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9) The scientific method emphasizes reason as the way to understand the world.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

10) A hypothesis can never be proven as wrong.

Answer: FALSE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

11) A theory is always true and can never be proven as wrong.

Answer: FALSE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

2
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
12) Theories can be tested and validated through experimentation.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

13) If experimental results contradict a hypothesis, the hypothesis must be either revised or discarded.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

14) The Greek philosophers used observation and experimentation to understand the world.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

15) A scientific law is a brief statement that summarizes past observations and predicts future ones.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

16) The law of conservation of mass states, "In a chemical reaction matter can be created and destroyed."
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

17) Antoine Lavoisier observed that burning objects in a closed container resulted in a loss of mass.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

18) A scientific theory describes the underlying reasons for observations and laws.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

19) The scientific method ensures that poor theories are eliminated over time and good theories remain.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

20) A theory is the equivalent of an opinion.

Answer: FALSE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

21) Antoine Lavoisier proposed the atomic theory.

Answer: FALSE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

22) John Dalton proposed the atomic theory.

Answer: TRUE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

23) The first step in acquiring scientific knowledge is often the observation or measurement of some aspect of
nature.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

3
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24) If a hypothesis is falsifiable, it means that the hypothesis was once considered true but is now considered false.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

25) Observations from experiments are used to test theories.

Answer: TRUE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

26) A theory can only exist after many experiments have validated a hypothesis.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

27) Scientific theories are also called models.

Answer: TRUE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

28) The atomic theory explains why the law of conservation of mass is true.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

29) An established theory is the pinnacle of scientific understanding.

Answer: TRUE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

30) Quantification is an important tool in understanding chemistry.

Answer: TRUE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.5

31) Quantification involves measurement as part of an observation.

Answer: TRUE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.5

32) Lavoisier developed the law of conservation of mass.

Answer: FALSE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.5

33) The phlogiston theory of combustion is still considered correct today.

Answer: FALSE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.5

4
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Multiple Choice Questions

1) Which of the following statements about soda pop is FALSE?

A) Soda pop is a chemical mixture of mostly sugar, water and carbon dioxide.
B) The molecules important to fizzing are carbon dioxide and water.
C) The carbon dioxide is forced to mix with the water by the presence of sugars.
D) When a can is opened, the pressure release allows carbon dioxide to form bubbles.
E) All of the above statements are true.
Answer: C
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.1

2) Which of the following items does NOT contain chemicals?

A) drain cleaner
B) organically grown vegetables
C) air
D) insecticides
E) All of the above contain chemicals.
Answer: E
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.2

3) A good definition of chemistry is:

A) the science that seeks to understand what matter does by studying what atoms and molecules do.
B) the science that seeks to understand what living organisms do by studying the molecules that make up the
organism.
C) the science that seeks to understand what the universe does by studying interactions of molecules with atoms.
D) the science that seeks to understand the interactions of molecules for the sake of advancing human control
over nature.
E) none of the above
Answer: A
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.3

4) Which statement about the scientific method is TRUE?

A) The scientific method emphasizes reason as the way to understand the world.
B) The scientific method emphasizes observation and reason as the way to understand the world.
C) The scientific method emphasizes observation and experimentation as the way to understand the world.
D) The scientific method emphasizes scientific laws as the way to understand the world.
E) All of the above statements are false.
Answer: C
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

5) Which of the statements below is NOT part of the scientific method?

A) observation and measurement
B) formation of a hypothesis
C) testing of a hypothesis by experimentation
D) refinement of a hypothesis as needed
E) All of the above steps are part of the scientific method.
Answer: E
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

5
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
6) Which statement about a hypothesis is TRUE?
A) It is a tentative interpretation or explanation.
B) It has the potential to be proven wrong.
C) It can be tested by experiments.
D) It is part of the scientific method.
E) All of the above statements are true.
Answer: E
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

7) The definition of a scientific law is:

A) the same as a hypothesis.
B) a way of learning that emphasizes observation and experimentation.
C) the underlying reason for a scientific theory.
D) a number of similar observations generalized into a brief statement summarizing past observations and
predicting new ones.
E) none of the above
Answer: D
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

8) What term best describes a brief statement that summarizes many past observations and predicts new ones?
A) experiment
B) hypothesis
C) scientific law
D) theory
E) none of the above
Answer: C
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

9) Who discovered the law of conservation of mass?

