Heat budget ,Heat balance and Greenhouse effect

ASSIGNMENT # 01……SEMESTER SPRING-2024

Submission Date (March 3, 2024)

BY
JAVAIRIA TANVEER
ROLL # 22011514-097
GEO-450(Climate Change)
Zoology BS-IV (B)
Submitted To
Siddiqua bibi
Department of Zoology

UNIVERSITY OF GUJRAT
 CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

LIST OF FIGURES......................................................................................................... (ii)

1.Introduction........................................................................................................................... 01
2.Heat budget........................................................................................................................... 01
3. Heat balance ……….......................................................................................................... 04

4. Greenhouse effect ........................................................... ................................................. 05

5.causes of greenhouse effect............................................................................................... 05

6.Greenhouse gases................................................................................................................ 06

7. Emissions of greenhouse gases......................................................................................... 07

8. Major gases of greenhouse ............................................................................................... 08

9. Origin or where from these gases come from.................................................................... 09

10.The consequence of greenhouse ....................................................................................... 11
11.Solution for reducing greenhouse gases emissions........................................................... 12
12.Refrences.............................................................................................................................. 14

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 LIST OF FIGURES
CONTENTS PAGE
Figure-1:Earth Energy Budget incoming energy from the sun............................................................. 01
Figure-2. 2:Albedo…….................................................................................................................. 02
Figure-2. 2.5.Climate change ............................................................................ ............................ 04
Figure-3. 3:Variations in Reflected Solar Radiation during September 2008…………………… 05
Figure-5.1:Burning fossil fuels cause a jump in concentration of gases of green……………................. 06
Figure-7:Greenhouse gases warm out planet……………………………………………………. 07
Figure-8.5:Big Bend Power Station………………………………………… ………………… 09
Figure-9.3:Industrial cause of greenhouse…………………………………………………….... 10
Figure-10. 2.NREL flatiron campus overview…………………………………………….……. 12

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1.Introduction

The Earth's energy budget is the balance between the amount of energy coming into the planet from the
sun and the amount of energy going out of the planet and back into space system. The greenhouse effect is
the natural process by which certain gases in the Earth's atmosphere (like CO2, H2O, and CH4) trap heat
from the sun, keeping the planet warm enough for life . The energy budget is affected by the Earth's
surface characteristics and albedo, the role of clouds, and human activities that add greenhouse gases to the
atmosphere, leading to global warming .

2.The heat budget

Earth’s heat budget represents the balance between the amount of energy incoming to Earth from the Sun
and the amount of energy outgoing from Earth back to space. The energy budget provides a way to account
for all the energy entering and leaving the Earth system.

The diagram below shows how the energy reaching Earth from the Sun is absorbed, reflected, and released
by Earth’s atmosphere and surface. The incoming solar energy is measured in watts per square meter
(W/m2 or W·m-2). Imagine laying out a one meter by one meter square on the ground. Now measure how
much solar energy falls on that square each second. That's a watt per square meter. The average energy
from sunlight coming to the top of Earth's atmosphere is approximately 340 W/m2.(Trenberth, 1997)

Figure-1:Earth Energy Budget incoming energy from the sun

(Trenberth,1997)

2.1.Incoming and Outgoing Energy

Most of energy from the Sun arrives at Earth as noticeable and infrared radiation. Simply over portion of
this approaching sun based energy at last arrives at the ground. The rest is reflected away by low-level,
thick, white mists or ice or gets consumed by the air.(Trenberth, 1997)

The sun based energy that comes to the ground warms Earth’s surface. The warm ground and seas then
discharge this intensity back into the air as infrared, or warm, radiation. How much infrared radiation
produced from Earth’s ground or seas relies upon temperature: warm surfaces transmit more warm

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radiation, while cooler surfaces discharge less. (Trenberth, 1997)

Mists and the gases that make up Earth’s environment retain quite a bit of this infrared energy and transmit
it as radiation both into space and back down to the planet’s surface. Did you had any idea that World’s
surface gets two times as much radiation from the environment as it does from direct daylight? That is on
the grounds that the Sun warms the surface just during the day, while the environment, and any intensity it
holds, is available constantly. (Trenberth, 1997)

