenhoek (1674), a Dutch draper,
was first to observe living cells like bacteria (from
tartar of teeth), erythrocytes (of a fish), sperms
(were called animalcules) and protozoans (e, g.,
Vorticella).
 N. Grew (1682) proposed cell concept which
states that cell is a unit of structure of organ-isms.
 Robert Brown (1831): Discovered the nucleus in
the root cells of orchid plant.
 Purkinje (1839): Gave the term protoplasm for
the jelly –like semifluid material of the cell.
 M.J. Schleidin (1838) and Theodore Schwann
(1839): Proposed the cell theory which states
that the basic structural and functional unit of all
the plant and animals is cell.
 Rudolf Virchow (1855), a German physiologist,
proposed Theory of Lineage which states
"omniscellula e cellula” which means that new
cells are formed from the pre-existing cells.
 Knoll and Ruska (1932) of Germany' designed the
electron microscope which was employed to
study the ultrastructure (fine structure) of cell and
various cell and various cell organelles in 1940s:
 In context of modern researches, the old cell-
theory has been modified and it can be stated as
follows:
- All living organisms are composed of cells or
cell products.
- All new cells arise as a result of division of
pre-existing cells.
- All cells are basically alike in chemical
composition and metabolic processes.
- The function of an organism as a whole is the
outcome of the combined activities and
interactions of the constituent cells.
- Cell is the structural and functional unit of- all
living beings.
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
The ordinary light or compound or optical
microscope is used extensively in laboratories these
days. It is greatly-improved design of Hooke's
microscope. It consists of two lenses, the eyepiece
lens and the objective lens, which are combined to
produce a greater magnification. These microscopes
use light (generally sunlight) to illuminate the object.
So, these compound microscopes are called light a
microscopes. In these microscopes many lenses are
combined together and their magnification power
range from 300 to 1500 times, good enough to see
cells, larger organelles and bacteria.
As shown in figure, the object or specimen on a glass
slide is kept on a stage under an objective piece
(having lenses) almost in the middle of the
microscope. Light is passed through the
Object, specimen with the help of a mirror (called
reflector) and a condenser from below the stage.
From the eyepiece on the top, a magnified image of
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the object, specimen can be seen easily a sharp image
can be got by focussing the side knobs properly. The
upper and large knob is meant for coarse adjustments
and it is used for rapid and precise focussing of the
object. The lower and small knob is used for fine
adjustments (i.e., for getting perfect image of the
object). The magnification of image can be increased
or decreased by changing the objectives of high or low
power (5 X, 10 X, 15 X, etc.) accordingly
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
The electron microscope (EM) has power of
magnification and resolution much greater than that
of an optical (light) microscope. An electron
microscope can resolve points 1 nm apart. In this
microscope, a beam of electrons is passed through
the section of material to produce the image. The
electron beam passing through the section is focused
by electromagnets and is projected on to a
fluorescent screen for direct view or on to a
photographic plate for permanent recording. The
resulting photograph is called an electron
micrograph.
UNICELLULAR AND MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS
On the basis of number of cells, there are basically
three types of organisms— non-cellular, unicellular
and multicellular. Non-cellular organisms are those
organisms that do not contain any cell in their body
organization, e.g., virus. They do not have membrane
and are non-living until they reach inside the body of
a living organism. Unicellular organisms are those
organ- isms that are made up of only one cell. In
unicellular organisms, a single cell constitutes a whole
organism. For example Amoeba, Chlamydomonas,
Euglena, Paramecium, Trypanosoma and bacteria are
unicellular organisms. Multicellular organisms are
those organisms in which the body is made up of
many cells which group together to perform many
functions of the body. For example, fungi, plants and
animals are multicellular organisms. All multicellular
organ- isms have come from a single cell through cell
division.
PROKARYOTIC CELLS
The organisms whose cells lack a nuclear membrane
are called prokaryotic cells. These cells have primitive
organization of genetic material. The genetic material
is equivalent to a single molecule of DNA. These cells
do not have a well-organized nuclear region due to
absence of nuclear membrane. These cells lack M
several cytoplasmic organelles like mitochondria,
lysosome, endoplasmic reticulum, chloroplast,
nucleolus, etc. Many of the functions of these cells are EUKARYOTIC CELLS
performed by poorly organized parts of cytoplasm.
Organisms whose cells have a nuclear membrane are
The chlorophyll is found attached to membranous
called eukaryotes. In these cells, the genetic material
vesicles and not plastids as in eukaryotes. Bacteria
is made of two or more DNA molecules. The nuclear
and blue-green algae are example of prokaryotic cells.
material is enclosed in a nuclear membrane. These
cells have a well-organised nucleus. These cells have
well-developed membrane-bound organelles, such as
mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosome,
chloroplast,
Nucleolus, etc. Eukaryotic cells occur in plants,
animals, fungi etc.

Table: Differences between prokaryotic cell and eukaryotic cell

Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell
1. Size of the cells is generally small (1-10  m ) Size of cell is generally large (5-100  m ).
2. Nucleus is absent, (nuclear region or Nucleus is present (nuclear material is surrounded by a nuclear
nucleoid is not surrounded by a nuclear membrane).
membrane).
3. It contains single chromosome. It contains more than one chromosome.
4. Nucleolus is absent Nucleolus is present.
5. Membrane bound cell organelles are absent.
Membrane bound cell organelles such as mitochondria, plastids,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes,
etc., are present.
6. Cell division takes place by fission or Cell division occurs by mitotic or meiotic cell division.
budding (no mitosis).

CELL - SHAPE AND SIZE in different animals and plants. The average cell size
varies from 0.5 to 20 p, in diameter. In human body,
Different organisms have cells of different kinds. The
the smallest cell is RBC (7  m in diameter), and the
shape and size of cells are related to specific functions
performed by organisms. longest one are the nerve cells which reach a length
of about 90-100 cm. In plants, large cells occur in
Cell shape many algae. Among the plants, the largest cell is the
ovule of cycas. The smallest known cell is
Cells show a great variation in their shapes. Most cells
Mycoplasma or PPLO (Pleu-ropneumonia-like
have a definite shape. In human body, cells may be
organism). Its size is 0.1 to 0.5  m (micrometre).
spindle-shaped—muscle cells, elongated—nerve cells,
Amongst multicellular animals, the largest cell is the
oval—red blood corpuscles, cuboidal—germ cells,
egg of ostrich. It measures about 15 cm and 8 cm in
branched—osteocytes and chromatophores and so
diameter with and without its shell respectively.
on. Some cells may Fig.: Amoeba (changes shape) not
have any definite shape, i.e.,
CELL NUMBER AND VOLUME
their shape changes e.g.,
Amoeba and leucocytes (white Cell number
blood corpuscles). The number of cells in living beings differ from the
one in unicellular organisms (e.g., bacteria, protozoa)
Cell size to many in multicellular forms. The number of cells is
not definite in multicellular organisms, and may
The size of the
increase along with the growth and volume of
cell also varies
organism. However, green alga Pandorina contains 8-
considerably

3
32 cells. A human being weighing approximately 80 kg
is estimated to have 60 thousand billion cells,
whereas a newly born human infant has 2 x 1012 cells.
The number of cells in most multicellular organisms is
indefinite, but the number of cells may be fixed in
some multicellular organisms such as rotifers and
nematodes. In the nematodes (e.g., Ascaris), the
number of cells in various organs is fixed and it is
attained by the time hatching takes place. Most
growth in size of a nematode results from an increase
in cell size. The phenomenon of having a constant and
genetically fixed number of cells is called eutely. In
eutelic animals mitosis stops following embryonic
development.
Cell volume
The volume of a cell is fairly constant for a particular
cell type and is independent of the size of the
organism. For example, kidney or liver cells are about
the same size in the bull, horse and mouse. The
difference in the total mass of the organ or organism
depends on the number, not on the volume of the
cells. Thus, the cells of an elephant are not
necessarily larger than those of other tiny animals or
plants. The large size of the elephant is due to the
larger number of cells present in its body.
Dimensions of cell size
(i) Millimetre (mm) 1mm = 1000 
(ii) Micrometry (  m ) or micron (  )*
(iii) Nanometre (nm) or millimicron (m )
1  1000 m
(iv) Angstrom (A  ) 1A  =10-1 m =10-7mm *Micron ( 
) is a unit of length in the CGS system, equal to one
millionth of a metre. In SI units it is replaced by the
micrometer (  m )
4
1. Name the smallest sized organism.
Ans. The smallest cells are of pleuropneumonia like
organism (PPLO), Mycoplasma gallisepticum.
Its size is found around 0.1  m
2. Who discovered cells and how? (NCERT)
Ans. Robert Hooke in 1665 discovered the cells. He
examined thin slices of cork under a self-
designed primitive microscope and saw that
the cork resembled the structure of a honey,
comb. The latter consisted of may tiny
compartments. He called them cellulae
(singular cellula), now termed cells Cellula is
a Latin name which means 'a little room'.
3. Why is the cell called the structural and
functional unit of life?
Ans. All living organisms are made up of cells. Thus,
cell is the structural unit of life. Each cell
acquire distinct structure and function due to
the organization of its membrane and
cytoplasmic organelles in the specific way.
Such an organization enables the cell to
perform basic functions such as respiration,
obtaining nutrition, clearing of wastes
material, forming new proteins etc. The cell is,
therefore, the basic functional unit of living
organisms.
STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION OF A CELL
Although the structure of the cell and its components
may vary to a certain extent in plants and animals, the
basic structure and functions of specific organelles
remain the same.
 PLASMA MEMBRANE (CELL MEMBRANE)
Every cell is bound by a thin delicate membrane called
cell membrane or plasma membrane or plasma
lemma. It is a transparent, electron microscopic,
elastic, regenerative and semi permeable membrane
present in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
outside the protoplasm. In 1972, Singer and Nicolson
suggested a model, called fluid mosaic model.
According to them, plasma membrane is made up of a
bilayer of phospholipids. Two types of protein
molecules 'floated about' in the fluid phospholipid
layer: Intrinsic proteins, which completely span the
lipid bilayer and extrinsic proteins, which occur either
on the outer surface or on the inner surface of the
lipid membrane. Plasma membrane is a selectively
permeable membrane which regulates the exchange
of materials between the cytoplasm and extra-
cellular fluid (ECF). It allows the movement of selected
quantities of selected materials across it.
Preparation of a temporary stained slide of squamous
epithelium cells of cheek of man.
Materials required: A tooth pick or ice-cream
coverslip, watch glass, needle, blotting paper, 1%
methylene blue, normal saline, glycerine and
microscope.
Procedure: Rinse your mouth with warm water. With
the help of a toothpick ice-cream spoon, gently scrape
the inner surface of the cheek. Place the scrapping in
a watch glass containing a very small quantity of
normal saline. After cleaning put the scraping on a
clean glass having a drop of water. Spread out the
scraping and separate the cells with the help of a
needle. Remove the excess .water and put a drop of
methylene blue stain or iodine solution on the
scraping. Wipe off the extra stain with a blotting
5
paper, put a drop of glycerine on the stained material.
Place a clean coverslip gently over it to avoid the
entry of air bubbles. Gently press the coverslip with
the needle so as to spread the cells uniformly under
the coverslip. Examine the Slide under the
microscope.
Observations: A large number of cells are observed.
Each cell is bounded by a thin cell membrane as
shown in the figure. A dark stained distinct nucleus is
observed in each cell. Cytoplasm is granular; Cells lack
cell wall, large vacuoles and plastids.
Inference: The cells observed under microscope are
animal cells as each cell has a cell membrane only as
outer boundary. Cell wall, central prominent vacuole
arid plastids are absent.
Movement of substances across the plasma
membrane
Movement of substances across the cell membrane
occurs through a number of mechanisms like:
Diffusion, osmosis, active transport and endocytosis
etc.
Diffusion
It is the process of movement of molecules of a
substance from a region of their higher
concentration to a region of their lower
concentration. Waste material like carbon dioxide
moves out of the cell through diffusion. Similarly,
oxygen enters the cell through diffusion. Significance
of diffusion
 Helps in uniform distribution of materials in the
cytoplasm.
 Helps in exchange of gases during respiration.
 Odoriferous chemicals of flowers attract the
pollinating agents.