A) John Dalton
B) Antoine Lavoisier
C) Nivaldo Tro
D) John Dalton and Antoine Lavoisier
E) none of the above
Answer: B
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

10) Which of the following is an example of a scientific law?

A) All matter is composed of small, indestructible particles called atoms.
B) In a chemical reaction, matter is neither created nor destroyed.
C) When a can of soda pop is opened, a fizzing sound is heard.
D) Flammable objects contain phlogiston.
E) none of the above
Answer: B
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

6
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
11) What is the definition of a scientific theory?
A) a brief statement that summarizes past observations and predicts future ones
B) a model that explains the underlying reasons for observations and laws
C) the equivalent of a scientific opinion which others may disagree with
D) a method of learning that emphasizes reason as the way to understand the world
E) none of the above
Answer: B
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

12) Who discovered the atomic theory?

A) John Dalton
B) Antoine Lavoisier
C) Nivaldo Tro
D) John Dalton and Antoine Lavoisier
E) none of the above
Answer: A
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

13) Which of the following is an example of an observation?

A) All matter is composed of small, indestructible particles called atoms.
B) Reactions occur due to the transfer of electrons.
C) When a can of soda pop is opened, a fizzing sound is heard.
D) Flammable objects contain phlogiston.
E) none of the above
Answer: C
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

14) A sample of wood with a mass of 3.0 grams was burned in an open dish. The ashes weighed 1.2 grams.
What happened to the rest of the wood?
A) The remaining mass was destroyed.
B) The remaining 1.8 grams was converted into gaseous compounds.
C) Nothing, the burned wood simply has a mass of 1.2 grams.
D) The remaining 1.8 grams was converted into heat.
E) none of the above
Answer: B
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 1.4

15) Which statement accurately describes the purpose of experiments?

A) Experiments are designed to produce the results predicted by a theory.
B) Experiments can be replaced by a simple, logical reasoning of known facts.
C) Experiments are designed to produce unexplainable results for further investigation.
D) Experiments look for other observable predictions of a theory.
E) none of the above
Answer: D
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

7
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
16) Which of the following would be considered a theory?
A) Glass is fragile.
B) Hot air rises.
C) Gasoline has a very strong odor.
D) Helium balloons float because helium is less dense than air.
Answer: D
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.4

17) The key to success in chemistry is:

A) curiosity.
B) mathematical skills.
C) commitment.
D) practice.
E) all of the above
Answer: E
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.5

Essay Questions

1) What is chemistry?
Answer: Chemistry is branch of science that explains the properties and behavior of different forms of matter, in
the broadest sense, by helping us understand the atoms and molecules that compose them.
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 1.3

2) What are the important characteristics of the scientific method?

Answer: The important characteristics of the scientific method include the observation of phenomena, the
formulation of a hypothesis to explain the observed phenomena, the testing of the hypothesis by experiment, and
the formulation of laws and theories.
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 1.4

3) What is the difference between a scientific law and a scientific theory?

Answer: A statement based on a number of similar observations that may predict future outcomes of similar
experiments is a scientific law. Laws are subject to further experiments and may be proven wrong or be validated.
Theories are models of the way nature behaves, and are the products of several well-established and tested
scientific laws.
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 1.4

4) Charcoal was burned in a barbecue grill. The ashes that remained weighed considerably less than the charcoal
that was burned. Does this mean that the law of conservation of mass is wrong? Explain.
Answer: No. The gaseous products formed during the combustion of charcoal escaped into the air and are not
accounted for. If all those products could have been collected and weighed along with the ashes, the total mass of
the products would have been equal to the mass of the charcoal.
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 1.4