2.2.Earth’s Surface Characteristics and Albedo

Earth’s surface is covered by things like water, soil, rocks, timberlands, snow, and sand. Different surface
attributes have various approaches to influencing the sunlight based energy arriving at our planet. A few
surfaces are more intelligent than others, described by the surface’s albedo. Albedo alludes to how much
energy reflected by a surface and is estimated on a scale from zero to one (or now and then as a percent).
Dull hued surfaces, similar to sea and woodlands, reflect very little of the sun powered energy that gets to
them, while light shaded pieces of the planet’s surface, similar to snow and ice, reflect practically all of the
sun based energy that contacts them. (Trenberth, 1997)

The albedo of Earth's surfaces, from timberlands and land surfaces (shown by hazier blues) to more
brilliant deserts (light blues), and ice and snow (yellows and reds), decides how much approaching energy
from the Sun is reflected back to space. (Trenberth, 1997)

Figure-2. 2:Albedo

(Trenberth,1997)

2.3.NOAA JPSS

Since a lot of Earth's property surface and seas are dull in variety, they retain a lot of the sunlight based
energy that gets to them, and reflect just a little part of it. For example, woodlands have a low albedo, close
0.15, and the albedo of the seas is even lower, around 0.05-0.10. Snow and ice, then again, are
exceptionally light in variety. They reflect the majority of the sun powered energy that gets to them,

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engrossing very little. Their albedo is exceptionally high, around 0.80 or 0.90. (Trenberth, 1997)

2.4.The Role of Clouds

Mists, typically showing up as dazzling white when seen from space, have a high albedo. Various sorts of
mists reflect various measures of sun based energy, yet generally speaking, mists mirror a lot of sun
powered energy out to space. Assuming there were no mists, Earth’s typical albedo would drop
significantly. (Trenberth, 1997)

The consolidated albedo of Earth’s surface (counting all surface kinds) and mists in the air is known as the
planetary albedo. Earth’s planetary albedo is around 0.30 to 0.35. That really intends that about 33% of the
sun powered energy that will Earth is reflected back to the environment and space and around 66% (51%
via land and sea, and 16% by climate) is ingested. The Moon’s albedo is 0.12, much lower than that of
Earth. Regardless of the Moon showing up splendid to us, just around 12% of the daylight that arrives at it
is really reflected. (Trenberth, 1997)

2.5.How the Energy Budget Affects Climate

Earth's environment relies upon the general equilibrium of approaching and active energy. In the event that
World's environment is colder and there is more snow and ice in the world, more sun powered radiation is
reflected back on a mission to space and the environment will get cooler. Then again, while warming
makes snow and ice liquefy, hazier hued Earth surfaces and sea are uncovered and less sunlight based
energy is reflected on a mission to space. This cycle causes much really warming and is known as the ice-
albedo input circle. (Trenberth, 1997)

2.5.1.Energy Input: The sun emits solar radiation, which enters Earth’s atmosphere. About 30% is
reflected back into space, while 70% is absorbed by the Earth’s surface, atmosphere, and oceans.
(Trenberth, 1997)

2.5.2.Energy Absorption:The absorbed energy warms the Earth’s surface, atmosphere, and oceans. This
heat is distributed through atmospheric and oceanic circulation patterns. (Trenberth, 1997)

2.5.3.Energy Loss: The Earth releases excess energy back into space through infrared radiation. This
process occurs naturally, maintaining a stable global temperature. (Trenberth, 1997)

2.5.4.Energy Imbalance: Human activities disrupt this balance, leading to an energy surplus.Greenhouse
gases (GHGs) like CO2, CH4, and H2O trap more heat, reducing energy loss. Aerosols and pollutants
reflect sunlight, reducing energy input.Land use changes (deforestation, urbanization) alter surface albedo
and energy absorption(Trenberth, 1997)

2.5.5.Climate Change: Long-term shifts in temperature and precipitation patterns alter ecosystems, sea
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levels, and weather patterns, impacting:Biodiversity and ecosystems,Sea level rise and coastal
erosion,Weather patterns and extreme events,Human societies and economies. (Trenberth, 1997)

To mitigate these effects, we must reduce our energy consumption, transition to renewable energy sources,
and adopt sustainable practices to restore the Earth’s energy balance and maintain a stable climate.
(Trenberth, 1997)

Figure-2. 2.5.Climate change

(Trenberth,1997)

