UNIT IV

SURFACE FINISHING, FLOORING AND DAMP-PROOFING

Surface finishing: Smooth finishes, textured finishes, ribbed, etched, exposed aggregate finish weathering
of finishes- external renderings- roughcast, dry dash, textured, stucco, gypsum and POP applications,
protective and decorative coatings.

Paints- properties and defects in paints, enamels, distemper, plastic emulsion, special paints-fire retardant,
luminous and bituminous paints.

Materials for damp-proofing and water-proofing concrete structures: Hot and cold applications,
emulsified asphalt, vinyl, epoxy resins, chemical admixtures, bentonite clay etc.- properties, uses and cost of
materials.

Types of flooring- laying methods for marble, mosaic, and terrazzo, plain cement flooring, flooring stones
& tiles.

Surface finishing

Surface finishing is a broad range of industrial processes that alter the surface of a manufactured
item to achieve a certain property.

Finishing processes may be employed to: improve appearance, adhesion or wet ability, solder ability,
corrosion resistance, tarnish resistance, chemical resistance, wear resistance, hardness, modify electrical
conductivity, remove burrs and other surface flaws, and control the surface friction.

In limited cases some of these techniques can be used to restore original dimensions to salvage or
repair an item. An unfinished surface is often called mill finish.

Surface finishing processes can be categorized by how they affect the workpiece:

 Removing or reshaping finishing

 Adding or altering finishing

Two types of plastering materials today

There are two types of plastering materials used today; cement-based and gypsum-based
plastering. For the most part applying gypsum based cement on gypsum board is the easier route in
skimming. Skimming is the final plastering done on a wall. Gypsum-based plastering are used in interior
plastering because of its more susceptible to moisture. Cement-based plastering could both be applied
indoors and outdoors.

Exterior Plastering

Stucco plaster finishing is still widely used in exterior treatment of walls. Stucco is actually a general
term applied to all types of exterior plastering whether it be lime or cement. There are four composites
under stucco and they are:
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  Common stucco - It is a mixture of one part cement (or hydraulic lime) and 3 parts sand. It's plain
finishing of an exterior wall.
 Rough stucco - It is a type of exterior finishing imitating stonework. The effect is done by the use of
a hand float covered with rough felt. Some plasterers prefer to use brushes with stiff bristles for the
effect.
 Trowelled stucco - This has a very smooth finish achieved by the use of a hand float. The finishing
coat is 3 parts sand to 2 parts cement.
 Bastard stucco - This surface is almost like the common finish but this is laid instead on two coats
with a skimming float, cleaned then trowelled.

Roughcast plaster finishing is a type of coarse finishing where cement, pebbles, shells, and sand are
mixed together with water and then thrown at the wall with a trowel. The idea is to cover the wall evenly
with the mixture for a rough but finished look. This finishing used to be a popular exterior finishing at the
turn of the 20th century. It is now more commonly used in country homes.

Modern stucco is exterior cement plastering. It is a mixture of cement, lime, sand and water in a
proportion that is most suitable for the plasterer. Additives are put into the mixture for more flexibility.
There are also synthetic stuccos that are out in the market today. They are called by many names and types
but they are all basically cement-based stucco plastering.

There are three essential coats for cement-based plastering: the scratch coat; the brown coat and the
final coat. The scratch coat is the foundation coat and needs to be scratched for the second finer coat to
adhere. The brown coat is finer but the third and final coat still needs to be applied for that smooth and
finished look. The final coat can be colour coat where the sand and cement are mixed with a coloured
component or the final coat could be finished off with an application of paint or any acrylic-based finish.

Interior Plastering

Interior plastering is different from exterior plastering. There are two types of plastering used for the
interior: drywall and plastering. Drywall is a form of sheet rock that is somewhat greenish in colour. It is
actually a method of constructing interior walls by making use of gypsum boards

Gaining more popularity is the Venetian plastering where manufacturers claim that your walls will
have that authentic "old world" ambiance. Venetian plastering is a type of textured plastering that has the
colour ingrained in the plaster itself. It is more commonly known as "aged" plaster.

Plastering is not an easy task but if you have the tenacity to take up the art, then you'd be able to do
small areas in no time at all. Tip: practice.

If you are looking for ideas of decorating the interiors of your home, you should consider
searching online for design ideas. There are plentiful sites giving very good ideas for beautiful and
creative interiors.

What are Wall Finishes and the purpose of using them?

As the name “Wall Finishes” itself suggests that it is finish given to the wall to enhance the interior
or exterior look of the structure.

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 Wall finishes used for the interiors are quite delicate and need maintenance. The new contemporary
trend has brought about great deal of increase in the usage of various types of wall finishes for the aesthetic
purpose in the interiors and exteriors.

Here is a list of different types of Wall finishes:

1. Cement plastered Finish 5. Glass Mosaic Finish

2. Cement Textured Finish 6. Designer Mirror Finish
3. Plaster of Paris Finish 7. Laminate Finish
4. Gypsum Plaster Finish 8. Marble Powder Finish
Cement plastered Finish

It is prepared in the form of mortar with cement, sand and

water in proper proportions and applied on masonry manually to
achieve a smooth finish or sand faced finish.

Cement Plaster Finish | Wall Finishes

Cement Textured Finish

This is a decorative finish and its mortar is prepared in cement based

material. It is applied with sand faced plaster with a trowel and after
that it is colored with paint.

Cement Textured Finish | Wall Finishes

Plaster of Paris Finish

Plaster of Paris or simply plaster is a type of building material

based on calcium sulphate hemihydrates. This is a smooth finish
achieved by plaster of Paris generally applied on internal walls.

Plaster of Paris Finish | Wall Finishes

Gypsum Plaster Finish

This just like plaster of Paris finish but gypsum based material is
used to prepare mortar. It is more durable and finer as compared to
Plaster of Paris Finish.

Gypsum plaster Finish | Wall Finishes

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Glass Mosaic Finish: Glass mosaic tiles are small 1”x1” on a cloth to get a workable size 12”x12” and
this tile is pasted with an adhesive on wall surfaces. It can also be pasted on curved surfaces.It comes in
different colours and generally used in swimming pools.

Laminate Finish

Laminate comes in various colours and designs. It comes in the form of

sheet and is pasted with fevicol on Plywood.

Laminate Finish | Wall Finishes

Pebbles Finish

This a very simple and attractive finish obtained by pasting small

pebbles on the walls with cement mortar as an adhesive.

Pebbles finish is usually preferred for exterior facade. It is also

commonly used to give nice flowing effect to the waterfalls that are
created especially designed for Hotel Interiors or as a part of Exterior
Landscaping.

Pebbles Finish | Wall Finishes

Smooth surface finish:

A smooth finish is the most common choice for interior walls and often ceilings too. You will need
to decide the finish of a room in advance. Whether you choose a smooth or rough finish, it will determine
what order the room is plastered and the composition of the plaster mix/mixes.

If a ceiling is to be plastered smooth this is generally done before the walls. This is because when the
plaster is being smoothed, bits of mortar will fall on to the walls below. When plastering a ceiling smooth a
‘cream of tartar’ or sugar is applied to the mortar to slow down the drying process, making it easier to
scrape any splashes of plaster off the walls below.

If the ceiling is going to be given a textured finish it will be plastered after the walls; this is because
the plaster is left rough so it does not tend to splatter on to the walls below.

Textured/ rough

This type of finish is usually reserved for ceilings, inside cupboards and garage walls where a high
spec finish is less important. The advantage of a rough finish is that it is cheaper than a smooth finish; due to
the difficult nature of plastering a ceiling the cost is generally more than for plastering the same area of a
wall.

To plaster a ceiling a plasterer will usually have to use stilts or for low ceilings, stand on milk crates.
Plaster tends to drop off the ceiling onto the floor and walls below. These factors make plastering a ceiling
with a smooth finish a much more difficult job than simply plastering a wall and thus increase the cost of the
project, which is why many people opt for a rough finish.
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 People often choose to save money by finishing the ceiling rough because this area is less visible.
You should discuss this with your plasterer in advance as this will determine in which order the walls and
ceiling are plastered.

Exposed-aggregate finish

A decorative finish for concrete work; achieved by removing the outer skin of mortar, generally
before the concrete has fully hardened, and exposing the coarse aggregate.

Etching
Etching is traditionally the process of using strong acid or mordant to cut into the unprotected parts
of a metal surface to create a design in intaglio (relief) in the metal.[1] In modern manufacturing, other
chemicals may be used on other types of material. As a method of printmaking, it is, along with engraving,
the most important technique for old master prints, and remains in wide use today.

In pure etching, a metal (usually copper, zinc or steel) plate is covered with a waxy ground which is
resistant to acid.[2] The artist then scratches off the ground with a pointed etching needle[3] where he or she
wants a line to appear in the finished piece, so exposing the bare metal. The échoppe, a tool with a slanted
oval section, is also used for "swelling" lines.[4] The plate is then dipped in a bath of acid, technically called
the mordant (French for "biting") or etchant, or has acid washed over it.[5] The acid "bites" into the metal (it
dissolves part of the metal) where it is exposed, leaving behind lines sunk into the plate. The remaining
ground is then cleaned off the plate. The plate is inked all over, and then the ink wiped off the surface,
leaving only the ink in the etched lines.

 The etching process is known as biting (see also spit-biting below).

 The waxy resist prevents the acid from biting the parts of the plate which have been covered.
 The longer the plate remains in the acid the deeper the "bites" become.

DASH TEXTURE
Dash Texture

This article discusses dash textures, also known as splatter dash, rough cast, and dash coat. He describes
the types of dash, varying thicknesses, and their possible benefits. He discusses the "factors and job
conditions which may affect the appearance of dash finish," as well as successful dashing methods. He
discusses the possible numbers and qualities of coats, and stresses the importance of proper scratch and
brown coats. He also describes tips and mixing procedures, as well as application procedures for
different types of walls.