To understand the principle of diffusion.
Materials required: Beaker, copper sulphate, crystal,
water.
Procedure:
- Half-fill a beaker with water.
- Put a crystal of copper sulphate into it.
Observation: After some time, the water around the
crystal becomes blue and finally the whole water
becomes uniformly blue.
Inference: The molecules of copper sulphate slowly
diffuse on all the sides until these are uniformly
distributed in the beaker of water. This proves that
molecules of copper sulphate move along their
concentration gradient. On the other hand, the gases
always diffuse along their pressure gradient i.e., from
the region of higher partial pressure to the region of
lower partial pressure e.g., exchange of oxygen and
carbon dioxide in tissue respiration. In this, oxygen
always diffuses from the blood (where PO2=95 mm
Hg) into the cells (where PO2=20 mm Hg), While
carbon dioxide always diffuses from the cells (where
PCO2=52 mm Hg) into the blood (where PCO2=40 mm
Hg).
Osmosis
Osmosis is the passive movement of water or any
other solvent molecules from a region of higher water
concentration to a region of lower water
concentration- through a semi permeable membrane.
Plasma membrane or cell membrane is selectively
permeable membrane. How- ever, in case of the
movement of solvent or water, it acts as a semi-
permeable membrane because it allows the free
diffusion of water molecules, A dilute solution has
more concentration of water molecules in contrast to
a concentrated solution which has low concentration
of water. Hypotonic, isotonic and hypertonic are
relative terms, i.e., a solution is known as hypotonic,
isotonic or hypertonic only when it is compared with
some other solutions. Let us take an example of each
one of these terms.
(i) If a cell is placed in such a solution which has lower
concentration of solute and higher concentration of
6
water as compared to the concentration of cell sap
(i.e., the solution inside the cell), the water molecules
move from external solution into the cell sap. Such an
external solution is known as hypotonic solution.
(ii) If a cell is placed in such a solution which has
exactly the same concentration as that of cell sap,
there will be no net movement of water across the
cell membrane. Such an external solution is known as
isotonic solution.
(iii) If a cell is placed in such a solution which has
higher concentration of solute and lower
concentration of water as compared to the
concentration of cell sap the water molecules move
from cell sap to the external solution so that the cell
shrinks. Such a solution is known as hypertonic
solution.
Explanation: The cell membrane is semipermeable
that allows water molecules to pass through it in both
directions. When a cell is placed in hypotpnic solution,
the water molecules move from external solution into
the cell by osmosis so that the cell swells up. This
shows the phenomenon of endosmosis (i.e., water
enters into the cell). On the other hand, when a cell is
placed in a hypertonic solution/ the water leaves the
cell and moves outside so that the. Cell shrinks. This
shows the phenomenon of exosmosis. However in
case of isotonic solution the amount of water that
enters into the cell is same as the amount of water
moves outside so that there is no net movement of
water.
Significance of osmosis
 It helps in absorption of water from the soil by
root hair.
 It helps in opening and closing of stomata on the
leaves.
 It induces the movement of leaflets of touch-me-
not.
 It also helps in growth of embryo during seed
germination.
 otherwise penetrate. It differs from active transport in
that it promotes movement in a downhill direction
(i.e., in the direction of concentration gradient) only
and requires no metabolic energy to drive the
To study the osmosis in raisins.
transport system. In many ani- mals facilitated
Materials required: Dried raisins, petridish,
transport (or facilitated dif- fusion) aids in the
concentrated sugar or salt solution.
transport of glucose fusion) aids in the transport of
Produce: half-fill a petridish with water and place 4-5
glucose (blood sugar) into the body cells that oxidise it
dried raisins in it. Observe after few minute. Now
to get ATPs. The concentration of glucose is greater in
place these raisins in concentrated sugar or salt
the blood than in the cells that consume it, favouring
solution
inward diffusion, but glucose is a water soluble
Observations and Conclusion: Dried raisins, when put
molecule that does not by itself penetrate the
in pure water for sometimes, swell up. When these
membrane rapidly enough to support the metabolism
swollen raisins are put in concentrated sugar solution
of many cells. The carrier system (i.e., mediated
(or salt-solution), they again shrink after sometime.
transport) increases the inward flow of glucose.
Pure water has lesser concentration of solutes and
greater concentration of water than inside the dried
raisins. Therefore, due to endosmosis, more water
molecules move inside the dried raisins.
Consequently, dried raisins swell up. Concentrated
sugar or salt solution is a hypertonic solution which
has higher concentration of solutes and lesser
concentration of water than inside the swollen raisins.
Therefore, when swollen raisin are put in
concentrated sugar or salt solution, they quickly lose
water to the surrounding medium. Consequently, due
Active transport
to exosmosis, swollen raisins again shrink.
In this case, the energy is supplied to the system
(called pump) to transport molecules in the direction
opposite to concentration gradient. In active
transport, molecules are moved uphill against the
forces of passive diffusion. Active transport always
involves the expenditure of energy (from ATP)
Mediated Transport
As the cell/plasma membrane is an effective barrier
to the free diffusion of most molecules of biological
significance, yet it is essential that some materials
enter and leave the cell. Nutrients such a sugars and
materials of growth such as amino acids must enter
the cell, and the wastes of metabolism must leave.
Such molecules are moved across the membrane by
special proteins called transport proteins or
permeases. Permeases form a small passageway
through the membrane, enabling the solute molecule Because materials are pumped against the
to cross the phospholipid bilayer. Permeases are concentration gradient. Among the most important
usually quite specific, recognizing and transporting active transport system in all animals are those that
only a limited group of chemical substances or maintain sodium and potassium gradients between
perhaps even a single substance. cells and the surrounding extracellular fluid or
external environment. Most animal cells require a
Types of mediated transport high internal concentration of potassium ions for the
protein synthesis at the ribosomes and for certain
Facilitated transport
enzymatic functions. The potassium ion concentration
In this case, the permease assists a molecule to
may be 20 to 50 times greater inside the cell than
diffuse through the membrane that it cannot
outside. Sodium ions, on the other hand, may be 10