3.Heat balance

Heat balance refers to the equilibrium between the amount of energy the Earth receives from the
sun and the amount of energy it loses back into space. This balance is crucial for maintaining a
stable global climate. The Earth's surface and atmosphere absorb solar radiation, which warms the
planet. Meanwhile, the Earth's surface and atmosphere also emit infrared radiation, which cools
the planet. The heat balance equation represents this delicate balance: Incoming Solar Radiation =
Outgoing Terrestrial Radiation. When the Earth's heat budget is in balance, the planet's
temperature remains relatively constant. However, when there is a surplus or deficit of heat, the
temperature can fluctuate, leading to changes in climate and weather patterns. Factors such as the
Earth's curvature, the incidence of sun rays, and human activities like greenhouse gas emissions
can disrupt this balance, leading to global warming and climate change. Understanding and
maintaining the heat balance is essential for preserving the Earth's ecological balance and
mitigating the impacts of climate change.(Peixoto and Oort ,1992)

3.1.Factors affecting distribution:

i. Curvature of earth

ii. Incidence of sun rays(Peixoto and Oort ,1992)

3.2.Latitude-wise Temporal Variation in Received Energy

Maximum energy received near equator throughout the years, Seasonal variations of energy
received: Considerable with increasing latitudes, High energy near equator, low energy at poles.
(Peixoto and Oort ,1992)

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3.3.Diurnal and Horizontal Variations in Irradiance

Maximum irradiance from sun when incidence of rays is vertical or near vertical,Variations
caused by inclination of sun rays: Diurnal variationsnoo, High irradiance at noon, Low
irradiance at sunrise and sunset, Horizontal variations,High irradiance near equator, Low
irradiance at poles. (Peixoto and Oort ,1992)

Figure-3. 3:Variations in Reflected Solar Radiation during September 2008

(Peixoto and Oort ,1992)

3.3.1.Variations in Reflected Solar Radiation

Amount of sunlight absorbed on earth surface depends on:

i. Reflectiveness of atmosphere

ii. Reflectiveness of earth surface(Peixoto and Oort ,1992)

4.Green House Effect

The greenhouse effect is the natural warming of the earth that results when gases in the atmosphere trap
heat from the sun that would otherwise escape into space. The process was identified by scientists in
the 1800s.(Francis, 2020)

5.Causes of green house effect

Daylight, with the regular nursery impact process, makes the earth tenable. While around 30℅ of the sun
based energy the light and intensity from the sun that arrives at our reality is reflected once more into
space, the rest is either consumed by the climate or the world’s surface. This interaction, which is
continually occurring all over the planet, warms the planet. This intensity is then transmitted back up as
imperceptible infrared radiation. While a portion of this infrared light progresses forward into space, by far
most gets consumed by climatic gases, known as ozone harming substances, bringing on additional
warming.(Francis, 2020)

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5.1.Ozonr depleting Substance and CO2

However, higher groupings of ozone depleting substances, and carbon dioxide (CO2) specifically, are
making additional intensity be caught and normal worldwide temperatures to increase. For a large portion
of the beyond 800,000 years significantly longer than human civilization has existed the centralization of
CO2 in our air was generally somewhere in the range of 200 and 280 sections for every million. (At the
end of the day, there were 200 to 280 particles of the gases per million particles of air.) Yet in the previous
100 years, that focus has hopped. In 2013, driven up generally by the consuming of petroleum products
and deforestation, CO2 in the world’s air outperformed 400 sections for each million a focus not seen in th
world for a long period of time. Starting around 2023, it has arrived at in excess of 420 sections for each
million, which is 50℅ higher than pre modern level . (Francis, 2020)

Figure-5.1:Burning fossil fuels cause a jump in concentration of gases of greenhouse

(Francis, 2020)

6.Greenhouse gases

Earth’s ozone harming substances trap heat in the environment and warm the planet. The principal gases
answerable for the nursery impact incorporate carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and water fume.
Notwithstanding these regular mixtures, engineered fluorinated gases likewise capability as ozone harming
substances. Different ozone depleting substances have different compound properties and are taken out
from the air, over the long haul, by different cycles. Carbon dioxide, for instance, is consumed via carbon
sinks like woods, soil, and the sea. Fluorinated gases are just obliterated by daylight in the far upper
climate. (Francis, 2020)

6.1.How much any one ozone harming substance impacts an Earth-wide temperature boost relies
upon three key variables

The amount of the gas exists in the climate. Fixations are estimated in parts per million (ppm), parts per
billion (ppb), or parts per trillion (ppt). For instance, 1 ppm for a given gas intends that there is one particle
of that gas in each 1,000,000 particles of air. (Francis, 2020)

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6.2.How long the gas stays in the climate, also called its lifetime.