8
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
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 Art. 24. In the event of the Sublime Porte and Greece being
unable to agree upon the rectification of frontiers suggested in the
13th protocol of the Congress of Berlin, Germany, Austria-Hungary,
France, Great Britain, Italy, and Russia reserve to themselves to
offer their mediation to the two parties to facilitate negotiations.
Art. 25. The provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina shall be
occupied and administered by Austria-Hungary. The government of
Austria-Hungary, not desiring to undertake the administration of the
Sandjak of Novibazar, which extends between Servia and
Montenegro in a southeasterly direction to the other side of Mitrovitz,
the Ottoman administration shall continue to exercise its functions
there. Nevertheless, in order to assure the maintenance of the new
political state of affairs, as well as the freedom and security of
communications, Austria-Hungary reserves the right of keeping
garrisons and having military and commercial roads in the whole of
this part of the ancient Vilayet of Bosnia.
Arts. 26-33. Recognition of the independence of Montenegro and
regulations as to its boundaries, freedom of worship, debt,
commerce and defence.
Art. 34. The High Contracting Parties recognise the independence
of Servia, subject to the conditions set forth in the following Article.
Art. 35. Differences of religious creed to be no bar to officeholding
in Servia; freedom of worship assured.
Art. 36. Boundaries of Servia.
Arts. 37-42. Concerning commercial relations and consular
jurisdiction in Servia; railway administration and property rights.
Art. 43. The High Contracting Parties recognise the independence
of Rumania, subject to the conditions set forth in the two following
Articles.
Art. 44. Differences in religious creed to be no bar to officeholding
in Rumania: freedom of worship assured.
Arts. 45-46. Concerning the cession of Bessarabian territory by
Rumania to Russia and the addition of the Danubian Delta, etc., to
Rumania.
Arts. 47-49. Concerning fisheries, transit dues and rights of foreign
consuls in Rumania.
Art. 50. Reciprocity of consular rights between Turkey and
Rumania. Transfer of public works in ceded territory.
Art. 52. In order to increase the guarantees which assure the
freedom of navigation on the Danube, which is recognised as of
European interest, the High Contracting Parties determine that all
the fortresses and fortifications existing on the course of the river
from the Iron Gates to its mouths shall be rased, and no new ones
erected. No vessel of war shall navigate the Danube, below the Iron
Gates, with the exception of vessels of light tonnage in the service of
the river police and customs. The “stationnaires” of the Powers at the
mouths of the Danube may, however, ascend the river as far as
Galatz.
Arts. 53-56. Concerning the rights and duties of the European
Commission of the Danube.
Art. 57. Rights of Austria-Hungary on the Danube.
Art. 58. The Sublime Porte cedes to the Russian Empire in Asia,
the territories of Ardahan, Kars, and Batum, together with the latter
port, as well as all the territories comprised between the former
Russo-Turkish frontier and the following line:
[Here follows new boundary line between Russia and Turkey.]
Art. 59. His Majesty the Emperor of Russia declares that it is his
intention to constitute Batum a free port, essentially commercial.
Art. 60. Restoration of Alaschkerd to Turkey: cession of Khotour to
Persia.
Art. 61. The Sublime Porte undertakes to carry out, without further
delay, the improvements and reforms demanded by local
requirements in the provinces inhabited by the Armenians, and to
guarantee their security against the Circassians and Kurds.
 Art. 62. Pledge of Turkey to maintain the principle of religious
liberty.
Art. 63. The Treaty of Paris, of March 30th, 1856, as well as the
Treaty of London, of March 13th, 1871, are maintained in all such of
their provisions as are not abrogated or modified by the preceding
stipulations.
Art. 64. The present treaty shall be ratified, and the ratifications
exchanged at Berlin, within three weeks, or sooner if possible.
In faith whereof the respective Plenipotentiaries have signed it,
and affixed to it the seal of their arms. Done at Berlin, the thirteenth
day of the month of July, one thousand eight hundred and seventy-
eight.
[Signatures.]

III
THE HAGUE PEACE CONFERENCE

[An international conference of representatives of the principal

powers of the world assembled at The Hague, May 18th, 1899, in
response to a call issued by the Czar of Russia with a view to
concerted action in regard to an amelioration of the hardships of war,
the furtherance of the principle of the arbitration of international
disputes, the maintenance of a general peace and the possible
reduction of the world’s military and naval armaments. The states
represented were Germany, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, China,
Japan, France, Mexico, the United States, Great Britain, Sweden
and Norway, Denmark, Russia, Spain, Italy, Servia, Siam, the
Netherlands, Rumania, Turkey, Bulgaria, Greece, Switzerland,
Luxembourg, Persia and Portugal. Sessions continued until July
29th, when the delegates embodied the conclusions reached in a
final act for submission to the several states represented. This final
act consisted of three conventions, three formal declarations and a
series of six resolutions. The resolutions embodied an expression of
the desire that certain unsettled points in regard to neutrals,
contraband and so forth might be passed upon by an international
tribunal at an early date. The conventions were (1) For the pacific
settlement of international conflicts; (2) Regarding the laws and
customs of war by land; (3) For the adaptation to maritime warfare of
the principles of the Geneva Convention, August 22nd, 1864. The
declarations had to do with (1) The prohibition of launching
explosives and projectiles from balloons; (2) The prohibition of the
use of projectiles diffusing poisonous gases; (3) The prohibition of
the use of expanding or flattening bullets. The Conventions were
signed at once by 16 powers, Germany, Great Britain, Austria-
Hungary, Japan, Italy, and several minor powers, withholding their
assent temporarily but finally accepting them.]