7
times more concentrated outside the cell than inside.
Both of these ionic gradients are maintained by the
active transport of potassium ions into and sodium
ions out of the cell. There is evidence that 10 per cent
to 40 per cent of all energy produced by some cells is
used to power the sodium- potassium pump.
Significance: It helps in muscle contraction, nerve
impulse conduction, intestinal absorption of glucose,
maintaining ionic balance, etc.
Endocytosis
Endocytosis is the ingestion of material by the cells
through the plasma membrane. It is a collective term
that describes two similar processes: phagocytosis
(cell eating), potocytosis or pinocytosis (cell drinking).
Both require energy, so may be regarded as different
forms of active transport
(i) Phagocytosis: It literally means "cell eating". It is a
common method of feeding among the protozoa
(Amoeba) and lower metazoa (e.g., sponges). White
blood cell (leucocytes) engulf cellular debris and
uninvited microbes (viruses, bacteria) in the blood by
phagocytosis. By phagocytosis, an area of the plasma
membrane, forms a pocket that engulfs the solid
material. The membrane-enclosed vesicle,
phagosome, then detaches from the cell surface
(plasma membrane) into the cytoplasm where its
contents are digested by lysosomal enzymes.
(ii) Pinocytosis or Potocytosis: It is the bulk transport
of fluid matter and substances dissolved in it (e.g.,
ions, sugars, amino acids) across the cell membrane
by forming minute detachable vesicles. Pinocytosis is
also called cell drinking. As soon as the fluid particles
attaches the plasma membrane, the latter invaginates
at that site. The invagination deepens and gets
pinched off as a vesicle called pinosome. The
pinosome migrates towards the interior where it
liberates the materials into the cytoplasm or vacuole.
Lysosomes are required if digestion of solutes is
involved.
Exocytosis
8
Just as materials can be brought into the cell by
invagination and formation of a vesicle, the
membrane of a vesicle can fuse with the plasma
membrane and extrude its contents to the
surrounding medium. This is the process of
exocytosis. Exocytosis occurs in various cells to
remove undigested residues of substances brought in
by endocytosis, to secrete substances such as
hormones, enzymes, and to transport a substance
completely across a cellular barrier. In the process of
exocytosis, the undigested waste-containing food
vacuole or the secretory vesicle budded from Golgi
apparatus, is first moved by cytoskeleton from the
interior of the cell to the surface. The vesicle
membrane comes in contact with the plasma
membrane. The lipid molecules of the two bilayers
rearrange themselves and the two membranes are,
thus, fused. A passage is formed in the fused
membrane and the vesicle discharges its contents
outside the cell.
CELL WALL
Cell wall was first seen in cork cells by Robert Hooke
in 1665. Cell wall is present in plant cells, bacteria and
fungi. It is an additional protective wall present
outside plasma membrane. Cell wall is a thick, non-
living, rigid and permeable covering made up of
cellulose. Cellulose is a kind of carbohydrate
(polysaccharide). It provides structural strength to the
plant. Cell wall is formed of peptidoglycan in bacteria
and blue-green algae cells but is formed of chitin in
most of fungi. Young growing cells, meristematic cells,
photosynthesizing cells, some storage cells, all
parenchymatous cells and some other plant cells
possess only a primary cell wall made up of cellulose.
The primary cell walls of adjacent cells are cemented
through middle lamella. However, many mature plant
cells especially dead cells of xylem, cork and
sclerenchyma possess an additional secondary wall
inner to the primary wall. Functionally, the primary
cell wall provides mechanical strength and protection
to the protoplast. This wall is porous and considered
as permeable membrane which allows both solvent as
well as solute molecules to pass through it. The
secondary wall deposited on the inner face of the
primary wall, is composed of lignin and suberin
substances. Due to presence of lignin and suberin the
secondary wall becomes impermeable to the
substances so that the cell becomes dead.
Preparation of a temporary stained mount of an
anion peel and its observation on under a
microscope.
Materials required: One small piece of an onion,
brush, needle, watch glass, glass slide, glycerine, and
water, cover slip, staining reagent (iodine solution or
methylene blue), blotting paper and a microscope.
Produce:
Observation: There are a large number of brick
shaped (rectangular) cells lying side by side as shown
in the figure. Each cell has a distinct cell wall. A
distinct darkly stained nucleus is present in each cell
which is spherical or oval shaped dot
like structure. A prominent vacuole
is seen in the centre, and cytoplasm
is present in every cell.
Inference: The cells observed under microscope are
plant cells as each has a distinct cell wall and a large
vacuole is present in the centre of each cell.
Precautions:
(i) Immediately put the peel of onion bulb in a water
containing watch glass to avoid its folding and drying
(ii) Spread the peel uniformly on the slide.
(iii) Excess of stain should be drained off.
(iv) There should be no air bubble under the coverslip.
Similar observations are found in the peel taken from
the undersurface of a leaf of tradescantia or Rheo or
temporary mounts of peels of onions of different
sizes.
Plasmolysis
A plant cell placed in a hypotonic solution receives
water by osmosis. It does not burst because it is
surrounded by a rigid cell wall which can withstand
9
the hydrostatic or turgor pressure of the turgid
(distended) cell contents. The cell wall counters the
turgor pressure by exerting wall pressure. If a living
plant cell is immersed in a concentrated sugar
solution, the concentration of water molecules inside
the cell will be higher than outside. As a result, water
will move by osmosis from the higher water potential
inside the cell to the lower water potential outside.
The cytoplasm along with the plasma membrane
shrinks and separates from the cell wall. This process
of shrinkage of protoplast from the cell wall due to
exosmosis caused by a hypertonic solution is called
plasmolysis. , Thus, because of the presence of cell
wall, the plant cells can withstand much greater
changes in the external medium as compared to
animal cells.
To show with the help of Rheo leaf that only living
cells undergo plasmolysis.
Materials required: Rheo leaf, glass slides,
concentrated sugar or salt solution, water petri dish
and microscope.
Procedure: Take a Rheo leaf and break it to take out a
peel. Mount this peel of Rheo leaf in wafer on a glass
slide and examine under high power of microscope.
Observation 1: We will observe that the leaf peel
contains cells having small green granules, i.e., the
chloroplasts containing chlorophyll pigments. These
cells are turgid, i.e., the plasma membrane is in
complete contact with the cell wall in these cells.
Now, put a drop of strong or concentrated solution of
sugar or salt on the leaf peel. Wait for a minute and
observe.
Observation 2: We observe that the cell contents are
separated from the cell wall, i.e., the cytoplasm along
with plasma membrane has come to lie on one side of
cell wall in the leaf cells and a clear space is seen
between the cell wall and protoplast of the cells The
observed change in the condition of Rheo cells is due
to plasmolysis phenomenon, Now, place the leaf peel
in boiling water for a few minutest This will kill the
cells. Put a drop of stronger concentrated solution of
sugar or salt on the leaf peel. Wait for a minute and
observe.
Observation 3: We will observe that the boiled leaf
peel does not lose any water due to exosmosis and
hence no plasmolysis. This shows that only living cells
show plasmolysis and not the dead cells.

4. Why is the plasma membrane called a
selectively permeable membrane? (NCERT)
Ans. Plasma membrane permits the entry and exit
of selected materials in the cells. It also
prevents movement of selected materials.
Therefore, the plasma membrane is called a
selectively permeable membrane.
5. Give the chemical nature of plasma
membrane?
Ans. Plasma membrane is made up of a bilayer of
phospholipids in which protein molecules
'float about'.
6. What is a semi-permeable membrane?
Ans. A semi-permeable membrane is a membrane
that allows the movement of solvent
molecules (e.g. water molecules) through it
but prevents the movement of solute
particles (e.g. sugar or salt molecules). For
example, egg membrane, parchment
membrane, cellophane paper, etc. are semi-
permeable membrane.
7. What is endosmosis and exosmosis?
Ans. The inward diffusion of water through a semi-
permeable membrane when the surrounding
solution is less concentrated is called
endosmosis (endo: inward). Endosmosis leads
to swelling up of the cells. The outward
diffusion of water through a emi-permeable
membrane when the surrounding solution is
more concentrated is called exosmosis (exo:
outward). Exosmosis leads to the shrinking up
of cells.
8. What is the difference between diffusion and
osmosis?
Ans. The differences between diffusion and
osmosis are:

Diffusion
1. It is the movement of molecules or ions of a substance from a
region of their higher concentration to a region of their lower
concentration.
2. Diffusion can operate in any medium like solid, liquid, gas etc.
3. It does not require any semi-permeable membrane.
4. It is a rapid process in gases and slow process in liquids
5. It helps in equalizing the concentration of the diffusing
substances on the two sides of the system.
9. What is the difference between active transport and diffusion
Ans. Table: Difference between active transport and diffusion
Osmosis
It is the diffusion of water molecules from a
dilute solution to a concentrated solution
through a semipermeable membrane.
Osmosis operates only in a liquid medium.
It requires a semi-permeable membrane.
It is a slow process.
It does not equalize the concentration of x
solvent on the two sides of the system.

Active transport Diffusion

1. It is a rapid process. It is a slow process.
2. It can move materials through a biological (cellular) It can move materials across a biomembrane down the
membrane against the concentration gradient. concentration gradient.
3. It takes place in one direction only. It takes place in both directions.
4 It needs carrier (or transport) proteins to occur. It occurs without the help of carrier proteins.
5 It uses energy of ATP. It does not use energy.
6. It brings about selective uptake of materials. It allows all transmissible molecules to pass through
membrane.

10

10. How do substances like CO2 and water move
in and out of the cell? Discuss.(NCERT)
Ans.: CO2moves in and out of the cells by the
process of diffusion which involves movement
of molecules from higher concentration to
lower concentration across the cell
membrane. Water moves in and out of the
cells by osmosis is the movement of water or
solvent through a semipermeable membrane
from a solution of lower concentration of
solutes to a solution of higher concentration
of solutes to which the membrane is relatively
impermeable.
11. Give the chemical nature of cell wall.
Ans.: Cell-wall of plant cell is formed of a fibrous
polysaccharide called cellulose.
NUCLEUS
A true nucleus is absent in prokaryotes. It is present
in all the eukaryotic cells except mammalian RBCs,
sieve tube cells of phloem and tracheids and vessels
of xylem. Generally it is centric in position and oval or
spherical in shape. It was discovered by Robert Brown
(1831). Nucleus is the most conspicuous and the
largest organelle of a eukaryotic cell. It directs and
controls all the cellular activities, so is called director
of cell. Nucleus is formed of four components:
(i) Nuclear membrane or Karyotheca: It is a two-
layered envelope around the nuclear sap. It is porous
(with nuclear pores) and semipermeable membrane.
Outer membrane is studded with ribosomes and may
be continuous with RER. It regulates the exchange of
materials between nucleoplasm and cytoplasm.
(ii) Nucleoplasm or nuclear sap: It is a transparent,
semifluid, colloidal ground substance in which nucleoli
and chromatin fibres are present.
(iii) Nucleolus: It is dense, spherical, naked
(membrane less) and darkly stained structure and is
11
the site of formation and storehouse of rRNAs so
helps in the synthesis of ribosomes.
(iv) Nuclear chromatin: It is a darkly stained network
of long and fine threads called chromatin fibres which,
during cell division, condense by dehydration and
spiralling to form a species specific number of rods,
called chromosomes. The chromosome term was
given by Waldayer in 1888. Chromosomes are made
up of DNA and proteins. The DNA possesses all the
necessary information for the cell to function, grow
and divide properly. The specific segments of DNA are
termed genes. These are the hereditary units.
Functions
(i) The nucleus controls cell metabolism and other
activities of the cell, hence, it is also called Master or
Director of the cell.
(ii) Chromatin part of the nucleus possesses all the
genetic information that is required for growth and
development of the organism, its reproduction,
metabolism and behaviour.
(ii) Nucleus plays a central role in the cellular
reproduction (division of single cell to form two cells).
(iii) Along with environment, nucleus also directs the
chemical activities of the cell. This deter- mines the
development and future form of the cell.
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Prokaryotic cells
The cells of some most primitive organisms lack
nuclear membrane around their genetic material (i.e.,
DNA). The nuclear region of such organisms is poorly
defined and contains only nucleic acids. Such an
undefined nuclear material is called nucleoid. The
organisms whose cells lack a nuclear membrane, are
called prokaryotes (G. Pro = primitive or primary;
Karyote = nucleus). Prokaryotes also do not contain
membrane bound organelles in the cytoplasm.
Ribosomes are, however, present. Examples of
prokaryotic organisms (Prokaryotes) are - bacteria and
cyanobacteria, etc.
Eukaryotic cells
The cells of higher organisms possess true nucleus
bounded by nuclear membrane. Such organisms
which possess cells having a nuclear membrane are
called eukaryotes. They have membrane bound
organelles in the cytoplasm. Examples of eukaryotes
are protists, fungi, plants and animals
12. Fill in the gaps in the following table illustrating difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell
1. Size: Generally small (1-10  m ). Size: generally large (5-100  m ).
2. Nuclear region: ______________ Nuclear region: well defined and Surrounded by a nuclear membrane
__________________________
and known as ______________
3. Chromosome: single More than one chromosome

4. Membrane-bound cell organelles absent. _______________________________________

________________________________________

Ans.: The differences between prokaryotic cell and eukaryotic cell is given below:
Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell
1. Size: generally small (1-10  m ). Size: generally large (5-100  m ).
2. Nuclear region: poorly defined due to the Nuclear region: well defined and surrounded by a nuclear
absence of membrane, and known as membrane,
nucleoid.
3. Chromosome: single More than one chromosome.
4. Membrane bound cell organ Cells absent. Membrane bound cell organelles, such as mitochondria,
lysosome, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, etc. are
present.