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Stucco
Stucco or render is a material made of an aggregate, a binder, and water. Stucco is applied wet and
hardens to a very dense solid. It is used as decorative coating for walls and ceilings and as a sculptural and
artistic material in architecture. Stucco may be used to cover less visually appealing construction materials
such as metal, concrete, cinder block, or clay brick and adobe.

The difference in nomenclature between stucco, plaster, and mortar is based more on use than
composition. Until the latter part of the nineteenth century, it was common that plaster, which was used
inside a building, and stucco, which was used outside, would consist of the same primary materials: lime
and sand (which are also used in mortar). Animal or plant fibers were often added for additional strength. In
the latter nineteenth century, Portland cement was added with increasing frequency in an attempt to improve
the durability of stucco. At the same time, traditional lime plasters were being replaced by gypsum plaster.

Traditional stucco is made of lime, sand, and water. Modern stucco is made of Portland cement,
sand, and water. Lime is added to increase the permeability and workability of modern stucco. Sometimes
additives such as acrylics and glass fibers are added to improve the structural properties of the stucco. This
is usually done with what is considered a one-coat stucco system, as opposed to the traditional three-coat
method.

Lime stucco is a relatively hard material that can be broken or chipped by hand without too much
difficulty. The lime itself is usually white; color comes from the aggregate or any added pigments. Lime
stucco has the property of being self-healing to a limited degree because of the slight water solubility of
lime (which in solution can be deposited in cracks, where it solidifies).

Traditional stucco

As a building material, stucco is a durable, attractive, and weather-resistant wall covering. It was
traditionally used as both an interior and exterior finish applied in one or two thin layers directly over a solid
masonry, brick or stone surface. The finish coat usually contained an integral color and was typically
textured for appearance.

Sculptural and architectural use

Stucco has also been used as a sculptural and artistic material. Stucco relief was used in the architectural
decoration schemes of many ancient cultures. Examples of Egyptian, Minoan, and Etruscan stucco reliefs
remain extant. In Roman art of the late Republic and early Empire, stucco was used extensively for the
decoration of vaults.

Modern stucco[edit]

Modern stucco is used as an exterior cement plaster wall covering. It is usually a mix of sand,
Portland cement, lime and water, but may also consist of a proprietary mix of additives including fibers and
synthetic acrylics that add strength and flexibility.[2] Modern synthetic stucco can be applied as one base
layer and a finish layer, which is thinner and faster to apply, compared to the traditional application of three-
coat stucco.

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Plaster of Paris
Definitions

1. a white powder that sets to a hard solid when mixed with water, used for making sculptures and
casts, as an additive for lime plasters, and for making casts for setting broken limbs. It is usually the
hemihydrate of calcium sulphate, 2CaSO4.H2O

2. the hard plaster produced when this powder is mixed with water: a fully hydrated form of calcium
sulphate

Plaster of Paris

calcined gypsum in white, powdery form, used as a base for gypsum plasters, as an additive of lime plasters,
and as a material for making fine and ornamental casts: characterized by its ability to set rapidly when
mixed with water.

Plaster of Paris

1. A mixture of materials that hardens; used for immobilizing or making impressions of body parts.

2. An adhesive substance spread on fabric or other suitable backing material, for application to the skin,
often containing some medication, such as an analgesic or local vasodilator.

Plaster of Paris calcium sulfate dihydrate, reduced to a fine powder; the addition of water produces a
porous mass used in making casts and bandages to support or immobilize body parts, and in dentistry for
making study models.

Plaster of paris, fracture: setting a broken hand with a cast of plaster of paris©
imageshunter/Shutterstock.comquick-setting gypsum plaster consisting of a fine white powder (calcium
sulfate hemihydrate), which hardens when moistened and allowed to dry. Known since ancient times,
plaster of paris is so called because of its preparation from the abundant gypsum found near Paris.

Plaster of paris does not generally shrink or crack when dry,

making it an excellent medium for casting molds. It is commonly
used to precast and hold parts of ornamental plasterwork placed on
ceilings and cornices. It is also used in medicine to make plaster
casts to immobilize broken bones while they heal, though some
orthopedic casts are made of fibreglass or thermoplastics. Some
sculptors work directly in plaster of paris, as the speed at which the
plaster sets gives the work a sense of immediacy and enables the
sculptor to achieve the original idea quickly. In medieval and
Renaissance times, gesso (usually made of plaster of paris mixed
with glue) was applied to wood panels, plaster, stone, or canvas to
provide the ground for tempera and oil painting.

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Paint
Paint is any liquid, liquefiable, or mastic composition that, after application to a substrate in a thin
layer, converts to a solid film. It is most commonly used to protect, color, or provide texture to objects.

Paint can be made or purchased in many colors—and in many different types, such as watercolor,
synthetic, etc. Paint is typically stored, sold, and applied as a liquid, but dries into a solid.

The constituents of paint

Paints contain:

 pigment(s) - prime pigments to impart colour and opacity

 binder (resin) - a polymer, often referred to as resin, forming a matrix to hold the pigment in place
 extender - larger pigment particles added to improve adhesion, strengthen the film and save binder
 Solvent (sometimes called a thinner) - either an organic solvent or water is used to reduce the
viscosity of the paint for better application. Water-borne paints are replacing some paints that use
volatile organic compounds such as the hydrocarbons which are harmful to the atmosphere.
 additives - used to modify the properties of the liquid paint or dry film

The binder (resin) and solvent together are sometimes known as the vehicle. The binder may be
dissolved as a solution or carried as a dispersion of microscopically small particles in a liquid.

Depending on the type of paint and intended use, additives may include:

 dispersants - to separate and stabilise pigment particles

 silicones - to improve weather resistance
 thixotropic agents - to give paints a jelly-like consistency that breaks down to a liquid when stirred
or when a brush is dipped into it
 driers - to accelerate drying time
 anti-settling agents - to prevent pigment settling
 bactericides - to preserve water based paints in the can
 fungicides and algaecides - to protect exterior paint films against disfigurement from moulds, algae
and lichen

Paints are formulated according to their proposed use - primer, undercoat, special finishes (matt,
gloss, heat resistance, anti-corrosion, abrasion resistance). The pigment powder is broken down into
individual particles which are coated by and dispersed in the binder (resin) - known as 'wetting out'. Solvent
is then added to give the required consistency. Each batch of ingredients is thoroughly mixed in large,
stirred containers with the required additives (Figure 1). Amounts ranging up to 40 000 dm 3 of paint may be
made in a single batch.

This unit discusses the most commonly used binders followed by the pigments.

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Binders in paints

The three most important binders (resins) used in modern paints are:

 acrylic polymers (resins)

 alkyd polymers (resins)
 epoxy polymers (resins)

Acrylic polymers (resins)

The binder in many emulsion paints is based on homopolymers or co-polymers of ethenyl ethanoate (vinyl
acetate) and a propenoate (acrylic) ester.

Ethenyl ethanoate is manufactured by passing a mixture of ethanoic acid vapour, ethene and oxygen over
heated palladium(ll) and copper(ll) chlorides:

Ethenyl ethanoate and an acrylic ester (for example, methyl 2-methylpropenoate) are then co-polymerized to
form a random array, in which these groups link into a linear chain:

Other acrylic esters used as co-monomers with ethenyl ethanoate are ethyl propenoate, butyl propenoates, or
a co-polymer of butyl propenoate and methyl 2-methylpropenoate.

The polymers used in these paints are carried in water (water-borne emulsion paints) which as described
above are much better for the environment than paints in which the binders are in organic solvents.

Emulsion paints are so-called as they are made by a process known as emulsion polymerization, in
which the liquid monomers to be polymerized are first dispersed in water, as an emulsion. The polymers
produced by this process typically have relative molecular masses of 500 000 - 1 000 000. As such they are
useful only as dispersions since they would be extremely viscous if they were carried in solution and this
would make them unusable.

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Epoxy polymers (resins)

Epoxy resins are often used as the binder in industrial coatings (primers). They give the paint excellent
adhesion together with high resistance to chemicals (corrosion), and physical resistance necessary, for
example, on ships and chemical storage tanks.

The epoxy resins are made from 1-chloro-2,3-epoxypropane (produced from 3-chloropropene) and
substituted phenols, such as bisphenol A:

The value of n can be controlled to give a range of resins varying from viscous liquids to solids with high
melting points. Epoxy resins can be carried in solvents such as aromatic hydrocarbons, alcohols, ketones
and esters (solvent-borne paints) or as dispersions in water (water-borne paints) as true emulsions. They are
not normally used in topcoats for outdoors because they are susceptible to UV degradation, but they make
excellent interior coatings and exterior primers.

Epoxy resins are also used as adhesives (e.g. Araldite) and electrical insulators.

Pigments used in paints

Pigments give colour and opacity to paints. Amongst the organic pigments, particularly important are azo-
, phthalocyanine and anthraquinone derivatives.

The most common inorganic pigment is white titanium dioxide (titanium(IV) oxide) which provides
over 70% of total pigments used (Unit 51). It has a high refractive index and gives a 'gloss' to the
paint. Another widely used inorganic pigment is finely divided calcium carbonate. This has a low
refractive index and is used, together with titanium dioxide, to produce 'matt' paints. Other pigments
include iron oxides (black, yellow and red), zinc oxide and carbon black.

Powdered metals such as zinc and some metal compounds, for example zinc phosphate, have corrosion
inhibiting properties.

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Paint drying

As the paint dries, a film is formed which adheres to the surface of the material to which it is being
applied.

Emulsion paints dry by a physical process involving the evaporation of water followed by
coalescence of the polymer droplets and their subsequent integration into a hard polymer matrix that acts as
a binder for the pigment.

On applying gloss paints, the alkyd polymer cross-links by an oxidation reaction with oxygen in the
air once the solvent has largely evaporated. This reaction is accelerated using salts of transition metals (for
example, cobalt and manganese naphthenates). The transition metal ion (with variable oxidation state)
catalyses cross linking of the polymer chains, producing a hard surface film to the paint.