How powerful the gas is at catching intensity. This is alluded to as its an Earth-wide temperature boost
potential (GWP) and is a proportion of the all out energy that a gas retains over a given timeframe
(typically 100 years) comparative with the emanations of 1 ton of carbon dioxide.

Radiative constraining (RF) is one more method for estimating ozone harming substances (and other
environment drivers, like the sun’s splendor and huge volcanic emissions). Otherwise called environment
compelling, RF shows the distinction between the amount of the sun’s energy gets consumed by the earth
and how much is delivered into space because of any one environment driver. An environment driver with
a positive RF esteem shows that it warmingly affects the planet; a negative worth addresses cooling.

7.Greenhouse gas emissions

The arrival of ozone harming substances related with human exercises and environmental change
is alluded to as ozone harming substance emanations, or environment contamination. What’s
more, starting from the beginning of the Modern Unrest and the coming of coal-controlled steam
motors, human exercises have supersized the volume of ozone harming substances produced into
the environment. (Francis, 2020)

Figure-7:Greenhouse gases warm out planet

(Francis, 2020)

It is assessed that somewhere in the range of 1750 and 2019, climatic convergences of carbon
dioxide expanded by 47%, methane by 156%, and nitrous oxide by 23%. In the last part of the
1920s, we began including man-made fluorinated gases like chlorofluorocarbons.

In ongoing many years, we’ve just hurried up. Of the relative multitude of human-driven outflows
of carbon dioxide, roughly half were produced over the most recent 30 years alone. (Francis, 2020)

8.Five major greenhouse gases

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The main gases that cause a worldwide temperature alteration through the nursery impact are the
accompanying. (Hansen, 2005)

8.1.Carbon dioxide

Representing very nearly 80% of worldwide human-caused outflows, carbon dioxide stays close
by for a long time. Whenever it's produced into the environment, 40% still remaining parts
following 100 years, 20 percent following 1,000 years, and 10 percent up to 10,000 years after the
fact. (Carbon dioxide's lifetime can't be addressed with a solitary worth on the grounds that the
gas isn't obliterated over the long run, however rather moves among various pieces of the sea,
climate, and land. Some carbon dioxide is retained rapidly, however some will stay in the air for
millennia.)(Hansen, 2005)

8.2.Methane
Methane (CH4) persists in the atmosphere for around 12 years, which is less time than carbon dioxide, but
it is much more potent in terms of the greenhouse effect. In fact, pound for pound, its global warming
impact is almost 30 times greater than that of carbon dioxide over a 100-year period. In the United States,
according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), methane accounted for more than 12
percent of human-generated greenhouse gas emissions in 2021. While methane can come from natural
sources like wetlands, more than half of all global methane emissions come from human activities like
natural gas production and livestock based culture. (Hansen, 2005)

8.3.Nitrousbaseoxide
Nitrous oxide (N2O) is a powerful greenhouse gas: According to the EPA, it has a GWP that is around 270
times that of carbon dioxide on a 100-year time scale, and it remains in the atmosphere, on average, a little
more than a century. The EPA estimates that it accounts for about 6 percent of human-caused greenhouse
gas emissions in the United States, from sources like the fertilizer used in agriculture. (Hansen, 2005)

8.4.Fluorinated gases

8.4.1.Types
Emitted from a variety of manufacturing and industrial processes, fluorinated gases are man-made. There
are four main categories: hydro fluorocarbon (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6),
and nitrogen trifluride (NF3). (Hansen, 2005)

Although fluorinated gases are emitted in smaller quantities than other greenhouse gases (they account
for 3 percent of U.S. emissions, per the EPA), they trap substantially more heat. Indeed, the GWP for these
gases can be in the thousands to tens of thousands, and they have long atmospheric lifetimes, in some cases

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lasting tens of thousands of years. (Hansen, 2005)

8.4.2.Usage of HFCs

HFCs are used as a replacement for ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydro
chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), usually in air conditioners and refrigerators, but some are being phased
out because of their high GWP. Replacing these HFCs and properly disposing of them is considered to be
one of the most important climate actions the world can take. (Hansen, 2005)