PROTOPLASM bound cell organelles is the characteristic feature of

All cells contain living substance called protoplasm. It
is a jelly-like, viscous, colourless semi-fluid substance
in which various cell organelles and inclusions remain
in colloidal form. Protoplasm includes all the
components of the cell including cell membrane.
However, protoplasm does not include cell wall and
the contents of the vacuole. Protoplasm can be
distinguished in two forms - cytoplasm, is that part of
protoplasm which surrounds the nucleus and
nucleoplasm, that part of protoplasm which is located
inside the nucleus.
CYTOPLASM
The space between the plasma membrane and the
nucleus is filled by an amorphous, translucent,
homogeneous, colloidal liquid called cytoplasm. It
consists of various inorganic molecules, such as water,
salts, organic compounds, proteins, nucleic acids, and
a variety of enzymes. Chemically, cytoplasm contains
about 90% water, 7% proteins, 2% carbohydrates and
lipids and 1% inorganic materials, minerals/ vitamins,
etc.
Cytoplasm contains many specialized membrane
bound living parts called cell organelles. Each of the
cell organelle has a characteristic shape and specific
function. Presence of cell membrane and membrane
living organisms. The membranes and membrane
bound cell organelles are absent in viruses. Therefore,
the viruses do not show characteristics of life.
CELL ORGANELLES
Large and more highly evolved cells, or cells of the
multicellular organisms have a great deal of
biochemical activities to support their complicated
structure and function. Such cells possess specific
membrane-bound subcellular components within
themselves to keep different kinds of cellular activities
separate from each other. These membrane bound
sub-cellular components are called organelles (i.e.,
small organs). Presence of organelles is one of the
important features of the eukaryotic cells which
distinguishes them from prokaryotic cells. We have
already discussed plasma membrane, cell wall and
nucleus. Now we will discuss some common cell
organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, lysosomes, mitochondria, plastids and
vacuoles.
Endoplasmic reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum is a complex network of
membranous system in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic
cells. It is connected with plasmalemma as well as

12
nuclear envelope. Endoplasmic reticulum is absent in
prokaryotic cells and matured RBCs of mammals.
ER occurs in three forms: These are cisternae (i.e.,
closed, fluid-filled sacs), vesicles and tubules. ER is of
two types:
(i) Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) with
ribosomes attached on its surface for synthesizing
proteins. Thus, RER is engaged in the synthesis and
transport of proteins. Some of proteins and lipids,
which are synthesized in the cell with the help of ER,
are utilized in building the cell membrane. This
process is known as membrane biogenesis.
(ii) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) which is
without ribosomes and is meant for synthesis of fat or
lipids.
Functions
(i) The network of ER separates cytoplasm of the cell
into several small compartments. This
compartmentalization of cytoplasm helps a cell to
perform specific functions within specific chambers
excluding others.
(ii) The ER gives mechanical support to the cytoplasm
by providing a kind of cytoskeleton to maintain the
shape of cell.
(iii) The ER offers extensive surface for the synthesis
to proteins and lipids. It also helps in the transport of
materials (especially proteins) from one part of the
cell to another or between the cytoplasm and the
nucleus.
(iv) The SER brings about detoxification in the liver of
vertebrates, i.e., it converts harmful poisons and
drugs into harmless substances for excretion by the
cell.
Golgi apparatus
Golgi apparatus (Golgi complex) was discovered by
Nobel Laureate Camillo Golgi (1898) while he was
examining the nerve cells of barn owl
13
The Golgi complex occurs in almost all eukaryotic
cells. It is not found in prokaryotic cells like bacteria.
The Golgi complex is a membranous structure which
originates from the smooth endoplasmic reticulum. It
is formed of interconnected stacks of flattened
membranous sacs called cisternae. Besides cisternae
the complex also bears large vacuoles but cluster of
small vesicles. In plant cells, Golgi complex exists as
freely distributed sub-units of Golgi apparatus and are
called dictyosomes. Secretory materials reach the
Golgi apparatus from the SER by way of transport
vesicles which bud off from the SER and fuse with the
Golgi cisternae on one end. The secretory materials
are processed in the Golgi apparatus and then arises
as secretory vesicles from the other end of the Golgi
apparatus that carry them to their destination (i.e.,
inside and outside the cell). Golgi apparatus has a
convex forming face and a concave maturing face. The
forming face receives vesicles from endoplasmic
reticulum. The maturing face produces secretory
vesicles and lysosomes.
Functions
(i) Golgi apparatus helps in the secretion of mucus,
enzymes and hormones. The material synthesized
near the endoplasmic reticulum is transported to
various targets inside and outside the cell through the
Golgi apparatus.
(ii) It helps in the storage, modification and packaging
of secretory products in the vesicles.
(iii) In some cases Golgi apparatus also helps in the
manufacture of complex sugars from simple sugars.
(iv) The Golgi apparatus also helps in the formation of
lysosomes.
(v) It is involved in the synthesis of cell wall and
plasma membrane.
(vi) It is also involved in the formation of cell plate
during cell division.
Ribosomes
Ribosomes are the smallest membrane-less,
ribonucleoproteins particles which can be seen only
through electron microscope. They are found in both
prokaryotic as well as eukaryotic cells, except in
mature sperms and RBCs. These are dense, round
bodies which occur freely in cytoplasm or may remain
attached to the surface of endoplasmic reticulum.
Chemically, ribosomes are made up of
ribonucleoprotein (in eukaryotic cells, the constituent
of ribosomes is 50% protein and 50% ribosomal RNA).
In prokaryotic cells, they are found floating freely in
the cytoplasm.
RER increases the rate of protein synthesis by the
ribosomes. These proteins may be used in the
formation of new cell membranes (membrane
biogenesis) or act as enzymes or hormones. Two types
of ribosomes are present on the basis of their
sedimentation coefficient: 70 S (in prokaryotes) and
80 S (in eukaryotes). Each ribosome is formed of two
unequal components. 70S ribosome is formed of 50 S
and 30 S subunits, while 80S ribosome is formed of
60S and 40 S subunits.
Function: Ribosomes are sites of protein synthesis so
are called as protein factories.
Lysosomes
Lysosomes are electron microscopic spherical sac like
structures found in the cytoplasm of all the eukaryotic
animal cells except mammalian RBCs. Lysosomes
contain several digestive enzymes. More than 40
enzymes present in lysosomes are synthesized in
rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), and are brought
to the lysosome through Golgi complex. These
enzymes are capable of breaking down almost all
types of organic substances. Lysosomes pass through
various stages in the same cell.
Functions
(i) Lysosomes serve as intracellular digestive system,
hence, called digestive bags. They destroy any foreign
material which enter the cell such as bacteria and
virus. In this way they protect the cells from bacterial
infection.
(ii) Lysosomes also remove the worn out and poorly
working cellular organelles by digesting them to make
way for their new replacements. In this way, they
14
remove the cell debris and are also known as
demolition squads, scavengers and cellular
housekeepers. Thus, lysosomes form a kind of
garbage disposal system of the cell.
(iii) During breakdown of cell structure, when the cell
gets damaged, lysosomes may burst and the enzymes
eat up their own cells. Therefore, lysosomes are also
known as 'suicide bags' of a cell.
(iv) When a cell is destined to die, the lysosomal
enzymes digest the whole cell/ a process called
autolysis.
Significance of lysosomes
(i) In WBCs or leucocytes: Lysosomes in leucocytes
digest foreign proteins, bacteria and viruses.
(ii) In autophagy: During starvation, the lysosomes
digest stored food contents such as fats and
glycogen of the cytoplasm and supply the
necessary amount of energy to the cell.
(iii) In metamorphosis (Frog), the embryonic tissues
such as gills and tail are digested by the lysosomes
and utilized by other body cell.
(iv) In fertilization: The lysosomal enzymes present in
the acrosome of sperm cells digest the limiting
membrane of the ovum (egg).Thus, the sperm is
able to enter the ovum and start the fertilization.
Mitochondria
Mitochondria were first seen by Kolliker (1880) in
muscle cells but it was Benda (1898) who named
them as mitochondria. They are present in all aerobic
eukaryotic cells. However, they are absent in
prokaryotic cells. Typically, mitochondria are sausage-
shaped, but these may be granular, filamentous, rod-
shaped, spherical or thread-like also.
Mitochondrion is a thermos bottle like structure and
has two mitochondrial membranes. Outer
mitochondrial membrane is smooth, porous and
freely permeable while inner mitochondrial
membrane is selectively permeable and is deeply
folded into finger-like processes, called cristae, to
increase the surface area. The cristae are arranged in
characteristic patterns in different cells and bear ATP-
generating assemblies called oxysomes or elementary
particles. The two membranes of each mitochondrion
are separated by a narrow space called inter-
membrane space or outer chamber. It contains a
clear, homogeneous fluid. The space between the
cristae is called inner chamber. Inner chamber of
mitochondria is filled with circular and denser
proteinaceous mitochondrial matrix having
respiratory enzymes of Krebs cycle. It also has 70 S
ribosomes and a number of circular and naked DNA
molecules and RNA molecules.
Inner membrane folds create a large surface area for
the generation of ATP during respiration. This energy
is required for various chemical activities needed for
life. Hence, mitochondria are also known as the
powerhouses of the cell. ATP is known as the energy
currency of the cell. Our body uses energy stored in
ATP for manufacturing new chemical compounds and
for mechanical work.
Functions
(i) Mitochondria are miniature biochemical factories
where food is oxidized and energy is released. This
energy is stored in the form of ATP (Adenosine
triphosphate). Hence, mitochondria are called the
powerhouses of the cell.
(ii) They provide important intermediates for the
synthesis of several biochemical like chlorophyll
cytochromes, steroids, etc.
(iii) Synthesis of many amino acids' occurs in
mitochondria.
(iv) Mitochondria are capable of self-duplication
(replication). They have DNA, RNA, ribosomes and
enzymes. They are able to synthesize some of their
own proteins. Hence, they are regarded as semi-
autonomous organelles.
Plastids
The term 'plastid' was given by Haeckel in 1866. They
are spherical or discoidal in shape and are enclosed in
double membrane. They are present only in plant
cells. These are absent from the prokaryotes, fungi
and animal cells. Plastids are also self-replicating
bodies. They contain their own DNA, RNA and
ribosomes, i.e., they have their own protein
synthesizing machinery hence are called
semiautonomous bodies. On the basis of the colour,
plastids may be of the following types:
 Chloroplasts: Green-coloured plastids containing
chlorophyll.
15
 Leucoplasts: Colourless plastids, which store
starch, protein and lipids in them.
 Chromoplast: These plastids are yellow or reddish
in colour and are present in flowers and fruit
Structure of chloroplasts: The chloroplasts of higher
plants are usually spherical, ovoid, on of: discoidal or
lens shaped. Each chloroplast is a vesicle bounded by
double membrane envelope and filled with fluid
matrix like the mitochondrion. The outer membrane is
smooth and freely permeable to small molecules.
Inner membrane is, however, selectively permeable. It
has carrier proteins that control the passage of
molecules. It is greatly infolded but the infolds
become free in the mature chloroplast to lie as
lamellae in the matrix. Lamellae are closed, flattened,
membrane-bound ovoid sacs called thylakoids which
lie closely packed in piles, the grana (singular
granum). These contain green chlorophyll pigment
molecules. Matrix is a colourless, granular, colloidal
ground substance called stroma. It contains proteins,
lipids, ribosomes, circular DNA, RNA molecules,
enzymes, lipid droplets, and certain metal ions.
Granum is the site of light reaction during
photosynthesis whereas stroma is the site of dark
reaction during photosynthesis Chloroplasts trap the
solar energy which is used for manufacturing the
food. They are, therefore, the sites of photosynthesis
and are commonly called 'kitchen of the cell’.
Functions
(i) Leucoplasts store the reserve food in the form of
starch grains or oil droplets or proteins
(ii) Chromoplasts help in pollination and dispersal of
seeds and fruits.
(iii) Chloroplasts are sites of photosynthesis.
Vacuoles
Vacuoles are fluid-filled and membrane bound spaces
in the cytoplasm. They are small in size but more in
number in animal cells but in plant cells, they are
larger in size and lesser in number. Vacuoles are
storage sacs for liquid or solid contents. They are
bound by a membrane know as tonoplast. The fluid
present inside vacuole is called cell sap which is
watery and contains substances, like sugar, amino
adds, proteins, minerals and metabolic wastes. The osmoregulatory organelles, i.e., they are associated
central vacuole of some plant cells may occupy 50- with the maintenance of water balance of the body.
90% of the cell volume. Since the plant vacuole is
large and occupies the central part of the cell, the Functions
nucleus and other cell organelles are pushed to the
(i) Vacuoles are meant for the storage of food, water
periphery. In single-celled organisms such as Amoeba
and other substances.
or Paramecium, the food vacuole contains the food
(ii) They help in the elimination of excess water from
item that the animal has ingested and subsequently
the cell (osmoregulation), and maintains internal
consumed. Many unicellular organisms, in addition,
pressure of the cell.
possess specialized vacuoles that serve as