Properties of an ideal paint

These vary greatly according to the particular end use. The requirements for an automotive topcoat, for
example, will be very different to those for a decorative ceiling paint.

Some of the typical attributes required can include:

 ease of application
 good flow out of application marks (e.g. brush-
marking)
 forming a continuous protective film
 high opacity
 quick drying
 corrosion resistance
 water resistance
 heat resistance
 colour stability (i.e. against visible and
ultraviolet radiation)
 abrasion and scratch resistance
 durability
 flexibility
 easily cleaned

Application methods

Numerous methods are used including: brush, roller, dipping, flow coating, spraying, hot spraying,
electrostatic spraying, airless spraying, electrode position, powder coating, vacuum impregnation and
immersion.

Environmental issues

Lead compounds are no longer used in decorative paints and automotive paints. The quantity of lead
compounds still being used in specialized industrial paints has been greatly reduced and eventually
alternatives will be found. This also applies to chromates which, although they perform well and in the past
have been extensively used on motor vehicles, are very toxic.
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Because volatile hydrocarbons can lead to pollution in the troposphere, coatings with lower organic solvent
content are required. The routes to achieve this include:

 water-based polymers (emulsion paints)

 higher solids content polymers (using less solvent)
 powder coatings

Water-based gloss paints are now available but the initial gloss of the finish is usually not as high as
organic solvent based paints. The customer's choice is between a high performance product and a more
environmentally friendly one. Intense research effort continues to improve these paints.

High solids paints (which are solvent-based) are now available but not without compromises in cost and
performance. The relative molecular masses of the polymer resins are reduced to a maximum of ca 1000
compared to 5000 in conventional paints. This allows the proportion of the polymer to be increased from
20-30% to 40%, hence the term high solids. The main problem is the need to maintain a low viscosity. As
the amount of solids increases so does the viscosity, reaching a point at which the paint cannot be applied
properly.

Powder coatings are used in particular for goods such as bicycles and white goods (refrigerators,
washing machines). The powder is made up of a resin (often an epoxy resin), pigments, a catalyst to
promote cross-linking when the powder is heated, and additives. The powder is sprayed on to the article
using an electrostatic spray gun and is then heat cured to produce a hard coating. Recently acrylic powder
coatings have been introduced as clear-coats on car bodies. Although an ideal solution for many
applications, curing is achieved at high temperature in an oven and is therefore not universally applicable
(e.g. painting of wood and plastics).

Properties to be considered
1. Wear ability:
Paint must be resistant to the wear and tear of the atmosphere and should maintain its color, smoothness and
finish for a long time.
2. Covering ability:
Paints should cover the body uniformly and homogeneously on which it is applied and the finish should be
smooth and uniform.
3. Ease of cleaning:
When it is required to clean the paint, it shold be easy to remove i.e A good paint should not react
chemically with the materials but should only cover its surface.
5. Environmentally Friendly:
Paint should be water based and must not have any plasticizers or biocides as solvents.
6. Aesthetic:
It should provide a comfortable room climate and must not allow moulds and algae to grow on it.
7. Practical and cost effective:
The other qualities of a good paint are that they must be cheap, ready to use, long lasting and should color
fast. In most cases Price is the decisive factor in selection of paints.

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Types of Paint:
A fluid suspension applied thinly to the surface of objects for the purpose of decoration, protection
or preservation. Paint usually consists of pigment in tiny particles mixed in a medium which binds the
pigment and causes it to adhere to the surface. Paint comprises three main substances – resin known as the
binder, solvent to dissolve the binder and to give the paint its required consistency and pigment which
imparts the colour.
Emulsion Paint :
These are the superior quality of paint formed by mixing oil/water and an emulsifying agent to
prevent the combination separating. They have much better ease of application, are washable and have a
greater overall decorative appeal. Not only do they have higher coverage than enamels and distempers, they
are mostly washable and can be easily applied on concrete and stucco surfaces. As per the interior and
exterior painting requirements both interior and exterior emulsion paints exist
Distemper Paint :
Distempers are durable and economical water based paints The major constituents of distemper
include colouring agents, as well as chalk and lime. They have been the main painting substance for decades
and still are excellent budget painting solutions. Even the distempers now used are more varied and have
special properties.
Enamel Paints :
Enamels are hard, washable and usually glossy paints. They can be oil based or alkyd based and
come in several sheens, from eggshell or low-lustre to satin, semi-gloss and high-gloss. They find
application not only on metal surfaces but also on interior walls and wooden surfaces.
Wood Finishes :
Wood Finish Paints are different from the usual wall paints and are formulated specifically for
application on wooden surfaces. They have better capacity of adhering to the wooden surfaces and
enhancing the appeal of the wooden textures. These include wood sealers, varnishes, preservatives etc.
Primer :
A primer is a preparatory coating put on materials before painting. Priming ensures better adhesion of
paint to the surface, increases paint durability, and provides additional protection for the material being
painted. Different types of surfaces and different types of paints required different types of primers.
Putty :
Putties are base coats applied to walls before painting; they provide a protective layer for the expensive
paint. Putties are generally non-hygroscopic and resist moisture giving more life to the painting surfaces.
Not only do they provide smooth surfaces by levelling undulations, cracks etc but also are helpful in
increasing the coverage of the paints applied.
Aluminium Paint:
These are paints containing Aluminium blended in a resin base. Despite its name, aluminium paint is
actually used to paint a variety of materials, including metals, wood, and masonry. It is long-lasting and
durable, and is one of the best types of paint to use around oil, grease, and chemicals. The painted surface
offers realistic aluminium finishes, and is highly resistant to rust and corrosion.
Texture Paints :
Texture paints are used to create to desired visual effects on the walls. By the use of brushes, rollers, putty
knives, trowels and other applications a variety of patterns can be created. Other paints can be applied on

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the textures to create desired effects. Sometimes, texture paints are tinted prior to application, giving the
desired colour. Texture paints also help in covering undulations and levelling surfaces.
Cement Paint :
To give a new look for concrete and other cement-based materials, cement paint is the perfect answer. It is
a special paint coatings made for masonry and cement-based materials, including concrete, mortar (and
brick), concrete block and stucco.

Luminous paint

Luminous paint or luminescent paint is paint that exhibits luminescence. In other words, it gives
off visible light through fluorescence, phosphorescence, or radioluminescence.

Fluorescent paint

Fluorescent paints offer a wide range of pigments and chroma which also 'glow' when exposed to the
long-wave "ultraviolet" frequencies (UV). These UV frequencies are found in sunlight and some artificial
lights, but they—and their glowing-paint applications—are popularly known as Black Light and 'black-light
effects', respectively.

Phosphorescent paint

Phosphorescent paint is commonly called "glow-in-the-dark" paint. It is made from phosphors such
as silver-activated zinc sulfide or doped strontium aluminate, and typically glows a pale green to greenish-
blue color. The mechanism for producing light is similar to that of fluorescent paint, but the emission of
visible light persists long after it has been exposed to light. Phosphorescent paints have a sustained glow
which lasts for up to 12 hours after exposure to light, fading over time.

Radioluminescent paint

Radioluminescent paint contains a radioactive isotope (radionuclide) combined with a

radioluminescent substance. The isotopes selected are typically strong emitters of fast electrons (beta
radiation), preferred since this radiation will not penetrate an enclosure. Radioluminescent paints will glow
without exposure to light until the radioactive isotope has decayed (or the phosphor degrades), which may
be many years. They are therefore sometimes referred to as "self-luminous".

Bituminous Coating

Bituminous coating is a type of coating used to build a vapor-proof and flexible protective coat in
accordance with its formulation and polymerization grade. Its flexibility and protection against vapor and
water can be influenced by the polymer grade as well as reinforcement of fiber.

The most common applications of bituminous coatings include areas that are beneath screed wet. It is an
excellent protective coating and waterproofing agent, especially on surfaces such as concrete foundations.

Bituminous coating is also known as asphalt coating.

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Failure of paint
The main reasons of paint failure after application on surface are the applicator and improper treatment of
surface.

Application Defects can be attributed to:

Dilution
This usually occurs when the dilution of the paint is not done as per manufacturers recommendation.
There can be a case of over dilution and under dilution, as well as dilution with the incorrect diluent.
Contamination
Foreign contaminants added without the manufacturers consent can cause various film defects.
Peeling/Blistering
Most commonly due to improper surface treatment before application and inherent
moisture/dampness being present in the substrate.
Chalking
Chalking is the progressive powdering of the paint film on the painted surface. The primary reason
for the problem is polymer degradation of the paint matrix due to exposure of UV radiation in
sunshine and condensation from dew. The degree of chalking varies as epoxies react quickly while
acrylics and polyurethanes can remain unchanged for long periods.[15] The degree of chalking can be
assessed according to International Standard ISO 4628 Part 6 or 7 or American Society of Testing
and Materials(ASTM) Method D4214 (Standard Test Methods for Evaluating the Degree of
Chalking of Exterior Paint Films).
Cracking
Cracking of paint film is due to the unequal expansion or contraction of paint coats. It usually
happens when the coats of the paint are not allowed to cure/dry completely before the next coat is
applied. The degree of cracking can be assessed according to International Standard ISO 4628 Part 4
or ASTM Method D661 (Standard Test Method for Evaluating Degree of Cracking of Exterior
Paints).
Erosion
Erosion is very quick chalking. It occurs due to external agents like air,water etc. It can be evaluated
using ASTM Method ASTM D662 (Standard Test Method for Evaluating Degree of Erosion of
Exterior Paints).
Blistering
Blistering is due to improper surface exposure of paint to strong sunshine. The degree of blistering
can be assessed according to ISO 4628 Part 2 or ASTM Method D714 (Standard Test Method for
Evaluating Degree of Blistering of Paints).