A. CONVENTION FOR THE PACIFIC SETTLEMENT OF INTERNATIONAL

DISPUTES

Title I—On the Maintenance of the General Peace

Art. 1. Agreement of powers to use best efforts to ensure peaceful
settlement of international disputes.
Title II—On Good Offices and Mediation
Arts. 2-4. Recommendation of the principle of mediation, the
exercise of which is never to be considered an unfriendly act.
Art. 5. The functions of the mediator are at an end when once it is
declared, either by one of the parties to the dispute, or by the
mediator himself, that the means of reconciliation proposed by him
are not accepted.
Art. 6. Good offices and mediation, either at the request of the
parties at variance, or on the initiative of powers strangers to the
dispute, have exclusively the character of advice, and never have
binding force.
Art. 7. The acceptance of mediation not to hinder preparations for,
or interfere with the prosecution of war.
Art. 8. Concerning special mediation.
Title III—On International Commissions of Inquiry
 Arts. 9-13. Appointment and procedure of the Commissions of
Inquiry.
Art. 14. The report of the International Commission of Inquiry is
limited to a statement of facts, and is in no way the character of an
arbitral award.
Title IV—On International Arbitration
Chapter I—On the System of Arbitration
Arts. 15-19. Recognition of the efficacy of arbitration conventions,
and the implied engagement of loyal submission to the award.
Chapter II—On the Permanent Court of Arbitration
Art. 20. Undertaking of the signatory powers to organise a
permanent court.
Art. 21. The permanent court shall be competent for all arbitration
cases, unless the parties agree to institute a special tribunal.
Art. 22. An international bureau, established at The Hague, serves
as record office for the court, and the channel for communications
relative to the meetings of the court. It has the custody of the
archives and conducts all the administrative business.
Art. 23. Selection of members of the court.
Art. 24. Arbitrators are to be chosen from the general list of
members of the court. Alternative provisions in case of failure of
direct agreement.
Art. 25. Seat of the tribunal to be ordinarily at The Hague.
Art. 26. The jurisdiction of the permanent court may within the
conditions laid down in the regulations, be extended to disputes
between non-signatory powers, or between signatory powers and
non-signatory powers if the parties are agreed on recourse to this
tribunal.
Art. 27. Reminding powers of the existence of the court not to be
considered an unfriendly act.
 Art. 28. Institution and duties of a permanent administrative council
to be composed of the diplomatic representatives of the signatory
powers accredited to The Hague and of the Netherland minister for
foreign affairs, who will act as president.
Art. 29. The expenses of the bureau.
Chapter III—On Arbitral Procedure
Arts. 30-31. Regarding agreement to submit to arbitration.
Art. 32. Failing the constitution of the tribunal by direct agreement
between the parties, the following course shall be pursued: Each
party appoints two arbitrators and these latter together choose an
umpire. In case of equal voting the choice of the umpire is entrusted
to a third power, selected by the parties by common accord. If no
agreement is arrived at on this subject, each party selects a different
power, and the choice of the umpire is made in concert by the
powers thus selected.
Arts. 33-38. Concerning umpires, seat of tribunal, counsel, and
language.
Art. 39. As a general rule the arbitral procedure comprises two
distinct phases; preliminary examination of documents, manuscripts
and briefs and oral discussion of the agreements of the parties.
Arts. 40-51. Concerning procedure as to documents and
arguments.
Art. 52. The award, given by a majority of votes, is accompanied
by a statement of reasons. It is drawn up in writing and signed by
each member of the tribunal. Those members who are in the
minority may record their dissent when signing.
Art. 53. Publication of the award.
Art. 54. The award puts an end to the dispute definitively, and
without appeal.
Art. 55. Concerning demand for a revision of the award on account
of the discovery of new evidence.
 Art. 56. The award binding only on parties who submitted to
arbitration. Right to intervene of other nations parties to a convention
interpreted.
Art. 57. Parties to arbitration to share expenses equally.
General Provisions
Arts. 58-60. Ratification and notification of ratification and the
adherence of non-signatory powers.
Art. 61. In the event of one of the high contracting parties
denouncing the present Convention, this denunciation would not
take effect until a year after its notification made in writing to the
Netherland government, and by it communicated at once to all the
other contracting powers. This denunciation shall only affect the
notifying power.