Table: Differences between animal and plant cells

Animal cell Plant cell
1. Animal cells are generally small in size. Plant cells are generally larger than animal cells
2. It is enclosed by a thin, flexible, living plasma It is enclosed by a thick, rigid, dead cell wall in addition to
membrane only. Cell wall is absent. plasma membrane.
3. Plastids are absent. Plastids are present.
4. Single Golgi apparatus generally near the nuclear Many Golgi complex scattered in the cytoplasm.
envelope.
5. Vacuoles are many but small-sized. Vacuoles are fewer but large-sized.
6. Nucleus is generally near the centre of the cell. Nucleus is often pushed to one side in the periphera
cytoplasm by the central vacuole containing cell sap.

Ans. If the organization of a cell is destroyed by

any reason, lysis of the whole cell will occur
due to the enzymes released by lysosomes.
13. Give an example of a membrane less 18. Why are lysosomes known as “suicide bags”?
organelle (non-membranous). (NCERT)
Ans. Ribosome. Ans. Lysosomes are known as the suicide bags of
14. Name the organelle, which is known as the cell because they contain digestive
“kitchen of the cell”. enzymes capable to digest the whole cell
Ans. Chloroplast. when the situation so demands. Since a cell in
15. Which organelle is known as powerhouse of itself contains an organelle through which it
the cell? can kill itself, it is called suicide bag of the cell.
Ans. Mitochondria. 19. Where are proteins synthesized inside the
16. Can you name the two organelles we have cell?
studied that contain their own genetic Ans. The ribosomes attached to endoplasmic
material. (NCERT) reticulum as well as present freely in the
Ans. (i) Mitochondrion (ii) Plastid cytoplasm of all active cells are the site for the
17. If the organization of a cell is destroyed due synthesis of proteins.
to some physical or chemical influence, what
will happen? (NCERT)