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DAMP PROOF COURSE (DPC)

Damp proofing

Damp proofing in construction is a type of moisture control applied to building walls and floors to
prevent moisture from passing into the interior spaces. Damp problems are one of the most frequent
problems encountered in homes.

Damp proofing is defined by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) as a material
that resists the passage of water with no hydro-static pressure and waterproof as a treatment that resists the
passage of water under pressure.[1] Generally damp proofing keeps moisture out of a building where vapor
barriers keep interior moisture from getting into walls. Moisture resistance is not necessarily absolute: it is
usually defined by a specific test method, limits, and engineering tolerances.

Damp proofing is accomplished several ways including:

 A damp-proof course (DPC) is a barrier through the structure by capillary action such as through a
phenomenon known as rising damp. Rising damp is the effect of water rising from the ground into
your property.[2] The damp proof course may be horizontal or vertical.[3] A DPC layer is usually laid
below all masonry walls, regardless if the wall is a load bearing wall or a partition wall.
 A damp-proof membrane (DPM) is a membrane material applied to prevent moisture transmission.
A common example is polyethylene sheeting laid under a concrete slab to prevent the concrete from
gaining moisture through capillary action.[4] A DPM may be used for the DPC.
 Integral damp proofing in concrete involves adding materials to the concrete mix to make the
concrete itself impermeable.[3]
 Surface coating with thin water proof materials for resistance to non-pressurized moisture such as
rain water or a coating of cement sprayed on such as shotcrete which can resist water under
pressure.[3]
 Cavity wall construction, such as rainscreen construction, is where the interior walls are separated
from the exterior walls by a cavity.[3]
 Pressure grouting cracks and joints in masonry materials.[3]

Materials:

Materials widely used for damp proofing include:

 Flexible materials like butyl rubber, hot bitumen, plastic sheets, bituminous felts, sheets of lead,
copper, etc.
 Semi-rigid materials like mastic asphalt
 Rigid materials like impervious bricks, stones, slates, cement mortar or cement concrete painted with
bitumen, etc.
 Stones
 Mortar with waterproofing compounds
 Coarse sand layers under floors
 Continuous plastic sheets under floors

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Damp Proofing & Admixtures

Epoxy
Epoxy is a term used to denote both the basic components and the cured end products of epoxy
resins, as well as a colloquial name for the epoxide functional group. Epoxy resins, also known as
polyepoxides are a class of reactive prepolymers and polymers which contain epoxide groups. Epoxy resins
may be reacted (cross-linked) either with themselves through catalytic homopolymerisation, or with a wide
range of co-reactants including polyfunctional amines, acids (and acid anhydrides), phenols, alcohols and
thiols. These co-reactants are often referred to as hardeners or curatives, and the cross-linking reaction is
commonly referred to as curing.

Epoxy resin
Structure of an epoxy glue derived from a triamine hardener (red) mixed with bisphenol A diglycidyl
ether resin (abbreviated in black). Notice that the material is highly crosslinked and that it contains many
OH groups, which confer adhesive properties.

Epoxy resins are low molecular weight pre-polymers or higher molecular weight polymers which
normally contain at least two epoxide groups. The epoxide group is also sometimes referred to as a glycidyl
or oxirane group.

A wide range of epoxy resins are produced industrially. The raw materials for epoxy resin
production are today largely petroleum derived, although some plant derived sources are now becoming
commercially available (e.g. plant derived glycerol used to make epichlorhydrin).

Epoxy resins are polymeric or semi-polymeric materials, and as such rarely exist as pure substances,
since variable chain length results from the polymerisation reaction used to produce them. High purity
grades can be produced for certain applications, e.g. using a distillation purification process. One downside
of high purity liquid grades is their tendency to form crystalline solids due to their highly regular structure,
which require melting to enable processing.

Bentonite
Bentonite is an absorbent aluminium phyllosilicate, impure clay consisting mostly of
montmorillonite. The absorbent clay was given the name bentonite by Wilbur C. Knight in 1898, after the
Cretaceous Benton Shale near Rock River, Wyoming.[1][2]

The different types of bentonite are each named after the respective dominant element, such as
potassium (K), sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), and aluminium (Al). Experts debate a number of nomenclatorial
problems with the classification of bentonite clays. Bentonite usually forms from weathering of volcanic
ash, most often in the presence of water. However, the term bentonite, as well as a similar clay called
tonstein, has been used to describe clay beds of uncertain origin. For industrial purposes, two main classes
of bentonite exist: sodium and calcium bentonite. In stratigraphy and tephrochronology, completely
devitrified (weathered volcanic glass) ash-fall beds are commonly referred to as K-bentonites when the
dominant clay species is illite. Other common clay species that are sometimes dominant, are
montmorillonite and kaolinite. Kaolinite-dominated clays are commonly referred to as tonsteins and are
typically associated with coal.

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Types

Sodium bentonite[edit]

Sodium bentonite expands when wet, absorbing as much as several times its dry mass in water. Because of
its excellent colloidal properties,[3] it is often used in drilling mud for oil and gas wells and boreholes for
geotechnical and environmental investigations.[2] The property of swelling also makes sodium bentonite
useful as a sealant, since it provides a self-sealing, low permeability barrier. It is used to line the base of
landfills, for example. Various surface modifications to sodium bentonite improve some rheological or
sealing performance in geoenvironmental applications, for example, the addition of polymers. [4]

Calcium bentonite[edit]

Calcium bentonite is a useful adsorbent of ions in solution,[5] as well as fats and oils. It is the main active
ingredient of fuller's earth, probably one of the earliest industrial cleaning agents.[6]

Calcium bentonite may be converted to sodium bentonite (termed sodium beneficiation or sodium
activation) to exhibit many of sodium bentonite's properties by an ion exchange process. In common usage,
this means adding 5–10% of a soluble sodium salt such as sodium carbonate to wet bentonite, mixing well,
and allowing time for the ion exchange to take place and water to remove the exchanged calcium. [citation
needed]
Some properties, such as viscosity and fluid loss of suspensions, of sodium-beneficiated calcium
bentonite (or sodium-activated bentonite) may not be fully equivalent to those of natural sodium
bentonite.[3] For example, residual calcium carbonates (formed if exchanged cations are insufficiently
removed) may result in inferior performance of the bentonite in geosynthetic liners. [7]

Potassium bentonite[edit]

Also known as potash bentonite or K-bentonite, potassium bentonite is a potassium-rich illitic clay formed
from alteration of volcanic ash.[8]

Emulsified Asphalt
Emulsified asphalt is simply a suspension of small asphalt cement globules in water, which is
assisted by an emulsifying agent (such as soap). The emulsifying agent assists by imparting an electrical
charge to the surface of the asphalt cement globules so that they do not coalesce (Roberts et al., 1996 [1]).
Emulsions are used because they effectively reduce asphalt viscosity for lower temperature uses (tack coats,
fog seals, slurry seals, bituminous surface treatments (BST), stabilization material). Emulsions are typically
either anionic (asphalt droplets are negatively charged) or cationic (asphalt particles are positively charged).

Generally, emulsions appear as a thick brown liquid when initially applied (Figure 1). When the
asphalt cement starts to adhere to the surrounding material (aggregate, existing surface, subgrade, etc.) the
color changes from brown to black (Figure 2) and the emulsion is said to have “broken” (Figure 3).

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Following are the materials generally used for damp proofing of structures:

1) Flexible Materials:

The materials, which do not crack and deform their shape when subjected to loading, are called Flexible
Materials

A) Bitumen Mastic (Mastic Asphalt)

 It consists of asphalt or bitumen mixed with fine sand in hot state to form an impervious mass.
 Due to this consistency it can be spread (when hot) to a depth of 2.5cm to 5cm, which sets on
cooling.
 It provides good impervious layer but special care is needed in its laying.

B) Bitumen Felts (Sheets):

 It consists of 6mm thick sheet of bitumen prepared in rolls having width equal to that of brick wall.

C) Hot laid Bitumen:

This material is used on a bedding of cement concrete or mortar.

 This should be applied in two layers at the rate of 1.75kg/m2 of the area.

D) Metal Sheets:

 Metal sheets of Copper, Aluminium, or Lead are used to prevent dampness, but they are costly.
 Sheets of these materials are used throughout the thickness of the wall.
 The sheets of Lead are laid over Lime Mortar and not with Cement.
 Mortar due to the chemical reaction of Cement over the Lead.
 The sheets of metal should be coated with asphalt.

The thickness of the sheets should not be less than 3mm.

2) Rigid Materials:

 The materials, which do not resist transverse stresses and cracks when subjected to sever loading, are
known as Rigid Materials.

A) Rich Concrete

 1.2cm to 4cm thick layer of Rich Concrete (1:2:4) painted with two coats of hot bitumen is used as
horizontal D.P.C.
 It also prevents the moisture penetration by capillary action.
 These layers are laid where the damp is not excessive.

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 B) Mortar:

 2cm thick layer of Rich Cement and Sand Mortar (1:3) is applied on the inner face of external wall.
 This is a vertical D.P.C.
 The surface is than painted with two coats of hot bitumen.

C) Bricks:

 Over burnt or dense bricks in one or two layers can be used

as cheap and effective DPC.
 They are laid in Rich Cement and Sand Mortar (1:3).
 Bricks are rarely used as DPC except in cheap houses.

D) Stones or Slates:

 Two layers of stone slabs or slates laid in Lime, Cement

and Sand Mortar (1:1:6) make a best DPC.
 They can also be laid in Cement Sand Mortar.
 It is used where a good quality of stone is easily and
cheaply available.

MATERIALS USED FOR DAMP PROOFING

Material used for damp proofing

1. Property of the material

An effective damp proofing material should have the following properties
1. It should be impervious.
2. It should be strong and durable and should be capable of withstanding both dead as well as live loads
without damage.
3. It should be dimensionally stable
4. It should be free from deliquescent salts like sulphates chlorides and nitrates
5. The material should be reasonably cheap.
6. The material should be such that it is possible to carry out leak proof joining work.