8.5.Water vapor
The most bountiful ozone depleting substance generally speaking, water fume varies from other ozone
harming substances in that adjustments of its climatic fixations are connected not to human exercises
straightforwardly, yet rather to the warming that outcomes from the other ozone harming substances we
transmit. Hotter air holds more water. Furthermore, since water fume is an ozone harming substance, more
water ingests more intensity, inciting considerably more prominent warming and propagating a positive
criticism circle. (It's important, nonetheless, that the net effect of this criticism circle is as yet questionable,
as expanded water fume additionally increments overcast cover that mirrors the sun's energy away from
the earth however holds heat in around evening time. (Hansen, 2005)

Figure-8.5:Big Bend Power Station, a coal-fired power plant in Tampa, FloridaCredit:Walter via Flickr

(Smiseth,20

9.Where do greenhouse gases come from?

According to the Intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC), the burning of fossil fuels for
electricity and transportation, as well as land use patterns and agriculture, and industrial processes drive
nearly all human-caused, or anthropogenic, greenhouse gas emissions. (Hansen, 2005)

9.1.Electricity and heat production

The IPCC’s Fifth Appraisal Report expresses that the consuming of coal, oil, and gas to create power and
intensity represents one-fourth of overall human-driven discharges, making it the biggest single source. In
the US, as per EPA information, it’s the second-biggest (behind transportation), liable for around 28% of

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U.S. outflows in 2021, with carbon dioxide as the essential gas delivered, alongside modest quantities of
methane and nitrous oxide. (Hansen, 2005)

9.3.Industry
As indicated by the IPCC, around one-fifth of worldwide human-driven outflows come from the modern
area, which incorporates the assembling of products and unrefined components (like concrete and steel),
food handling, and development. In 2021, industry represented 23% of U.S. man-made discharges, of
which the greater part was carbon dioxide, in spite of the fact that methane, nitrous oxide, and fluorinated
gases were additionally delivered. (Hansen, 2005)

Figure-9.3:Industrial cause of greenhouse

(Smiseth,20

9.4.Transportation
The consuming of petrol based energizes, to be specific gas and diesel, to control the world's transportation
frameworks represents 14% of worldwide ozone harming substance outflows, as verified in the IPCC's
Fifth Evaluation Report. In the US, transportation is the biggest benefactor of ozone depleting substances.
(It represented 28% of U.S. emanations in 2021, as per the EPA.) Carbon dioxide is the essential gas
discharged, however fuel ignition likewise delivers limited quantities of methane and nitrous oxide, and
vehicle cooling and refrigerated transport discharge fluorinated gases as well.

Across the country, vehicles and trucks are answerable for the greater part of the transportation-related
fossil fuel byproducts. (Hansen, 2005)

9.5.Agriculture and land use

About one more quarter of worldwide ozone depleting substance discharges originate from horticulture and
other land utilizes, similar to deforestation, says the IPCC. In the US, agrarian exercises — essentially the
raising of animals and harvests for food —l represented 10% of ozone depleting substance emanations in
2021. Of those, by far most were methane (which is created as excrement decays and as meat and dairy
cows burp and pass gas) and nitrous oxide (frequently delivered with the utilization of nitrogen-weighty
manures). (Hansen, 2005)
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9.5.1.Nonagriculture land

Trees, plants, and soil ingest carbon dioxide from the air. The plants and trees do it through photosynthesis
(a cycle by which they transform carbon dioxide into sugars that plants need to develop); the dirt houses
microorganisms that carbon ties to. So nonagricultural land use exercises like deforestation, reforestation
(replanting in existing forested regions), and afforestation (making new forested regions) can either build
how much carbon in the environment (as on account of deforestation) or diminishing it through retention,
eliminating more carbon dioxide from the air than is transmitted. (Hansen, 2005)

9.6..Buildings
Working structures produces 6.4 percent of worldwide ozone depleting substances, says the IPCC. In the
US, homes and organizations represent around 13% of warming emanations, says the EPA. These
outflows, made up for the most part of carbon dioxide and methane, stem essentially from consuming
flammable gas and oil for warming and cooking, however different sources incorporate spilling
refrigerants (fluorinated gases) from cooling and refrigeration frameworks and the administration of waste
and wastewater. (These immediate emanations do excluding the backhanded discharges talked about
above, similar to those attached to power — power for cooling, lighting, running apparatuses, and that's
only the tip of the iceberg — as well as outflows from building development.) (Hansen, 2005)