16

 The cell theory states that-
(i) All living things are composed of minute
units, the cells, which are the smallest entities
that can be called "living";
(ii) A cell is a mass of protoplasm containing a
nucleus and bounded by a cell membrane,
and in many cases by a cell wall also;
(iii) All cells are basically alike in structure and
metabolic activities;
(iv) The function of an organism as a whole is the
result of the activities and interactions of the
constituent cells.
(v) New cells arise from pre-existing cells.
 The cell principle states that-
(i) Life exists only in cells.
(ii) Living objects are composed of cells and cell
products, or are multinucleate mass of
protoplasm, or are like a single free cell.
17
(iii) A cell is a small mass of protoplasm usually
containing a nucleus or nuclear material and
some other organelles, and is bounded by a
cell membrane. A cell organelle does not
survive alone.
(iv) Cell is also a unit of function, reproduction,
heredity and disease, besides being a unit of
structure.
(v) Cells always arise from the preexisting living
cells by division.
 The cell principle is better than cell theory as-
(i) It applies almost to all the living things: plants,
animals and microorganisms.
(ii) It incorporates nearly all the modem findings
about a cell.
 Totipotency (L. totus all, potens -powerful) or
cellular totipotency is the ability of a living
somatic nucleated cell to form the complete
organism. Totipotency can be easily
demonstrated in plant cells. In higher animals it
has not yet been experimentally proved. It is
because the cells do not undergo independent
 tissue differentiation. Cellular totipotency was
first proposed by German botanist Haberlandt in
1902.
 Pits are unthickened areas in the secondary walls
of plant cells. They, therefore, appear as
depressions.
 Modifications of cell membrane
- Microvilli are finger like evaginations of 0.6-
0.8  m length and 0.1  m diameter which
are found on the free surface of cells engaged
in absorption, e.g., intestinal cells, hepatic
cells, mesothehal cells, uriniferous tubules.
Microvilli increase the surface area several
times.
- Mesosomes are plasmalemmainfoldings
found in bacteria. One type of mesosome is
attached internally to the nucleoid. It is
required for nucleoid replication and cell
division.
- Junctional complexes are contacts between
adjacent cells which in case of animal cells are
separated by spaces of 150-200A filled with
tissue fluid. The important ones are:
interdigitations, intercellular bridges, tight
junctions, gap junctions, plasmodesmata,
desmosomes, hemi desmosomes and terminal
bars.
 A chromosome consists of two identical and
spirally coiled threads, called sister chromatids,
joined at a lightly stained constriction called
centromere or primary constriction. On the basis
of position of centromere, the chromosomes are
of four types: Telocentric (centromere is at the
end of chromosome); Acrocentric (sub terminal
centromere); Sub metacentric (near the centre)
and Metacentric (at the centre). Some
chromosomes have additional sub terminal
constriction called secondary constriction. The
part of chromosome from secondary constriction
to end of chromosome is called satellite and such
chromosomes are called SAT-chromosomes.
Chemically, each chromatid of chromosome is
formed of DNA and proteins (especially histones).
 Number of chromosome is species specific but it
varies from species to species. Among the
animals, it is 2 in Ascarismegalocephala (minimum
number), 8 in fruitfly, 26 in frog, 46 in human
18
beings, 48 in apes while largest number of
chromosomes is found in a protozoan Aulocantha
(2N = 1600).
Among the plants, the chromosome number is 4
in Haplopappusgracilis (plant with minimum
chromosome number), 14 in garden pea, 18 in
cabbage and radish, 24 in rice, 42 in wheat while
largest number of chromosomes are found in
Adder's tongue fern (2N = 1262).
Both chromatids of a chromosome are identical,
having identical genes. During cell division, the
two sister chromatids separate and each
chromatid becomes an independent daughter
chromosome.
 Cytoplasm is differentiated into two parts:
(i) Matrix or Cytosol (Hyaloplasm): It is the
ground substance which is again differentiated
into outer, denser and non-granular ectoplasm
(plasmagel) and inner fluidy and granular
endoplasm (plasmasol), two being
interconvertible. Matrix shows streaming
movements, called cyclosis, which helps in
uniform distribution of materials.
(i) Cytoplasmic structures: These lie in the
cytoplasm and are of two types: cell organelles
and cell inclusions.
 There are three types of special leucoplasts:
(i) Amyloplasts: They are the starch containing
leucoplasts e.g., potato tuber, rice, wheat,
(ii) Elaioplasts (Lipidoplasts, Oleoplasts): The
colourless plastids store fat, e.g., tube rose.
(iii) Aleuroplasts, Proteoplasts or Proteinoplasts:
The plastids contain protein in the amorphous,
crystalloid or crystallo-globoid state (e.g.,
aleurone cells of maize grain, endosperm cells of
Castor).
 About 40 enzymes have been recorded to occur in
lysosomes. All the enzymes do not occur in the
same lysosome but there are different sets of
enzymes in different types of lysosomes. The
important enzymes are acid phosphatases,
sulphatases, proteases, peptidases, nucleases,
lipases and glycosidases. They are also called acid
hydrolases because these digestive enzymes
usually function in acidic medium or pH of 4-5.
Acidic conditions are maintained inside the
lysosomes by pumping of H"'" or protons into
them. Lysosomes pass through various stages in
the same cell. The phenomenon is called
polymorphism or existence of more than one
morphological form. Depending upon their
morphology and function, there are four types of
lysosomes - primary, secondary, residual bodies
and autophagic vacuoles.
 Sphaerosomes (= spherosomes) are small cell
organelles bounded by single membrane which
take part in storage and synthesis of lipid. They
arise from endoplasmic reticulum. They are
considered to have lysosomic activity.
 Microbodies are small cell organelles bounded by
single membrane which absorb molecular oxygen
and take part in oxidations other than those
involved in respiration. Micro bodies are of two
types- peroxisomes and glyoxysomes.
 Feroxisomes are electron microscopic, vesicular
structures found in photosynthetic cells of plants
and liver and kidney cells of the vertebrates. They
are bounded by a single membrane. Each
peroxisome contains two types of oxidative
enzymes (oxidase and catalase) bounded by a unit
membrane. Inner contents of peroxisomes are
finely granular. Peroxisomes are specialized for
carrying out some oxidative reactions; such as
detoxification or removal of toxic substances from
the cell.
(i) Peroxisomes are self-replicating organelles
which selectively import proteins (enzymes) from
the cytosol.
(ii) Leaf peroxisomes, which are present in cells of
a plant's leaf, are associated with ER, chloroplasts
and mitochondria and are involved in
photorespiration.
 Glyoxysomesare microbodies which contain
enzymes for P-oxidation of fatty acids and
glyoxylate pathway. They are considered to be
special peroxisomes. The microbodies appear
transiently in germinating oil seeds and the cells
of some fungi till the stored fat is consumed. -
oxidation of fatty acids produces acetyl Co A
which is metabolized in glyoxylate cycle to
produce carbohydrates. After completion of their
function, glyoxysomes are believed to be changed
into peroxisomes.
 Ribosomes may occur singly as monosomes or in
rosettes and helical groups called polyribosomes
or polysomes (Gk. poly - many, soma - body). The
different ribosomes of a polyribosome are
connected with a 10 - 20 A thick strand of
messenger or mKNA. Polyribosomes are formed
during periods of active protein synthesis when a
number of copies of the same polypeptide are
required.
 Cytoskeletal structures are extremely minute,
fibrous and tubular structures which form the
structural frame-work inside the cell. Cytoskeletal
structures occur only in eukaryotic cells. They
maintain shape of the cell and its extensions,
regulate orientation and distribution of cell
19
organelles. They are of three types -
microfilaments, intermediate filaments and
microtubules.
 Flagella and cilia are fine hair like movable
protoplasmic processes of the cells which are
capable of producing a current in the fluid
medium for locomotion and passage of
substances. Flagella are longer (100 - 200  m ) but
fewer. Only 1 - 4 flagella occur per cell, e.g., many
protists, motile algae, spermatozoa of animals,
bryophytes and pteridophytes, choanocytes of
sponges, gastrodermal cells of coelenterates,
zoospores and gametes of thallophytes. Cilia are
smaller (5 - 20  m ) but are numerous. They occur
in group ciliata of protista, flame cells of worms,
larval bodies of many invertebrates, epithelium of
respiratory tract, renal tubules, oviducal runnel,
etc. Cilia present on the tracheal and bronchial
epithelial cells are specialized to send back dust
particles into the pharynx so that the lungs remain
unharmed. Both cilia and flagella are structurally
similar and possess similar parts - basal body,
rootlets, basal plate and shaft.
 Cilia and flagella help in locomotion in flagellate
and ciliated organisms. They create current for
obtaining food from aquatic medium. It is also
called food current. In some protists and animals,
the organelles take part in capturing food. In
aquatic organisms cilia create currents in water
for renewal of oxygen supply and quick diffusion
of carbon dioxide. In land animals the cilia of the
respiratory tract help in eliminating dust particles
in the incoming air. Internal transport of several
organs is performed by cilia, e.g., passage of eggs
in oviduct, passage of excretory Ssubstances in
the kidneys, etc. Being protoplasmic structures
they can function as sensory organs.
 Centrioles are minute - submicroscopic
microtubularsubcylinders with a configuration of
nine triplet fibrils and ability to form their own
duplicates, astral poles and basal bodies, without
having DNA and a membranous covering. Usually
two centrioles are found associated together but
at right angles to each other. The pair of
centrioles is often called diplosome. Diplosome
lies in a common specialized part of cytoplasm
called centrosphere or kinoplasm (=
cytocentrum). Centrosphere is devoid of any
other cell organelle. The complex, formed of
centrioles and centrosphere, is called centrosome
(Boveri, 1888) or central apparatus. Centrioles are
found in almost all eukaryotic animal cells,
protozoan protists (except some forms like
 surface, hence look surface, therefore are
smooth. rough in texture.
It helps in They are the sites of
manufacturing of lipids protein synthesis.
and fat molecules.
Endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes lipids
(smooth endoplasmic reticulum) and proteins
(rough endoplasmic reticulum) which are
responsible for formation of membrane. Thus,
they help in membrane biogenesis.
58. In brief state what happens when
(a) Dry apricots are left for sometime in pure
water and later transferred to sugar solution?
(b) A red blood cell is kept in concentrated
saline solution?
(c) The plasma-membrane of a cell breaks
down?
(d) Rheo leaves are boiled in water first and
56. Draw a well labelled diagram of an eukaryotic then a drop of sugar syrup is put on it?
nucleus. How is it different form nucleoid? (e) Golgi apparatus is removed from the cell?
Ans. (a) Dry apricots when placed in pure water
swell due end osmosis (inward movement of
Nucleoid is form of prokaryota nucleus. it is water) and later when are transferred sugar
the cytoplasm. It. Differs form of nucleus lying solution exosmosis (outward movement of
the cytoplasm. It differs from eukaryotic water) occurs and they shrink again.
nucleus in lacking many structures. (b) When a Red Blood Cell is placed in
Ans. A diagram of an eukaryotic nucleus is as given concentrated saline solution exosmosis occurs
and the RBCs shrink due to excess loss of
water.
(c) Breaking of the plasma membrane leads to
the scattering of the ceil organelles as it forms
the basic supporting unit of the cell.
(d) When Rheo leaves are boiled in water first
and then a drop of sugar syrup is put on it,
osmosis does not occurs, due to the death of
the cells of the leaf. This shows that selective
permeability is property of living plasma
membrane.
The major differences between prokaryotic (e) Golgi complex helps in the package,
and prokaryotic nucleus is that a prokaryotic storage and transfer of proteins synthesized
Nucleus by ribosome’s. Thus, when ribosome’s are
(i) is undifferentiated removed the cell will not function properly.
(ii) is not bound by nuclear membrane 59. Draw a neat diagram of plant cell and label
(iii) does not contain chromosome any three parts which differentiate it from
(iv) does not possess nucleolus and nucleolus. animal cell.
57. Differentiate between rough and smooth Ans.
endoplasmic reticulum. How is endoplasmic
reticulum important for membrane
biogenesis?
Ans. The major differences between rough and
smooth endoplasmic reticulum are
Smooth Endoplasmic Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum Reticulum
SER has no ribosomal RER has particles of
particles on the ribosome on the

33
 5. The structure of the nuclear membrane fa-
ciliates
(a) organization of spindle
(b) nucleo-cytoplasmic exchange of materials
(c) an aphasic separation of daughter
chromosomes
(d) synapsis of chromosomes.
6. Within chloroplasts, light is captured by
(a) thylakoids within grana
(b) grana within cistemae
(c) cistemae within grana
(d) grana within thylakoids
7. The rough ER is so named because it has an
abundance of
(i) Cell wall in the characteristic feature of
(a) mitochondria (b) lysosomes
plant cell.
(c) Golgi bodies (d) ribosomes
(ii) Chloroplast is found in plant cell which
8. With which of the following are basal bodies
helps in photosynthesis in plants, Animals
not associated?
cannot synthesize their own food because
(a) plant cells (b) animal cells
chloroplast is not found in the animal cell.
(c) centrioles (d) microtubules
(iii) Large vacuoles are found in plant cell
9. The bacterial cell wall is composed of
which contains excretory waste of plant cell
(a) a phospholipid matrix
Animal cell do not possess vacuoles, if present
(b) a lipoprotein (c) chitin
these are of small size.
(d) a polymer of sugars
10. The single membrane cell organelle is
(a) plastid (b) mitochondrion
(c) ribosome (d) sphaerosome
11. Ribosome’s are found
Multiple Choice Questions (a) only in the nucleus
(b) in the cytoplasm
1. Which of the following structures is usually
(c) only in eukaryotic cells
present only in animal cells?
(d) both (b) and (c)
(a) vacuoles (b) cell wall
12. Mechanical support to the cell is provided by
(c) nucleus (d) controls
(a) Golgi bodies
2. Normally, in the process of osmosis, the net
(b) microfibrils
flow of water molecules in or out of the cell
(c) endoplasmic reticulum
depends upon differences in the
(d) chromatids
(a) Concentration of water molecules inside
13. Most cell membranes are composed
and outside the cell
principally of
(b) concentration of enzymes on either side of
(a) DNA and ATP
the cell membrane
(b) protein and starch
(c) rate of molecular motion on either side of
(c) chitin and starch
the cell membrane
(d) nucleotides and amino acids
(d) rate of movement of insoluble molecules
14. The primary structures for the packaging of
inside the cell
cellular secretions for export from the cell are
3. Ribosome are made up of subunits
(a) Golgi bodies (b) ribosomes
(a) 0(they are whole) (b) 2
(c) mitochondria (d) lysosomes
(c) 4 (d) 3
15. The part of the cell responsible for
4. In bacteria, some of the functions of
maintaining cell shape, internal organization,
eukaryotic cells are performed by
and cell movement is the
(a) vesicles
(a) vesicle
(b) mitochondria
(b) nucleus
(c) the plasma membrane
(c) endoplasmic reticulum
(d) nucleoli
(d) cytoskeleton