B. CONVENTION WITH RESPECT TO THE LAWS AND CUSTOMS OF WAR ON

LAND

[Here follow the names of the signatory powers and a statement of

the reasons for and the necessities which have led to the following
convention.]
Art. 1. Contracting powers to accept “Regulations” adopted by the
present conference.
Art. 2. Regulations to be binding only in case of war between two
contracting powers, and cease to be binding when a non-contracting
power joins one of the belligerents.
Arts. 3-5. Concerning ratification by contracting powers, the
adherence of non-contracting powers, and denunciation by a
contracting power.

ANNEX TO THE CONVENTION

Regulations Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land.

Section I—On Belligerents
 Chapter I—On the Qualifications of Belligerents
Art. 1. The laws, rights, and duties of war apply not only to the
armies, but also to militia and volunteer corps, fulfilling the following
conditions: I. To be commanded by a person responsible for his
subordinates; II. To have a fixed distinctive emblem recognisable at a
distance; III. To carry arms openly; and IV. To conduct their
operations in accordance with the laws and customs of war. In
countries where militia or volunteer corps constitute the “army,” or
form part of it, they are included under the term.
Art. 2. The population of a territory which has not been occupied
who, on the enemy’s approach, spontaneously take up arms to resist
the invading troops without having time to organise themselves in
accordance with Article I, shall be regarded a belligerent, if they
respect the laws and customs of war.
Art. 3. The armed forces of the belligerent parties may consist of
combatants and non-combatants. In case of capture by the enemy
both have a right to be treated as prisoners of war.
Chapter II—On Prisoners of War
Arts. 4-12. Prisoners of war; their personal property, their
imprisonment, utilisation of their labor, maintenance, recapture of
escaped prisoners and parole.
Art. 13. Individuals who follow an army without directly belonging
to it, such as newspaper correspondents and reporters, sutlers,
contractors, who fall into the enemy’s hands, and whom the latter
think fit to detain, have a right to be treated as prisoners of war,
provided they can produce a certificate from the military authorities
of the army they were accompanying.
Art. 14. A bureau for information relative to prisoners of war to be
instituted, on the commencement of hostilities, in each of the
belligerent states, to answer all inquiries about prisoners of war, to
keep an individual return for each prisoner of war.
Arts. 15-16. Concerning rights and privileges of relief societies and
information bureaus.
 Art. 17. Officers taken prisoners may receive, if necessary, the full
pay allowed them in this position by their country’s regulations, the
amount to be repaid by their government.
Arts. 18-20. Right of prisoners to freedom of worship; wills;
repatriation.
Chapter III—On the Sick and Wounded
Art. 21. The obligations of belligerents with regard to the sick and
wounded are governed by the Geneva Convention of the 22nd of
August, 1864, subject to any modifications which may be introduced
into it.
Section II—On Hostilities
Chapter I—On Means of Injuring the Enemy, Sieges, and
Bombardments
Art. 22. The right of belligerents to adopt means of injuring the
enemy is not unlimited.
Art. 23. Besides the prohibitions provided by special conventions,
it is especially prohibited: (a) To employ poison or poisoned arms; (b)
To kill or wound treacherously individuals belonging to the hostile
nation or army; (c) To kill or wound an enemy who, having laid down
arms, or having no longer means of defence, has surrendered at
discretion; (d) To declare that no quarter will be given; (e) To employ
arms, projectiles, or material of a nature to cause superfluous injury;
(f) To make improper use of a flag of truce, the national flag, or
military ensigns and the enemy’s uniform, as well as the distinctive
badges of the Geneva Convention; (g) To destroy or seize the
enemy’s property, unless such destruction or seizure be imperatively
demanded by the necessities of war.
Art. 24. Ruses of war and the employment of methods necessary
to obtain information about the enemy and the country, are
considered allowable.
Art. 25. Attack or bombardment of undefended towns prohibited.
Art. 26. Providing for warning before bombardment.