9.7.Othe sources
This category includes emissions from energy-related activities other than fossil fuel combustion, such as
the extraction, refining, processing, and transportation of oil, gas, and coal. Globally, according to the
IPCC, this sector accounts for 9.6 percent of emissions. (Hansen, 2005)

10.The consequences of the greenhouse effect

Today, convergences of human-caused ozone depleting substances in the climate are higher than any time
in recent memory and the planet is warming up. Between preindustrial times and presently, says the IPCC,
the world's typical temperature has expanded very nearly 2 degrees Fahrenheit (1.1 degree Celsius), with
66% of that warming happening in the last modest bunch of many years alone.
As indicated by the IPCC, the world can discharge a sum of only 400 billion tons a greater amount of
carbon dioxide, estimated from the outset of 2020, in the event that we need essentially a 50 percent
chance of remaining underneath the basic limit of 1.5 degrees Celsius (2.7 degrees Fahrenheit) of warming.
At our ongoing speed, the world will blow its whole "carbon financial plan" by around 2030. (Hansen,
2005)
10.1.Worldwide temperature alternation

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Driven by the consuming of non-renewable energy sources, a worldwide temperature alteration is elective
the earth environment frameworks in numerous ways, for example,
Causing more successive as well as extraordinary outrageous climate occasions, including heat waves,
storms, dry seasons, and floods. (Hansen, 2005)
Compounding precipitation limits, making wet areas wetter and dry districts drier.
Raising ocean levels, because of softening ice sheets and icy masses and an expansion in sea temperatures
(hotter water extends, which can add to the ocean level ascent).
Changing environments and normal territories; moving creatures' geographic reaches, occasional exercises,
and movement designs. (Hansen, 2005)
10.2.Envirnment change influences
Environmental change influences where we can reside, how we work, how we develop our food
particularly in the event that we live or work in cutting edge networks. Hotter temperatures mean more
bugs that spread sicknesses like dengue fever and heat waves are getting more sultry and turning out to be
more deadly to people. Environmental change-driven dry seasons and floods additionally present
tremendous dangers to horticulture. Research proposes that for each degree Celsius that the planet warms
up, crop yields will go down 3 to 7 percent. Food weakness can prompt mass human relocation. (Hansen,
2005)

Figure-10. 2.NREL flatiron campus overview

(Smiseth,20

11.Solutions for reducing greenhouse gas emissions

Here are some solutions for reducing the greenhouse effect: (Hansen, 2005)

1. Transition to renewable energy sources:Shift from fossil fuels to solar, wind, hydro, and geothermal
energy.
2. Increase energy efficiency:Improve insulation, use energy-efficient appliances, and optimize energy
consumption.
3. Electrify transportation: Switch to electric vehicles and public transportation.

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4. Carbon capture and storage: Implement technologies to capture and store CO2 emissions.
5. Reforestation and afforestation:plant more trees to absorb CO2 from the atmosphere.
6. Sustainable land use: Implement regenerative agriculture practices and reduce deforestation.
7. Waste reduction and recycling: Minimize waste and promote recycling to reduce methane emissions.
8. Methane capture: Implement technologies to capture methane emissions from agriculture and industry.
9. Ocean fertilization: Add nutrients to oceans to stimulate phytoplankton growth, which absorbs CO2.
10. Carbon mineralization: Transform CO2 into stable solid minerals through chemical reactions.
(Hansen, 2005)

Remember, a comprehensive approach combining multiple solutions is necessary to effectively mitigate

the greenhouse effect. (Hansen, 2005)

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12.References

Trenberth, K. E. (1997). Earth’s annual global mean energy budget. Bulletin of the American
Meteorological Society, 78(2), 197-208.

Peixoto, J., and Oort, A. (1992). Chapter 6: Radiation balance. In Physics of Climate (pp. 91-130).

Francis, J. A. (2020). " Greenhouse Gases:University of California, Berkeley, USA Understanding

the Earth's Climate System." Journal of Environmental Science, 30(2), 123-135.

Hansen, J. E. (2005). "A Slippery Slope: How Much greenhouse gases Constitutes 'Dangerous
AnthropogenicInterference'?"ClimaticChange,68(3),269-279.

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