34
16. Stroma and grana are portions of 31. Which of the following organelles in the cell is
(a) chloroplasts (b) mitochondria referred to as the suicidal bags or disposal
(c) ribosomes (d) chromosomes units?
17. Cell theory was proposed by (a) lysosomes (b) peroxisomes
(a) Robert Hooke (c) glyoxisomes (d) none of these
(b) Beadle and Tatum 32. In which of the following is endoplasmic
(c) Schleiden and Schwann reticulum absent?
(d) Hargovind Khorana (a) cells of pancreas, salivary glands
18. The term 'cell' was coined by (b) erythrocytes of mammals and prokaryotes
(a)R G Harrison (b) Heulgen cells of brain
(c) Weisman (d) Robert Hooke (d) enthrones
19. Protoplasm is a 33. The transportation of materials in the cell is
(a) liquid (b) solid by
(c) colloidal (d) crystallo-colloidal (a) Golgi complex
20. Cell wall is present in (b) lysosomes
(a) plant cell (b) prokaryotic cell (c) mitochondria
(c) algal cell (d) all of these (d) endoplasmic reticulum
21. Golgi complex was discovered by 34. Which of the following is useful for the
(a) Camillo Golgi (b) Aristotle synthesis of proteins and enzymes?
(c) Robert Hooke (d) Robert Brown (a) smooth endoplasmic reticum
22. Who among the following applied the cell (b) Golgi complex
theory to plants? (c) rough endoplasmic reticulum
(a) Schwann (b) Schleiden (d) mitochondria
(c) Jenseu (d) Swanson 35. Lysosomal enzyme works at pH of about
23. Mitochondria was first seen by (a) 4.8 (b) 7.1
(a) Benda (b) Kolliker (c) 6.7 (d) 8.5
(c) Schwann (d) R G Harrison 36. Find out the incorrect statement.
24. The average thickness of plasma membrane (a) Osmosis is a slow process, occurs down
(a) 100-150 Å (b) 75-100 Å the concentration gradient and does not
(c) 60 - 75 Å (d) 75 - 100  expend energy.
25. Middle lamella is chemically formed of (b) Electron microscope uses very high volt-
(a) cellulose (b) hemicelluloses age electricity. It uses electromagnets in-stead
(c) pectates (d) lignin of glass lenses and beam of electrons instead
26. A mature plant cell has of light.
(a) protoplasm and vacuole (c) A semi permeable membrane does not al-
(b) vacuole and cell wall low both solvent and solute molecules to pass
(c) cell wall and protoplasm through it.
(d) protoplasm, cell wall and vacuole (d) Active transport of materials is rapid and
27. Vacuolar membrane of a cell is usually occurs against the concentration
(a) plasma lemma (b) tonoplast gradient involving carrier proteins and energy
(c) rhizoplast (d) mesosome in the form of ATP.
28. The cell wall of most fungi is made of 37. Which of the following cell organelles liberate
(a) lignin (b) suberin heat for the maintenance of constant body
(c) chitin (d) pectin temperature in aves and mammals?
29. Aerobic respiration is performed by (a) lysosomes
(a) glyoxisomes (b) mitochondria (b) ribosomes
(c) lissome (d) chloroplasts (c) endoplasmic reticulum
30. The rough ER is specially well developed in (d) mitochondria
cell actively engaged in 38. The functional activities of a cell are
(a) protein synthesis controlled and directed by the
(b) nucleotide synthesis (a) protoplasm
(c) lipid synthesis (b) nucleus
(d) secretary functions (c) mitochondrion
(d) endoplasmic reticulum

35
39. The cell organelle that has electron transport (c) Robert Brown (d) Purkinje
system is 52. The plant cells are more rigid than the animal
(a) centriole (b) nucleus cell due to
(c) mitochondrion (d) nucleolus (a) cell wall (b) vacuoles
40. Besides nucleus, DNA is also present in (c) plastids (d) both (a) and (b)
(a) ribosomes (b) mitochondrion 53. The cells with no membrane bound
(c) lysosomes (d) Golgi complex organelles, and the chromosomes are
41. Lysosomes are made up of composed of only nucleic acids are
(a) one membrane (b) two membranes (a) plant cells (b) animal cells
(c) three membranes (d) none of these (c) prokaryotic cell (d) eukaryotic cell
42. Which of the following are not membrane 54. A plant cell differs from an animal cell in the
bound? absence of
(a) spherosome (b) mitochondria (a) endoplasmic reticulum
(c) ribosome (d) lysosome (b) mitochondria
43. If the ribosomes of a cell are destroyed then (c) ribosomes
(a) respiration will not take place (d) controls
(b) fats will not be stored 55. Centrosome is found in
(c) carbon assimilation will not occur (a) cytoplasm (b) nucleus
(d) proteins will not be formed (c) chromosomes (d) nucleolus
44. Osmosis is defined as the movement of sol- 56. The power house of cell is
vent particles through (a) chloroplast (b) mitochondrion
(a) permeable membrane (c) Golgi apparatus (d) nucleolus
(b) Semi-permeable membrane 57. Find out the false statement.
(c) membrane (a) Nucleus, plastids and mitochondria contain
(d) none of these DNA and hence are able to make their own
45. The inner membrane of mitochondria is structural proteins.
folded because (b) Mitochondria are said to be the 'power
(a) it has no space inside house' of the cell.
(b) it helps in transportation of material (c) Lysosomes are chlorophyll containing bags
(c) it increases the surface area surrounded by a single unit membrane.
(d) it stores more food (d) Ribosomes are also called Palade particles
46. Proteins are formed in and are the 'protein factories' of the cell.
(a) Golgi bodies (b) nucleus 58. Select the odd one out.
(c) plastids (d) ribosome’s (a)The movement of water across a semi
47. The organelle that helps in the membrane permeable membrane is affected by the
biogenesis is amount of substances dissolved in it.
(a) lysosome (b) Membranes are made of organic
(b) Golgi bodies molecules 'like proteins and lipids.
(c) endoplasmic reticulum (c) Molecules soluble in organic solvents ca
(d) ribosome easily pass through the membrane.
48. The solution in which a cell will gain water by (d) Plasma membranes contain chitin sugain
osmosis is termed as plants.
(a) isotonic solution (b) hypertonic 59. Human cheek cells are commonly stained with
(c) hypotonic solution (d) both (a) and (b) (a) methylene blue (b) safranin
49. Chlorophyll pigments are present in (c) acetocarmine (d) eosine
(a) leucoplasts (b) chloroplasts 60. Double membrane is absent in
(c) non-green chromo lasts (a) mitochondrion (b) chloroplast
(d) all of these (c) nucleus (d) lysosome
50. The animal cell which does not possess 61. Cell organelle found only in plants is
nucleus is (a) Golgi apparatus (b) mitochondria
(a) egg of hen (b) white blood cell (c) plastids (d) ribosomes
(c) red blood cell (d) nerve cell 62. We generally mount the material on the slide
51. The nucleus of the cell was observed by (a) in the centre (b) on left side of slide
(a) Robert Hooke (b) Leeuwenhoek (c) on right side of slide (d)both (b) and (c)

36
63. Animal cell is limited by (a) are filled with concentrated sugar and salt
(a) plasma membrane (b) shell membrane solution
(c) cell wall (b) are filled with dilute sugar and salt
(d) basement membrane solution
64. The network of endoplasmic reticulum is (c) are filled with cell sap
present in the (d) contain DNA, RNA and ribosome’s.
(a) nucleus (b) nucleolus 77. Root hair absorbs water from soil through
(c) cytoplasm (d) chromosomes (a) osmosis (b) active transport
65. Lysosomes are reservoirs of (c) diffusion (d) endocytosis
(a) fat 78. The largest cell in the human body is
(b) RNA (a) nerve cell (b) muscle cell
(c) secretary glycoprotein’s (c) liver cell (d) kidney cell
(d) hydrolytic enzymes 79. The history of the cell began in 1665 with the
66. Cells are first focused in microscope under publication of Micrographic in London by
(a) 40 X (b) 10 X (a) Robert Hooke (b) Robert Brown
(c) 100 X (d) Any of these (c) Strasburger (d) Dujardin
67. Cell secretion is done by 80. Which of the following can be made into
(a) plastids crystal?
(b) endoplasmic reticulum (a) a bacterium (b) an Amoeba
(c) Golgi apparatus (d) nucleolus (c) a virus (d) a sperm
68. Controlee is associated with 81. Chromosomes are made up of
(a) DNA synthesis (b) reproduction (a) DNA (b) protein
(c) spindle formation (d) respiration (c) DNA and protein (d) RNA
69. Main difference between animal cell and 82. Which of the following are functions of
plant cell is ribosome?
(a) nutrition (b) growth (i) It helps in manufacture of protein
(c) movement (d) respiration molecules
70. Animal cell lacking nuclei would also lack in (ii) It helps in manufacture of enzymes
(a) chromosome (iii) It helps in manufacture of hormones
(b) ribosome (iv) It helps in manufacture of starch
(c) lysosome molecules
(d) endoplasmic reticulum (a) (i) and (ii) (b) (ii) and (iii)
71. Plasmolysis occurs due to (c) (iii) and (iv) (d) (i) and (iv)
(a) absorption (b) endosmosis 83. Which of these is not related to endoplasmic
(c) osmosis (d) exosmosis reticulum?
72. A plant cell becomes turgid due to (a)It behaves as transport channel for proteins
(a) plasmolysis (b) exosmosis between nucleus and cytoplasm
(c) endosmosis (d) electrolysis (b) It transports materials between various
73. If the solute concentration is higher in the regions in cytoplasm
external solution, then the solution is called (c) It can be the site of energy generation
(a) hypotonic (b) isotonic (d) It can be the site for some biochemical
(c) hypertonic (d) none of the above activities of the cell.
74. A cell placed in a hypotonic solution will 84. Following are a few definitions of osmosis:
(a) shrink Read carefully and select the correct
(b) show plasmolysis definition.
(c) swell up (a) Movement of water molecules from a
(d) no change in shape or size region of higher concentration to a region of
75. Animal cells do not show plasmolysis because lower concentration through a
(a) they do not exhibit osmosis semipermeable membrane.
(b) they do not possess cell wall (b) Movement of solvent molecules from its
(c) they are living cells higher concentration to lower concentration
(d) they have intercellular spaces (c) Movement of solvent molecules from
76. The vacuoles of plant cells higher concentration to lower concentration
of solution through a permeable membrane.

37
 (d) Movement of solute molecules from lower (c) nucleic acid (d) nucleotide
concentration to higher concentration of 92. The cell organelle involved in forming compels
solution through a semi permeable sugars from simple sugars are:
membrane (a) endoplasmic reticulum
85. Plasmolysis in a plant cell is defined as (b) ribosomes
(a) breakdown (lysis) of plasma membrane in (c) plastids
hypotonic medium (d) Golgi apparatus
(b) shrinkge of protoplasm in hypertonic 93. Which of the following is not a function of
medium vacuole?
(c) shrinkage of nucleoplasm (a) storage
(d) none of these (b) providing turgidity and rigidity to the cell
86. Which of the following are covered by a single (c) let waste excretion
membrane? (d) locomotion
(a) mitochondria (b) vacuole 94. Amoeba acquires its food through a process
(c) lysosome (d) both (b) and (c) termed
87. Find out the false sentence. (a) exocytose
(a) Golgi apparatus is involved with the (b) endocytosis
formation of lysosomes (c) plasmolysis
(b) Nucleus, motochondria and plastid have (d) exocytose and endocytosis both
DNA hence they are able to make their own 95. Cell wall of which one of these is not made up
structural proteins of cellulose?
(c) Mitochondria is said to be the power (a) bacteria (b) Hydrilla
house of the cell as ATP is generated in them (c) mango tree (d) cactus
(d) Cytoplasm is called as protoplasm 96. Silver nitrate solution is used to study
88. Find out the correct sentence. (a) endoplasmic reticulum
(a)Enzymes packed in lysosomes are made (b) Golgi apparatus
through RER (rough endoplasmic reticulum). (c) mitochondria
(b) Rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth (d) nucleus
endoplasmic reticulum produce lipid and 97. The process that involves the fusion of
protein respectively. membrane Mane of vesicle with the plasma
(c) Endoplasmic reticulum is related with the membrane to extrude vesicle contents to the
destruction of plasma membrane. surrounding medium is called
(d) Nucleoid is present inside the nucleolus of (a) endocytosis (b) exocytose
eukaryotic nucleus. (c) pinocytosis (d) phagocytosis
89. Which cell organelle plays a crucial role in 98. Kitchen of the cell is
detoxifying many poisons and drugs in a cell? (a) mitochondria
(a) Golgi apparatus (b) lysosomes (b) endoplasmic reticulum
(c) smooth endoplasmic reticulum (c) chloroplast
(d) vacuoles (d) Golgi apparatus
90. A student put five raisins each in two balers A 99. Which of the following statements regarding
and B. Beaker A contained 50 ml of distilled viruses is incorrect?
water and beaker B had 50 ml of saturated (a)They are non-cellular structures
sugar solution. After some time the student (b)They do not show characteristics of life
would observe that until they enter a living body
(a) raisins in beaker A were more swollen than (c) They cannot be crystallized
those in beaker B (d) All of the above
(b) raisins in beaker B were more swollen than 100. Cell arises from pre-existing cell was stated by
those in beaker A (a)Haeckel (b) Virchow
(c) raisins in both beaker A and B were equally (c) Hooke (d) Schneider
swollen
(d) raisins in beaker A did not swell up at all.
91. The undefined nuclear region of prokaryotes
are also known as 1. Single cell organisms are called ___________.
(a) nucleus (b) nucleolus