2. Classification of material
The materials commonly used to check dampness can be divided into the following four
categories
a) Flexible material
Material like bitumen felts (which may be Hessian based or fibre/glass fibre based), plastic sheeting
(polythene sheet) etc
b) Semi rigid materials
Materials like mastic asphalts or combination of materials or layers.
c) Rigid materials
Materials like first class bricks, stones, slates, cement concrete etc
d) Grout materials
Grout consists of cement slurry and acrylic based chemical or polymers.

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 3. Material used for damp proofing
Following are the materials, which are commonly used for damp proofing.

1. Hot bitumen
This is a flexible material and is placed on the bedding of concrete or mortar. This material should
be applied with a minimum thickness of 3 mm.
2. Mastic asphalt
This is a semi rigid material and it forms an excellent impervious layer for damp proofing.
The good asphalt is very durable and completely impervious material. It can withstand only very slight
distortion. It is liable to squeeze out in very hot climates or under very heavy pressure. It should be laid by
experienced men of the specially firms.

3. Bituminous felts
This is a flexible material. It is easy to lay and is available in rolls of normal wall width.
It is laid on a layer of cement mortar. An overlap of 100 mm is provided at the joints and full overlap is
provided at all corners. The laps may be sealed with bituminous if necessary. The bitumen felt can
accommodate slight movement. But it is liable to squeeze out under heavy pressure and it offers little
resistance to sliding. The material is available in rolls and it should be carefully unrolled, especially in cold
weather.
4. Metal sheets
The sheets of lead, copper and aluminium can be used as the membranes of damp proofing.
The lead is a flexible material. The thickness of lead sheets should be such that its weight is not
less than 200 N/m2. The lead can be dressed to complex shapes without fracture and it possesses high
resistance to sliding action. It is impervious to moisture and it does not squeeze out under ordinary pressure.
It resists ordinary corrosion. The surfaces of lead coming in
contact with lime and cement are likely to be corroded and
hence a coating of bitumen paint of high consistency should
protect the metal.
The copper is flexible material. It possesses higher
tensile strength than that of lead. It is impervious to
atmosphere and it does not squeeze out under ordinary
pressure. It possesses high resistance to sliding action. The
external wall, especially of stones, is likely to be stained when
a damp proof course of copper is adopted. The surfaces of
copper coming in contact with mortars are likely to be
affected. But for normal use, the metal does not require any
protective coating.
The aluminium sheets can also be used for damp proofing. But they should be protected with a layer
of bitumen.

5. Combination of sheets and felts

A lead foil is sandwiched between asphalt and bituminous felt. This is known as the lead
core and it is found to be economical, durable and efficient.
6. Stone
The two courses of sound and dense stones such as granite, slates etc laid in cement mortar with
vertical breaking joint can work as an effective damp proofing course. The stones should extend for full
width a damp proofing course. The s stones should extend for full width of wall. Something the stones can
be fixed, as in case of roof surfaces, on the exposed face of wall etc.

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7. Bricks
The dense bricks, absorbing water less than 4.5% of their weight, can be used for damp proofing at
place where the damp is not excessive. The joints are kept open. Such bricks are widely used when damp
proofing course is to inserted in an existing wall.
8. Mortar
The mortar to be used for bedding layers can be prepare by mixing 1 part of cement and 3 part of
sand by volume. A small quantity of lime is added to increase the workability. For plastering work, the
water proof mortar can be prepared. It is prepare by mixing 1 part of cement and 2 part of sand and
pulverized alum at rate of 120 N/m3 of sand. In water to be used, .75 N of soft soap is dissolved per litre of
water and soap water is added to dry mixed. The mortar thus prepared is used to plaster the surfaces.
Alternatively some patented water proofing material such as pudlo, cido, dempro etc may be added to
cement mortar.
9. Cement concrete
A cement concrete layer in proportional 1:2:4 is generally provided at the plinth level to work
as a damp proofing course. The depth of cement concrete layer varies from 40 mm to 150 mm. it stop the
rise of water by capillary action and it found to be effective at places where the damp is not excessive.
10. Plastic sheets
The material is made of black polythene having a thickness of about 0.55 mm to 1 mm with
usual width of wall and it is available in roll lengths of 30 m. this treatment is relatively cheap but it is not
permanent.

Selection of material for D.P.C.

The choice of material to function as an effective damp proof course requires a judicious
selection. It depends upon the climate and atmospheric conditions, nature of structure and the situation
where the D.P.C can be provided. The point to be kept in view while making selection of D.P.C material are
briefly discuss below
1. D.P.C. above ground level
For D.P.C above ground level, with wall thickness generally not exceeding 40 cm,
any of the material can be used which is describe above. Cement concrete is generally adopted for D.P.C at
ground level or plinth level. A 25 to 50 mm thick layer of cement concrete M15 serve the purpose under the
normal condition. In case of damp and humid atmosphere richer mix of concrete can be used. The concrete
is further made dense by water proofing material in its ingredient during the process of mixing. It is usual to
apply two coat of hot bitumen over the dried surface of concrete D.P.C
2. D.P.C material for floor, roofs etc
For greater wall thickness or where D.P.C is laid over large area such as doors and roofs etc
the choice is limited to flexible material which provide lesser number of joints like mastic asphalt, bitumen
felt, felt plastic sheets etc. the felts when used should be properly bonded to the surface with joints properly
lapped and sealed.
3. D.P.C material for differential thermal movements
In parapet walls and other such situation material like mastic asphalts, bitumen felts and metal are
recommended. It important to ensure that the d.p.c material is flexible so as to avoid any damage or
puncture of material due to differential thermal movement between the material of the roof and parapet wall.
4. D.P.C material for cavity wall
In cavity wall construction the cavity over the door or window should be bridge by the
flexible material like bitumen felt, strips of lead etc.
5. Expansion and construction joints
In case of expansion and construction joints, in R.C.C slab and retaining walls in basement it is it is
necessary to provide water bar made out of P.V.C or G.I sheet to seal the joint against passage of sub soil
water into building.
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 Specifications for laying 38 mm thick damp-proof course with cement concrete 1:2:4 at plinth level:
1. The damp-proof course shall cover the full thickness of wall.
2. The base of damp proof course shall be clear, even and free from projection liable to cause damage to the
DPC
3. The side shuttering should be strong and so fixed that it does not get disturbed during compaction and th
concrete slurry does not leak out.
4. The concrete prepared by mixing ingredients in the proportion of 1:2:4 (1 cement : 2 sand : 4 stone ballast
12 mm and down gauge) shall be of workable consistency.
5. The concrete shall be laid and tempered roughly to make a dense mass.
6. After 24 hours of its laying, the concrete layer shall be cured for at least 7 days.
7. After curing is complete, the surface shall be left to dry out to receive the coat of hot bitumen.
8. The dried surface of concrete shall be properly cleaned with brushes and finally with a piece of cloth
soaked in a kerosine oil. Hot bitumen in specified quantity shall be applied uniformly all over the treated
surface of concrete.

Flooring
Flooring is the general term for a permanent covering of a floor, or for the work of installing such a
floor covering. Floor covering is a term to generically describe any finish material applied over a floor
structure to provide a walking surface. Both terms are used interchangeably but floor covering refers more
to loose-laid materials.

Materials almost always classified as floor covering include carpet, area rugs, and resilient flooring
such as linoleum or vinyl flooring. Materials commonly called flooring include wood flooring, ceramic tile,
stone, terrazzo, and various seamless chemical floor coatings.[1]

Subfloor

The floor under the flooring is called the subfloor. This provides the support for the flooring. Special
purpose subfloors like floating floors, raised floors or sprung floors may be laid upon another underlying
subfloor which provides the structural strength.

Flooring materials

Example of stone flooring : white marble slabs covering the floor of the courtyard of the Mosque of Uqba
also known as the Great Mosque of Kairouan, in Tunisia.

The choice of material for floor covering is affected by factors such as cost, endurance, noise insulation,
comfort and cleaning effort. Some types of flooring must not be installed below grade (lower than ground
level), and laminate or hardwood should be avoided where there may be moisture or condensation.

The sub-floor may be finished in a way that makes it usable without any extra work, see:

 Earthen floor adobe or clay floors

 Solid ground floor cement screed or granolithic

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Floor features

There are a number of special features that may be used to ornament a floor or perform a useful service:

 Floor medallions decorative centerpieces of a floor design

 Doormats to help keep a floor clean
 Gratings used to drain water or to rub dirt off shoes
 Tactile or rumble strips to warn of for instance a wheelchair ramp, these would normally also be
distinctively colored or patterned.
 Light strips to show an escape route out, especially on airplanes.
 Moldings or baseboards to decorate the sides of a floor or to cover the edge of a floating floor.
 Anti-slip mats: The addition of either granular or rubberized particles that will allow wheels, shoes,
or feet better traction.

PRECAUTION BEFORE FLOORING

Before constructing the flooring, levelling should be done and marking should be done on wall at 30 cm
above from required level. For this purpose spirit level or mercury level should be used. For better
accuracy, water level used by mason (mistry), should not be used. Due to more length of pipe and
friction inside the pipe, results are not accurate. One should use long wooden patty while making
floors so that floor surface can be flat.
LAYING OF SUBGRADE
In some places concrete is used before flooring. This concrete is known as subgrade. The places where
flooring is done directly on soil, surface should be rammed with the help of wooden hammer, so that the
surface should not be settled down. If concrete is used after 24 hours, cement slurry (2 kg cement per
square meter) should be laid and then flooring is done. If this concreting is done on ground it is known
as base concrete. If it is done on RCC slab, it is known as kusson of size 100 mm and 40 mm
respectively.

10 Different Types of Flooring

Flooring can make a dramatic difference in the appearance of your home. It will also contribute to the resale
value, and it enhances the ambiance of a home. There are a great many choices to consider when deciding
on the flooring for your home. Let’s take a look at ten of the most popular flooring styles from which to
choose for your home.