 Art. 27. In sieges and bombardments all necessary steps should
be taken to spare as far as possible edifices devoted to religion, art,
science, and charity, hospitals and places where the sick and
wounded are collected, provided they are not used at the same time
for military purposes. The besieged should indicate these buildings
or places by some particular and visible signs, which should
previously be notified to the assailants.
Art. 28. Pillage of a town even when taken by assault prohibited.
[Chapters II-V, containing Arts. 29-41, are concerned with Spies,
Flags of Truce, Capitulations, and Armistices.]
Section III—On Military Authority over Hostile Territory
Art. 42. Territory is considered occupied when it is actually placed
under the authority of the hostile army. The occupation applies only
to the territory where such authority is established, and in a position
to assert itself.
Art. 43. The authority of the legitimate power having actually
passed into the hands of the occupant, the latter shall take all steps
in her power to re-establish and ensure, as far as possible, public
order and safety, while representing, unless absolutely prevented,
the laws in force in the country.
Arts. 44-45. Any compulsion of the population of occupied territory
to take part in military operations against its own country or oath to
the hostile powers is prohibited.
Art. 46. Family honours and rights, individual lives and private
property, as well as religious convictions and liberty, must be
respected. Private property cannot be confiscated.
Art. 47. Pillage is formally prohibited.
Arts. 48-49. Right of hostile power to levy taxes, dues, and tolls in
occupied territory for the administration of such territory.
Art. 50. No general penalty, pecuniary or otherwise, can be
inflicted on the population on account of the acts of individuals for
which it cannot be regarded as collectively responsible.
 Art. 51. No tax shall be collected except under a written order on
the responsibility of a commander-in-chief. For every payment a
receipt shall be given to the taxpayer.
Art. 52. Neither requisitions in kind, nor services can be demanded
from communes or inhabitants except for the necessities of the army
of occupation. They must be in proportion to the resources of the
country, and of such a nature as not to involve the population in the
obligation of taking part in military operations against their country.
These requisitions and services shall only be demanded on the
authority of the commander in the locality occupied. The
contributions in kind shall as far as possible, be paid for in ready
money; if not, their receipt shall be acknowledged.
Art. 53. An army of occupation can only take possession of the
cash, funds, and property liable to requisition belonging strictly to the
state, depots of arms, means of transport, stores and supplies, and
generally all movable property of the state which may be used for
military operations. Railway plants, land telegraphs, telephones,
steamers, and other ships, apart from cases governed by maritime
law, as well as depots of arms and, generally, all kinds of war
material, even though belonging to companies or to private persons,
are likewise material which may serve for military operations, but
they must be restored at the conclusion of peace, and indemnities
paid.
Art. 54. The plant of railways coming from neutral states whether
the property of those states, or of companies or of private persons,
shall be sent back to them as soon as possible.
Art. 55. The occupying state shall only be regarded as
administrator and usufructuary of the public buildings, real property,
forests, and agricultural works belonging to the hostile state, and
situated in the occupied country.
Art. 56. The property of the communes, that of religious,
charitable, and educational institutions, and those of arts and
science, even when state property, shall be treated as private
property. All seizure of, and destruction, or intentional damage done
to such institutions, to historical monuments, works of art or science,
is prohibited.
Section IV—On the Internment of Belligerents and the Care of the
Wounded in Neutral Countries
Arts. 57-60. Concerning the internment, detention and
maintenance of belligerents, and of the sick and wounded of a
belligerent in a neutral country. Application of the Geneva
Convention.