38
2. _______is the basic unit of life. statement of Reason is given just below it. Of the four
3. _______are the largest cells in human body. statements, given below, mark one as the correct
4. Membrane bound organelles are _______ answer
prokaryotes. (a) if both Assertion and Reason are true and Reason is
5. Water molecules move from their _______ the correct explanation of Assertion
concentration to their ______ concentration (b) if both Assertion and Reason are true but Reason is
during osmosis. not the correct explanation of Assertion
6. If raisins are kept in _______ solution, they (c) if Assertion is true but Reason is false
will shrink. (d) if both Assertion and Reason are false
7. Cell wall of plant cells is formed of _______.
8. _______ acts as cytoskeleton and provides 1. Assertion: A cell membrane shows fluid
mechanical support and shape to cell. behavior.
9. Robert Brown discovered _______. Reason: A membrane is a mosaic of lipids and
10. In taking of large sized liquid or solid macro proteins.
bimolecular inside the cell through plasma 2. Assertion: Mitochondria are known as "power
membrane is called _______. house" of the cell.
11. Two controls are collectively called as______. Reason: Mitochondria are used to bring about
12. _____ are involved in intracellular digestion. energy requiring activities of the cell.
13. Chromosomes lies inside _______. 3. Assertion: Paroxysms are the cells 'garbage
14. Chemically ribosome’s are _______. disposal system'.
15. The two different regions of chloroplasts are Reason: They are involved in the lipid
_______ and_______. metabolism of animal cells.
4. Assertion: Plasma membrane is selective
permeable.
Reason: Plasma membrane allows some
molecules to pass through more easily than
1. Prokaryotic cells bear smaller nucleus as
others.
compared to eukaryotic cells.
5. Assertion: Root hairs are formed by Golgi
2. Robert Hooke gave the phrase omniscellula-e-
complex.
cellula.
Reason: Root hairs are unicellular.
3. Movement of gases across plasma membrane
6. Assertion: ER forms casemate of Golgi
occurs through diffusion.
complex.
4. Nucleus was discovered by Robert Brown.
5. Nucleolus is present in the cytoplasm of the Reason: ER gives membranes to Golgi
cell. apparatus for the formation of vesicles.
7. Assertion: Multicellular organisms have
6. Endoplasmic reticulum is absent in mature
higher survival value than the unicellular
RBCs.
organisms.
7. Nucleolus is bounded by double membrane.
Reason: Dead cells are replaced by new cells
8. Chromosomes help in autophagy.
in multicellular organisms.
9. DNA plays crucial role in cellular respiration.
8. Assertion: Larger cells are more efficient.
10. Paroxysms are involved in removal of toxic
Reason: Surface volume ratio is more in large
substances like hydrogen peroxide by
cells.
oxidative reactions.
11. PPLO is the smallest cell. 9. Assertion: ER acts as a circulatory system.
12. Ribosome’s are found in both prokaryotic and Reason: ER functions as cytoskeleton,
10. Assertion: Cell wall is a non-living part of the
eukaryotic cells.
cell.
13. Cell wall is the site of energy production.
Reason: It offers protection, shape and
14. Chemically ribosomes are lipoproteins.
transport of materials.
15. Mitochondria are self-duplicating units.
11. Assertion: Plasma lemma folding in bacteria
are called as embosoms.
Reason: Plasma lemma folding in fungi also
occur.
Directions: In each of the following questions, a 12. Assertion: Absorption of most nutrients from
statement of Assertion is given and a corresponding the intestine is active transport.

39
 Reason: Active transport requires energy, the phenomenon responsible for such a
situation? Explain.
9. Why are lissome also known as "scavengers of
the cells"?
10. Why do plant cells possess large sized
vacuole?
11. Why is endocytosis found in animals only?
12. If cells of onion peel and RBC are separately
1. What is the function of leucoplasts?
kept in hypotonic solution, what among the
2. Which organelle acts as intracellular
following will take place? Explain the reason
circulatory system?
for your answer.
3. Define endocytosis.
(a) Both the cells will swell.
4. Name two semi-autonomous organelles.
(b) RBC will burst easily while cells of onion
5. What are the three major functional regions
peel will resist the bursting to some extent.
of cell?
(c) a and b both are correct
6. Who discovered cell?
(d) RBC and onion peel cells will behave
7. Is there any difference between animal and
similarly.
plant vacuoles?
13. How is a bacterial cell different from an onion
8. Who proposed the 'cell theory'?
peel cell?
9. What is a prokaryotic cell?
14. What is the function of plastids?
10. Who gave the term 'protoplasm'?
15. Do vacuoles store some material? If yes, name
11. Give to examples of unicellular organisms.
them.
12. Which organelles are called rib nucleoprotein
16. What is the function of nucleus in a cell?
particles?
17. What are ribosomes? Where are they located
13. Give the concentration of salt solution which
in the cell? What is their function?
is isotonic for RBCs.
18. How are chromatin, chromatic and
14. Who discovered the nucleus?
chromosomes related to each other?
15. Define osmosis,
19. What is membrane biogenesis?
16. Name the cell organelle rich in acid
20. What are genes?
hydrolyses.
17. Which structure is called "little nucleus"?
18. Which organelles are involved in
photorespiration?
19. Name the compounds which give fluidity and 1. Draw a neat labelled diagram of plant cell and
functional specificity to bio membranes. label its parts.
20. What is polyribosome? 2. Draw a neat labelled diagram of animal cell.
3. Draw a well labelled diagram of a eukaryotic
nucleus. How is it different from nucleoid?
4. Differentiate between smooth and rough
endoplasmic reticulum. How is endoplasmic
1. Name a cell organelle found only in a plant reticulum important for membrane
cell and name its type. biosynthesis?
2. How is a prokaryotic cell different from a 5. In brief, state what happens when
eukaryonc cell? (i) Dry apricots are left for some time in pure
3. Why does a cell able to live and perform its water and later transferred to sugar solution?
functions? (ii)A red blood cell is kept in concentrated
4. What are the functions of lissome? saline solution?
5. Name the two nucleic acids present in the (iii)The plasma-membrane of a cell
cell. What are their functions? breaksdown?
6. Do you agree that "A cell is a building unit of
(iv) Rheo leaves are boiled in water first and
an organism". If yes, explain why? then a drop of sugar syrup is put on it?
7. Why does the skin of your finger shrink when (v) Golgi apparatus is removed from the cell?
you wash clothes for a long time?
8. A person takes concentrated solution of salt.
After sometime he starts vomiting. What is

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6. When Amoeba is placed in a hypertonic
medium, it shrinks. Why does this happen? Fill in the Blanks
Explain.
7. What will happen if the organization of a cell 1. unicellular
is destroyed due to some physical or chemical 2. Cell
influence? 3. Never cells
8. Give short answers. 4. absent
(i) What is the role of proteins and lipids in 5. higher, lower
the plasma membrane? 6. hypertonic
(ii)What is the characteristic feature of a 7. cellulose
metacentric chromosome? 8. Endoplasmic reticulum
(iii) What is the role of cellulose in cell wall? 9. nucleus
(iv) What is meant by deplasmolysis? 10. endocytosis
(v) What are the advantages of flexibility of 11. diplosome
cell membrane? 12. Lysosome
(vi) Name the process which is useful for the 13. nucleus
movement of substances like CO2 and O2 14. ribonucleoprotein
across the cell membrane. 15. grana, storma.
9. What is meant by the following solution
types? True or False
(i) Isotonic solution
(ii) Hypotonic solution 1. False 2. False
(iii) Hypertonic solution 3. True 4. True
10. Justify each of the following statements. 5. False 6. True
(i) It is said that every multicellular organism 7. False 8. False
has come from a single cell. 9. False 10. True
(ii) Cell membrane or plasma membrane is 11. True 12. True
described as selectively permeable 13. False 14. False
membrane. 15. True
(iii) Lissome are known as 'suicidal bags' of the
cell. Assertion and Reason Type

1. A 2. A 3. C 4. A 5. B 6. B
7. A 8. D 9. B 10. A 11. B 12. B

Multiple Choice Questions

1. D 2. A 3. B 4. C 5. B 6. A 7. D
8. A 9. D 10. D 11. B 12. B 13. B 14. A
15. D 16. A 17. C 18. D 19. D 20. D 21. A
22. B 23. B 24. B 25. C 26. D 27. B 28. C
29. B 30. A 31. A 32. B 33. D 34. C 35. A
36. C 37. D 38. B 39. C 40. B 41. A 42. C
43. D 44. B 45. C 46. D 47. C 48. C 49. B
50. C 51. C 52. D 53. C 54. D 55. A 56. B
57. C 58. D 59. A 60. D 61. C 62. A 63. A
64. C 65. C 66. B 67. C 68. C 69. A 70. A
71. D 72. C 73. C 74. C 75. B 76. C 77. A
78. A 79. A 80. C 81. C 82. A 83. C 84. A
85. B 86. D 87. D 88. A 89. C 90. A 91. D
92. D 93. D 94. B 95. A 96. B 97. B 98. C
99. C 100. B

41