Marble Flooring

To sprinkle a touch of opulence through your house; you can settle for marble flooring. Marble is a naturally
occurring material found at various places throughout India. Pink, Grey, While; marble is available in a
variety of colors. The material is highly porous and fairly easy to maintain with durability of more than 25
years, when cared for properly. However, it has been noticed that some low quality stones are prone to turn
yellowish over the years. Because of its natural occurrence and limited availability; this one is priced steeply
and hence serves as a sort of 'status symbol' for many Indians.

Laying of marble tiles: Before laying the tiles thin paste of cement slurry (4.5 kg/m2) is spread and tiles
are lid flat over it by gently pressing them into the bedding mortar with the help of wooden mallet till
leveled surface is obtained.
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 The flooring is then cured for seven days, then grinding and polishing is done in the same manner.
These days glazed tiles are commonly used in houses.
Tile Flooring

There is a maddening variety of Tiles available in the market today for you to choose from. Easy to install,
wipe and maintain this one outshines the world of Flooring. The only drawback about tile flooring is that it
is easier to chip and crack. Ceramic, Porcelain, Quarry, Vitrified and many other types of tiles are available
in the market.

Vinyl Flooring

Vinyl Flooring is another versatile option that is available for people who want variety at an efficient cost.
Available in designs that resemble even hardwood and stone; Vinyl is a sort of 'cheap and best' option
available for flooring. Being stain resistant and water resistant these floors serve as 'durable'. However, you
would have to take special care to prevent the floor from scratching. People looking for a warm material
which replicates the appearance of cold flooring materials like hardwood and stone find it to be the ideal
choice. One low point with Vinyl is that it is susceptible to discoloration when it comes in contact with
Rubber.

Granite Flooring

Granite is a naturally occurring stone having a crystalline structure. It provides a sophisticated veneer to any
place it is used at. Available today in a large variety in the Indian market; it is one of the hardest flooring
option. Due to high stain resistance and durability the maintenance effort is minimal except for guarding it
against scratches. The stone keeps cool for most part of the year and hence is a good choice for home
decor/flooring in India.

Concrete Flooring

Concrete is a material that contains cement, rocks, granite chips and other material. Flooring done in
concrete is strong and probably the most durable flooring of the lot. The concrete flooring is largely damage
resistant except slight chipping and scratching. The material does not retain heat and tends to remain cold
throughout. However, moisture can adversely affect a badly done floor with cracks and craters. Today, there
is a wide range of colours and textures in which concrete floors are done in Indian homes.

Laminate Flooring

Dominate the world of flooring by opting for Laminate Flooring for its sheer durability and sturdiness. This
one is averse to stains and water mostly unless in extreme cases and comes with a superior ease of
installation. However, once spoilt you need to completely replace it with new laminates as it cannot be re-
polished or re-done. The diversity in the range of designs makes it a fit option for various home decors in
India. While shopping for Laminate Flooring makes sure you ask for the 'slip-resistant' kind.

Terrazzo Flooring

Terrazzo flooring is made up of chips of Granite and Marble which are well placed in concrete or other such
material. The mosaic-like design of these floors; present you with exclusive designs and patterns. These

93
floors are durable enough to stand the test of time. You might remember them from your grandparent's
home, as they were the norm in the decades gone by. Today they have been re-invented and being stain
resistant, easy-to-mop and offering full ease of maintenance these traditional tiles are coming back in vogue.

Brick Flooring

Due to its cost effectiveness brick flooring is widely popular in most part of India. Known for their
extraordinary strength, fire resistance and extensive durability; bricks are easy to clean. However, bricks are
highly porous and can be chipped easily when manhandled. Keeping up with aesthetics comes easy with
brick flooring which can be laid out in a number of patterns like staggered, basket weave and others. Brick
flooring is the best option if you are looking for a floor which maintains a moderate temperature and gives a
rustic appearance to your home decor.

1. Ceramic Tile

When selecting flooring type that requires waterproofing, ceramic tile is the best alternative. Ceramic tile
could be used as floor tiles, indoors, or as counter tops. Some types of ceramic tiles with high gloss finish
tend to scratch over the time. Ceramic tiles with unglazed finish are the best alternative for outdoor flooring
because of the possibility of standing water. Finishes available are: matte, embossed, glazed and textured
ones for anti-slip. Ceramic tiles made of porcelain color through tile body, are the best to hide
scratches or damages due to their composition. One of its biggest drawbacks is that grout lines could be
very hard and difficult to clean and low quality tiles may chip.

2. Bamboo Flooring

Bamboo flooring is one of the newcomers in the flooring industry. Bamboo is more environmentally
friendly than hardwood floors, and it is actually not wood – it is a grass. Bamboo is very durable, elegant
and versatile. The natural variations of color that is unique to bamboo come from carbonization and are
usually a honey brown color or light tan.

3. Laminate Flooring

Laminate floors are the fastest growing choice in flooring in America today. The laminate flooring received
its fame from Europe and now it is increasingly popular here in the United States. Laminate floors are
cheaper than hardwood and they are easy to maintain. The laminate flooring is virtually resistant to burns,
scratches, chipping and is great for high traffic areas.

4. Ceramic Tiles

The most waterproof type of flooring is ceramic tiles, they can be used as floor tiles or counter tops, indoors
or outdoors. The high gloss finish is usually the most popular for counter tops, although they do tend to
scratch.

For outdoor flooring, the unglazed finish is preferred because of the possibility of standing water. This type
of finish on ceramic tiles is also commonly used in showers. Finishes available are: matte, embossed, glazed
and textured ones for anti-slip.

5. Marble Floors

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Any room in your house will have a clean, rich feel with gorgeous marble flooring. The tiles come in
different sizes, usually around 12×12″ and are easy to install yourself. Marble products are processed
everywhere in the world from metamorphic rock blocks that contain mostly calcium carbonate that are
quarried. Marble tiles make an elegant foyer and come in many colors.

6. Vinyl Sheet

Vinyl floors used to be called linoleum floors and it is available in a variety of colors and styles. Vinyl
flooring is excellent in bathrooms and kitchens. This type of flooring has an ease of installation and is quite
affordable. As an alternative to flooring with ceramic tiles, vinyl floors give the same look as tiles, except
they cost less than ceramic tile. The most common of the vinyl flooring used today are sheet vinyl.

7. Rubber Flooring

Most people think about the floor of a school when they hear rubber flooring. There are several other places
that this type of flooring would be excellent, like recreation rooms, home exercise rooms, playrooms and
children’s bedrooms. There is very little maintenance required, just a routine wash and occasional sweeping
is all it takes. Rubber floors come in many colors as well as cut and inlaid designs, too. They retain their
sheen and color for years.

STEP BY STEP FLOOR INSTALLATION PROCESS

 1. Clean the surface on which the mosaic will be installed

 2. Gently clean the mosaic with a damp cloth ensuring that it’s free of dust and dirt
 3. Apply a stone sealer to the mosaic to protect the stone during the installation. This coating should
be left to dry for at least 4 hours to ensure that the sealer is fully absorbed by the marble.
 4. Take the plastic protection in the backing of the mosaic. As the mosaic will be placed upside
down make sure that you protect the front mosaic by placing it over a soft cloth or plastic to prevent
it from scratching.
 5. Gently buff-out the backing of the mosaic to eliminate some of the excess dry glue and ensure that
the mesh is exposed as much as possible. This buffing may be made with a metal brush OR
sandpaper. DO NOT over buff the surface or you will run the risk of breaking the mesh.
 6. Clean the Debris with a vacuum cleaner or a broom and inspect.
 7. Prepare and apply the thinset on the surface over which you wish to install your mosaic. Apply at
least 1/8 of thinset and mark 2mm deep canals across the surface or as recommended by the thinset
manufacturer.
 8. Set the mosaic in place over the thinset, lightly applying uniform pressure over it, ensuring that
the thinset penetrates through the mesh and between some of the tesserae of your mosaic.
 9. Continually clean the mosaic surface with a wet sponge ensuring that the thinset does not
excessively accumulate in any area over the mosaic.
 10. Allow the recommended thinset manufacturer time to dry. Usually 24 hours.
 11. Prepare a non-sanded grouting mix. Please use the minimum grouting thickness mix available,
usually it’s made for grouting less than 1/8”.
 12. Grout the surface of the marble mosaic like you would grout any other tile.

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Pebbles & Stones

Pebble and Stone Mosaic tile bring the beauty of nature indoors. The natural tones and unique shape of each
floor tile can provide character to a shower or powder room floor. Your one-of-a-kind floor will be the new
focal point of the room.

Floor Finishes and how to choose them

When choosing a floor finish, keep in mind the following:

 How slippery or smooth it is; do not use very smooth finishes in bathrooms and balconies
 How abrasion resistant it is - do not use soft, quick wearing finishes in areas with heavy foot
traffic. Marble and wood have low abrasion resistance, for example, and granite and cement tiles
have high abrasion resistance.
 Whether it is chemically neutral - some finishes react with acids, and should not be used in kitchens
 The climate: wood and carpets are perceived to be warm, so use them in cold climates, and stone
and tile are perceived to be cool, so use them in warm climates - unless you have underfloor heating
or cooling, which changes things. A detailed description of each of the most important floor finishes
follows.

Stone

Stone is a great floor finish and is affordable in many countries; Italy and India are both known for the
variety and quality of stone they produce. There is a great advantage to stone that is almost unique to floor
finishes: you can polish it, and thus make it look and feel like new, at any time in its life.

Granite is a volcanic rock (it was originally lava, that cooled to form solid rock) that has the following
properties:

 It is very hard, strong, and abrasion resistant

 It is resistant to acids
 It can be polished to a mirror-like smoothness

These properties make it a great choice as a floor or countertop finish. It can also be used to clad walls.
However it is available mainly in dark colours - black, red, grey - with the possible exception of Kashmir
White Granite. This darkness in colour does tend to limit its use in certain areas.