DECLARATIONS

(I) The contracting powers agree to prohibit, for a term of five

years, the launching of projectiles and explosives from balloons, or
by other new methods of a similar nature.
(II) The contracting parties agree to abstain from the use of bullets
which expand or flatten easily in the human body, such as bullets
with a hard envelope which does not entirely cover the core, or is
pierced with incisions.
(III) The contracting powers agree to abstain from the use of
projectiles the object of which is the diffusion of asphyxiating or
deleterious gases.
The above declarations are only binding on the contracting powers
in the case of a war between two or more of them. They shall cease
to be binding from the time when in a war between the contracting
powers, one of the belligerents shall be joined by a non-contracting
power.
The non-signatory powers can adhere to the above declarations.
In the event of one of the high contracting parties denouncing the
declarations, such denunciation shall not take effect until a year after
the notification made in writing to the government of the Netherlands,
and forthwith communicated by it to all the other contracting powers.
This denunciation shall only affect the notifying power.
 D. CONVENTION FOR THE ADAPTATION TO MARITIME WARFARE OF THE
PRINCIPLES OF THE GENEVA CONVENTION OF AUGUST 22ND, 1854

Arts. 1-5. Military hospital-ships owned either by a state or a

private individual or society not to be considered belligerent.
Art. 6. Neutral merchantmen, yachts, or vessels, having or taking
on board, sick, wounded, or the shipwrecked of the belligerents,
cannot be captured for so doing, but they are liable to capture, for
any violation of neutrality.
Art. 7. Concerning the inviolability of the religious, medical, or
hospital staff of any captured ship.
Art. 8. Sailors and soldiers who are taken on board when sick or
wounded, to whatever nation they belong, shall be protected by the
captors.
Art. 9. The shipwrecked, wounded, or sick of one of the
belligerents who fall into the hands of the other, are prisoners of war.
Art. 10. Concerning the treatment of the shipwrecked, wounded, or
sick, landed at a neutral port with the consent of the local authorities.
Art. 11. Concerning limitation, ratification, acceptance by a non-
signatory power and denunciation of the above articles.
BRIEF REFERENCE-LIST OF AUTHORITIES BY
CHAPTERS

[The letter a is reserved for Editorial Matter.]

Chapter I. Land and People and Early History (to 1054 a.d.)

b A. Leroy-Beaulieu, L’Empire des Tsars et les Russes.

c M. Kovalevski, Russian Political Institutions.
d Procopius, Gothica seu Bellum Gothicum.
e Mauricius, Strategicum.
f Leo, Tacita seu de re militari.
g T. Schiemann, Russland, Polen und Livland.
h Nestor, Chronicle.
i W. K. Kelly, History of Russia.
j A. Rambaud, Histoire de la Russie.
k Robert Bell, History of Russia.

Chapter II. The Period of The Principalities (1054-1224 a.d.)

b A. Rambaud, Histoire de la Russie.

c T. Schiemann, Russland, Polen und Livland.
d N. M. Karamzin, History of the Russian Empire.

Chapter III. The Time of Tatar Domination (1235-1462 a.d.)

b R. N. Bestuzhev-Riumin, Russian History.

 c D. M. Wallace, Russia.
d R. Bell, A History of Russia.
e S. M. Soloviov, History of Russia from the Earliest Times.
f N. Turgeniev, La Russie et les Russes.
g W. K. Kelly, History of Russia.
h N. I. Kostomarov, Russian History.
i A. Brückner, Geschichte Russlands.

Chapter IV. From Ivan the Great to Ivan the Terrible (1462-
1584 a.d.)

b R. N. Bestuzhev-Riumin, Russian History.

c N. I. Kostomarov, Russian History.
d P. Strahl and E. Hermann, Geschichte des Russischen
Staates.
e A. Rambaud, Histoire de la Russie.
f N. Karamzin, History of the Russian Empire.
g R. Bell, History of Russia.
h S. M. Soloviov, History of Russia from the Earliest Times.

Chapter V. The Century After Ivan the Terrible (1584-1682

a.d.)

b Prosper Mérimée, Demetrius the Impostor.

c N. I. Kostomarov, Russian History.
d N. Karamzin, History of the Russian Empire.
 e Jean Henri Schnitzler, L’Empire des Tsars au point actuél de
la science.
f A. Rambaud, Histoire de la Russie.
g R. Bell, History of Russia.
h W. K. Kelly, History of Russia.
i S. M. Soloviov, History of Russia from the Earliest Times.

Chapter VI. Peter the Great (1682-1725 a.d.)

b Voltaire, Histoire de Russie.

c R. Bell, History of Russia.
d N. I. Kostomarov, Russian History.
e W. K. Kelly, History of Russia.
f P. Strahl and E. Hermann, Geschichte des Russischen
Staates.
g A. Rambaud, Histoire de la Russie.
h P. Shtchebalski, Readings from Russian History.
i S. M. Soloviov, History of Russia from the Earliest Times.
j Auguste de Haxthausen, The Russian Empire, its People,
Institutions and Resources.
k Claude Carloman de Rulhière, Révolution de Pologne.
l C. A. De Louville, Mémoires.
m Ivan Golikov, The Acts of Peter the Great.