Its surface can also be worked to produce a variety of textures other than smooth: granite can be flamed,
water blasted, sand blasted, bush hammered, or tumbled. These rough finishes are mostly used outdoors, on
pathways. The famous cobblestones of Europe are granite, for instance.

Marble is a metamorphic rock (meaning that it was made by the intense pressures and heat deep within the
earth), and has the following properties:

 Most marbles are soft, and not very abrasion resistant

 They are not resistant to acids
 They can be polished to a mirror finish
 It is translucent - light can pass through it to the extent of a few millimeters

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Thus, marbles should not be used in high-traffic areas such as the entryways or staircases of public buildings
- granite would be much better in those cases. Since it is not acid resistant, you should not use Marble under
urinals (urine is acidic), and in kitchens, where lemon juice and other acids are present. But marble is prized
for the beauty and richness of its finish; it also feels very special underfoot. It is available in a wide variety
of colors, mainly light colors.

Sandstone is a sedimentary rock (rock formed by ancient rivers that slowly deposited material on their beds
that built up layer by layer over millions of years). It has the following properties:

 It is abrasion resistant, but not always strong, as it is formed in layers.

 It is usually highly resistant to acids
 It has a rough finish, and cannot be mirror-polished, as it consists of grains

These properties mean that it is good for decks and external areas because of its anti-slip properties. Since
sandstone looks and feels very different from granite and marble, it has become fashionable to use these in
boutique stores. Steve Jobs famously saw a bluish-grey sandstone on a trip to Florence, and many years later
insisted that that very stone be used in all apple stores because of its 'integrity'. The stone is quarried from an
area reserved for apple, cut into tiles, and every piece graded individually for colour tone by master
craftsmen. The tiles are then arranged so that pieces with similar colour are placed together, which makes
them seem more uniform to the eye. It is obtained from this quarry, if you're interested.
Texture Finish
Factory-mixed, 100% acrylic polymer finish coat. Available in Senergy’s standard colors and custom colors.
TEXTURE Finish can achieve a wide variety of free-formed, textured appearances, including stipple and
skip-trowel.

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 UNIT 5
GLASS
Composition of glass, brief study on manufacture, treatment, properties and uses of glass. Types of glass -
float glass, cast glass, glass blocks, foamed glass. Decorative glass, solar control, toughened glass, wired
glass, laminated glass, fire-resistant glass, glass blocks, structural glass - properties and application in
building industry, glazing and energy conservation measures.

GLASS

In science, the term glass is often defined in a broader sense, encompassing every solid that
possesses a non-crystalline (i.e. amorphous) atomic-scale structure and that exhibits a glass transition when
heated towards the liquid state.

Thus, porcelains and many polymer thermoplastics familiar from everyday use are physically glasses
also. These sorts of glasses can be made of quite different kinds of materials: metallic alloys, ionic melts,
aqueous solutions, molecular liquids, and polymers. For many applications (bottles, eyewear) polymer
glasses (acrylic glass, polycarbonate, polyethylene terephthalate) are a lighter alternative to traditional silica
glasses.

Ingredients, Properties and Applications:

The following is a list of the more common types of silicate glasses, and their ingredients, properties, and
applications:

1. Fused quartz, also called fused silica glass, vitreous silica glass, is silica (SiO2) in vitreous or glass
form (i.e., its molecules are disordered and random, without crystalline structure). It has very low
thermal expansion, is very hard, and resists high temperatures (1000–1500 °C).

It is also the most resistant against weathering (caused in other glasses by alkali ions leaching
out of the glass, while staining it). Fused quartz is used for high temperature applications such as
furnace tubes, lighting tubes, melting crucibles, etc.

2. Soda-lime-silica glass, window glass: silica 72% + sodium oxide (Na2O) 14.2% + lime (CaO)
10.0% + magnesia (MgO) 2.5% + alumina (Al2O3) 0.6%. Is transparent, easily formed and most
suitable for window glass (see flat glass). It has a high thermal expansion and poor resistance to heat
(500–600 °C). It is used for windows, some low temperature incandescent light bulbs, and
tableware.

Container glass is a soda-lime glass that is a slight variation on flat glass, which uses more
alumina and calcium, and less sodium and magnesium which are more water-soluble. This makes it
less susceptible to water erosion.

3. Sodium borosilicate glass, Pyrex: silica 81% + boric oxide (B2O3) 12% + soda (Na2O) 4.5% +
alumina (Al2O3) 2.0%. Stands heat expansion much better than window glass. Used for chemical
glassware, cooking glass, car head lamps, etc. Borosilicate glasses (e.g. Pyrex) have as main
constituents silica and boron oxide.

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 4. Lead-oxide glass, crystal glass: silica 59% + lead oxide (PbO) 25% + potassium oxide (K2O) 12%
+ soda (Na2O) 2.0% + zinc oxide (ZnO) 1.5% + alumina 0.4%. Because of its high density (resulting
in a high electron density) it has a high refractive index, making the look of glassware more brilliant
(called "crystal", though of course it is a glass and not a crystal). It also has a high elasticity, making
glassware 'ring'. It is also more workable in the factory, but cannot stand heating very well.
5. Aluminosilicate glass: silica 57% + alumina 16% + lime 10% + magnesia 7.0% + barium oxide
(BaO) 6.0% + boric oxide (B2O3) 4.0%. Extensively used for fiberglass, used for making glass-
reinforced plastics (boats, fishing rods, etc.) and for halogen bulb glass.
6. Oxide glass: alumina 90% + germanium oxide (GeO2) 10%. Extremely clear glass, used for fiber-
optic waveguides in communication networks. Light loses only 5% of its intensity through 1 km of
glass fiber.[6] Most optical fiber is based on silica, as are all the glasses above.

Another common glass ingredient is crushed alkali glass or "cullet" ready for recycled glass. The
recycled glass saves on raw materials and energy. Impurities in the cullet can lead to product and equipment
failure. Fining agents such as sodium sulfate, sodium chloride, or antimony oxide may be added to reduce
the number of air bubbles in the glass mixture.[2] Glass batch calculation is the method by which the correct
raw material mixture is determined to achieve the desired glass composition.

Glass Manufacturing Process

The glass – float glass as we know - is manufactured by the PPG process. This process was invented by Sir
Alistair Pilkington in 1952 and is the most popular and widely used process in manufacturing architectural
glass in the world today.

It consists of the following steps:

Stage 1- Melting & Refining:

Fine grained ingredients closely controlled for quality, are mixed to make a batch, which flows into the
furnace, which is heated up to 1500 degree Celsius.

The raw materials that go into the manufacturing of clear float glass are:

 SiO2 – Silica Sand

 Na2O – Sodium Oxide from Soda Ash
 CaO – Calcium oxide from Limestone / Dolomite
 MgO – Dolomite
 Al2O3 – Feldspar

The above raw materials primarily mixed in batch helps to make clear glass. If certain metal oxides are
mixed to this batch they impart colors to the glass giving it a body tint.

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For e.g.

 NiO & CoO – to give grey tinted glasses (Oxides of Nickel & Cobalt)
 SeO – to give Bronze tinted glasses (oxide of Selenium)
 Fe2O3 – To give Green tinted glasses (oxides of iron which at times is also present as impurity in
Silica Sand)
 CoO – To give blue tinted glass (oxides of Cobalt)

Apart from the above basic raw material, broken glass aka cullet, is added to the mixture to the tune of
nearly 25% ~ 30% which acts primarily as flux. The flux in a batch helps in reducing the melting point of
the batch thus reducing the energy consumed to carry out the process.

Stage 2 - Float Bath:

Glass from the furnace gently flows over the refractory spout on to the mirror-like surface of molten tin,
starting at 1100 deg Celsius and leaving the float bath as solid ribbon at 600 deg Celsius.

Stage 3 - Coating (for making reflective glasses):

Coatings that make profound changes in optical properties can be applied by advanced high temperature
technology to the cooling ribbon of glass. Online Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) is the most
significant advance in the float process since it was invented. CVD can be used to lay down a variety of
coatings, a few microns thick, for reflect visible and infra-red radiance for instance. Multiple coatings can
be deposited in the few seconds available as the glass flows beneath the coater (e.g. Sunergy)

Stage 4 - Annealing:

Despite the tranquillity with which the glass is formed, considerable stresses are developed in the ribbon as
the glass cools. The glass is made to move through the annealing lehr where such internal stresses are
removed, as the glass is cooled gradually, to make the glass more prone to cutting.

Stage 5 - Inspection:

To ensure the highest quality inspection takes place at every stage. Occasionally a bubble that is not
removed during refining, a sand grain that refuses to melt or a tremor in the tin puts ripples in the glass
ribbon. Automated online inspection does two things. It reveals process faults upstream that can be
corrected. And it enables computers downstream to steer round the flaws. Inspection technology now allows
100 million inspections per second to be made across the ribbon, locating flaws the unaided eye would be
unable to see.

Stage 6 - Cutting to Order:

Diamond steels trim off selvedge – stressed edges- and cut ribbon to size dictated by the computer. Glass is
finally sold only in square meters.

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Glass Manufacturing Process
From Sand To Sophistication

Raw Materials

Making glass requires the correct recipe for a perfect result. Glass starts its life as a range of raw
materials combined in a very specific ratio. The recipe calls for:

 sand
 soda ash
 limestone and
 other ingredients, such as iron and carbon which provide colour

Another important ingredient in the glass manufacturing

process is cullet or recovered glass, obtained from recycling
centres and bottle banks. Cullet usage can vary quite
considerably, with as much as 40% utilization per batch. Its
inclusion in production is most important, as it means that
less virgin raw materials are used. It also melts at a lower
temperature, enabling us to reduce emissions and save
energy.

Consol has invested an estimated R240 million in

equipment and cullet processing plants, to facilitate the glass recycling process.