Chapter VII. Catherine I to Peter III (1725-1796 a.d.)

b R. Bell, History of Russia.

 c N. I. Kostomarov, Russian History.
d P. Shtchebalski, Readings from Russian History.
e V. A. Bilbassov, History of Catherine II.
f A. Rambaud, Historie de la Russie.
g R. Nisbet Bain, The Daughter of Peter the Great.

Chapter VIII. The Age of Catherine II (1769-1796 a.d.)

b P. Shtchebalski, Readings from Russian History.

c V. A. Bilbassov, History of Catherine II.
d A. Rambaud, Histoire de la Russie.
e R. Bell, History of Russia.
f Antoine de Ferrand, Les trois démembrements de la Pologne.
g Catherine II, Memoirs.
h A. Brückner, History of Catherine II.
i Theodor von Bernhardi, Geschichte Russlands und der
europäischen Politik in den Jahren 1814-1831.
j W. K. Kelly, History of Russia.
k N. K. Shilder, The Emperor Alexander I.

Chapter IX. Russia in the Napoleonic Epoch (1796-1815 a.d.)

b F. C. Schlosser, Geschichte des 18. und 19. Jahrhunderts.

c A. Rambaud, Histoire de la Russie.
d R. Bell, History of Russia.
e R. Gossip, History of Russia.
 f A. Alison, History of Europe.
g N. K. Shilder, The Emperor Alexander I.
h P. de Ségur, History of the Expedition to Russia.
i A. Mikhailovski-Danilevski, Vie du Feld-Maréchal Koutouzoff.
jT. von Bernhardi, Geschichte Russlands und der europäischen
Politik in den Jahren 1814-1831.
k W. K. Kelly, History of Russia.
l F. H. Skrine, The Expansion of Russia, 1815-1900.

Chapter X. Alexander I, Mystic and Humanitarian (1801-1825

a.d.)

b N. K. Shilder, The Emperor Alexander I.

d N. Turgeniev, La Russie et les Russes.
e W. K. Kelly, History of Russia.
f A. Rambaud, Histoire de la Russie.
g A. Alison, History of Europe.
h F. H. Skrine, The Expansion of Russia 1815-1900.
i Storck, Russland unter Alexander dem Ersten.

Chapter XI. The Reign of Nicholas I (1825-1854 a.d.)

b N. K. Shilder, The Reign of the Emperor Nicholas I.

c J. H. Schnitzler, La Russie, Ancienne et Moderne.
d W. K. Kelly, History of Russia.
e A. P. de Custine, La Russie en 1839.
 f A. Rambaud, Histoire de la Russie.
g T. Delord, Histoire du second Empire.
h P. De la Gorce, Histoire du second Empire.
i H. Martin, Histoire de la France depuis 1789 jusqu’à nos jours.
j A. A. Shumakr, The Czar Liberator.
k F. H. Skrine, The Expansion of Russia 1815-1900.

Chapter XII. Alexander II, The Czar Liberator (1855-1881

a.d.)

b A. Rambaud, Histoire de la Russie.

c D. M. Wallace, Russia.
d A. A. Shumakr, The Czar Liberator.
e P. De la Gorce, Histoire du second Empire.
f Alexander II, Manifesto or Proclamation.
g F. H. Skrine, The Expansion of Russia 1815-1900.
h Julius Eckhardt, Modern Russia.

Chapter XIII. Reaction, Expansion, and the War with Japan

(1881-1904 a.d.)

b D. M. Wallace, article on Russian history in the New Volumes of

the Encyclopædia Britannica.
c Albert J. Beveridge, The Russian Advance.
d Henry Norman, All the Russias.
eA. N. Kuropatkin, quoted in F. H. Skrine and E. D. Ross’s The
Heart of Asia.
 Appendix. Documents Relating to Russian History

These documents, given in a somewhat condensed form, are from

the following sources: The Treaty of Paris, from H. Tyrrell’s History
of the War with Russia; The Treaty of Berlin and The Hague Peace
Conference, from Sir Edward Hertslet’s State Papers, Vol. CX.