Batching

Raw materials are stored in large silos, from where they are measured and delivered to batch mixers,
according to pre-programmed recipes. Consol's batch houses are among the most modern in the world and
use leading-edge technology to ensure that the mixed material or "batches" delivered to our furnaces meet
our stringent quality standards.

Melting

The batch is continuously fed into the furnace, which is the beginning of what is known in the glass
industry as the "hot end". And hot it is indeed: the temperature of a furnace is approximately 1 500° C.
101
Operating 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, it is no surprise that a furnace has a limited lifespan, lasting
between 8 to 10 years, before requiring a rebuild.

It takes some 24 hours for a batch of raw materials to be converted into molten glass. Red-hot liquid
glass is continuously drawn from the furnace through a submerged throat.

From the furnace, the molten glass makes its way to the refiner area, where it is cooled to approximately 1
200° C. Maintaining the correct temperature is extremely important, not just to keep the flow of the molten
glass correct, but also because it influences the quality of the end product.

From the refiner, the forehearths deliver glass to the individual bottle-making machines.

Having been conditioned for bottle-making by

careful temperature control in the refiner and forehearths,
the molten glass enters the feeder and flows through
cavities in an orifice plate. Streams of glass are cut into
gobs of a predetermined weight – exactly as much as is
needed to make a single bottle. These gobs are then
guided into the individual moulds of the bottle-making
equipment, as part of a process known as forming

Bottles are formed in two moulding stages:

In the first stage the gob of glass falls into a blank mould to produce a parison. The opening of the bottle is
moulded into its finished shape during this stage, but the body of the container is initially much smaller than
its final size.

There are two primary methods of making a glass container. The first, known as the Blow-Blow process, is
used for narrow-neck containers. In this process, compressed air is blown into the molten gob to create a
cavity while it is in the blank mould and this results in a hollow and partly formed container. This is then
transferred to the second moulding stage. Compressed air is used again in the second stage to blow mould
the final shape.

The second process, known as the Press-Blow method, is used for jars and tapered narrow-neck containers.
Here, a metal plunger instead of air is used to press a cavity into the gob in the blank mould before
compressed air is used to form the container in the blow mould.

The newly formed bottle is then removed from the mould and transferred by conveyer to the annealing oven
or lehr. The external surface of the bottle is first coated with a thin layer of tin oxide to strengthen it. In the
lehr it is cooled from 600° C to 100° C in a controlled manner. Doing so prevents uneven cooling, relieves
stresses within the bottle and ensures that it is stable and safe to handle. This process takes anything
between 30 minutes and 2 hours. When the bottle exits the lehr it is cooled and this is referred to as the
"cold end" of the plant.

Before leaving the annealing lehr, the bottles external surface is coated with polyethylene wax to protect the
surface of the glass and prevent scuffing between bottles.

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Inspection

All glass containers manufactured by Consol undergo multiple tests and inspections to ensure that they
comply with strict quality standards.

From here the bottles undergo further visual inspection by sophisticated, high-resolution camera equipment,
as well as trained specialists. Rejected containers are sent to the recycling operation to be turned into cullet
and re-enter the production process.

At Consol we pride ourselves on our commitment to manufacturing excellence, quality and the safety of our
employees, customers and consumers. We are committed to achieving and maintaining compliance across
all relevant standard specifications, and undergo regular audits accordingly.

OHAS 18001: 2007 – an international occupational health and safety management system specification
ISO 14001: 2004 – an environmental management system
ISO 9001: 2008 – recognised standard for quality management
HACCP Sans 10030 (2007)
FSSCISO 22 000 - Food Safety Certification

We offer a range of added value decorative solutions, which further enhance the creativity of the bottle
making process. Some of these added service offerings include forehearth coloring, embossing, debossing,
coating, sleeving, decorating and labeling.

Dispatching

With the manufacturing process completed, the bottles are individually coded with production date and
time, packed on pallets and covered with protective shrink-wrapping before being dispatched to our
customers.

Through various retail channels, the containers we manufacture make their way into the homes and hands of
consumers, who continue to enjoy the benefits of consuming products in glass. They are, in turn,
encouraged to reuse or recycle glass packaging, and to make use of glass collection points and bottle banks.

This recycled glass makes its way back to Consol's factories, where it is turned into cullet and re-enters the
manufacturing process; testimony indeed to its infinite closed loop recyclability. We remain committed to
driving glass recycling and take responsibility for purchasing all glass collected from post-consumer waste,
to ensure a sustainable future for our planet.

The glass manufacturing process combines science and the passion and skill of our staff, who remain
dedicated to producing glass packaging of the highest quality, for the food, beverage, pharmaceutical,
cosmetics and tableware industries.

With factories nationally and a production rate of close to one million tonnes of glass annually, Consol is
well placed to maintain its leadership position and fulfill our vision to be the supplier and pack of choice
across Africa.

The versatility and unquestionable style of glass makes it the packaging of choice for consumers. And,
being 100% impermeable, glass is also the healthy choice, preserving both the taste and the natural
goodness of its contents.
103
Step-by-step Manufacturing of Float Glass
Watch the magic of this science-based process begins to unfold, in a series of stages on a float line that may
be nearly half a kilometre long. Raw materials enter at one end. From the other, plates of glass emerge, cut
precisely to specification, at rates as high as 6,000 tonnes a week. In between lie six high integrated stages...

Stage 1: Melting and refining

Fine-grained ingredients, closely controlled for quality, are mixed to make batch, which flows as a blanket
on to molten glass at 1,500 oC in the melter.

Float makes glass of near optical quality. Several processes – melting, refining, homogenising – take place
simultaneously in the 2,000 tonnes of molten glass in the furnace. They occur in separate zones in a
complex glass flow driven by high temperatures. It adds up to a continuous melting process, lasting as long
as 50 hours, that delivers glass at 1,100oC, free from inclusions and bubbles, smoothly and continuously to
the float bath. The melting process is key to glass quality; and compositions can be modified to change the
properties of the finished product.

Stage 2: Float bath

Glass from the melter flows gently over a refractory spout on to the mirror-like surface of molten tin,
starting at 1,100oC and leaving the float bath as a solid ribbon at 600oC.

The principle of float glass is unchanged from the 1950s. But the product has changed dramatically: from a
single equilibrium thickness of 6.8mm to a range from sub-millimetre to 25mm; from a ribbon frequently
marred by inclusions, bubbles and striations to almost optical perfection. Float delivers what is known as
fire finish, the lustre of new chinaware.

Stage 3: Coating

Coatings that make profound changes in optical properties can be applied by advanced high temperature
technology to the cooling ribbon of glass.

On-line chemical vapour deposition (CVD) of coatings is the most significant advance in the float process
since it was invented. CVD can be used to lay down a variety of coatings, less than a micron thick, to reflect
visible and infrared wavelengths, for instance. Multiple coatings can be deposited in the few seconds
available as the glass ribbon flows beneath the coaters. Further development of the CVD process may well
replace changes in composition as the principal way of varying the optical properties of float glass.

Stage 4: Annealing

Despite the tranquillity with which float glass is formed, considerable stresses are developed in the ribbon as
it cools.

Too much stress and the glass will break beneath the cutter. To relieve these stresses, the ribbon undergoes
heat-treatment in a long furnace known as a lehr. Temperatures are closely controlled both along and across
the ribbon. Pilkington has developed technology which automatically feeds back stress levels in the glass to
control the temperatures in the lehr.

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Stage 5: Inspection

The float process is renowned for making perfectly flat, flaw-free glass. But to ensure the highest quality,
inspection takes place at every stage.

Occasionally a bubble is not removed during refining, a sand grain refuses to melt, a tremor in the tin puts
ripples into the glass ribbon. Automated on-line inspection does two things. It reveals process faults
upstream that can be corrected. And it enables computers downstream to steer cutters round flaws. Flaws
imply wastage; while customers press constantly for greater perfection. Inspection technology now allows
more than 100 million measurements a second to be made across the ribbon, locating flaws the unaided eye
would be unable to see. The data drives ‘intelligent’ cutters, further improving product quality to the
customer.

Stage 6: Cutting to order

Diamond wheels trim off selvedge - stressed edges - and cut the ribbon to size dictated by computer.

Float glass is sold by the square metre. Computers translate customers’ requirements into patterns of cuts
designed to minimise wastage. Increasingly, electronic systems integrate the operation of manufacturing
plants with the order book.

Manufacture of glass
The manufacture of glass involves the following steps:

1. Limestone, sand and soda ash are mixed and poured into a tank furnace. Tank furnace looks like a small
swimming pool. It is very hot (about 17000C). It is shallow at one end and deep at the other.

2. The raw material moves slowly towards the deeper end. Silica melts at a very high temperature. In order
to lower its melting point, soda ash is added. Thus, energy is saved and a low cost is incurred in the glass-
making process.

3. Due to the presence of limestone, glass becomes insoluble in water.

4. As the raw material melts, a clear jelly-like substance is formed; this takes about a week’s time.

5. During this time bubbles of CO2 gas escape and some of the raw material slowly changes into a mixture
of silicates.

6. The following reactions take place inside the furnace.

7. The clear jelly-like substance on cooling sets to form glass. This is known as soda-lime glass.

105
Main Types of Glass
Today, flat glass comes in many highly specialised forms intended for different products and applications.
Flat glass produced by way of the float process is often further processed (see below) to give it certain
qualities or specificities. In this way, the industry can meet the various requirements and needs of the
construction, automotive and solar energy industries:

 Annealed glass
 Toughened glass
 Laminated glass
 Coated glass
 Mirrored glass
 Patterned glass
 Extra clear glass

Annealed glass

Annealed glass is the basic flat glass product that is the first result of the float process. It is common glass
that tends to break into large, jagged shards. It is used in some end products and often in double-glazed
windows. It is also the starting material used to produce more advanced products through further processing
such as laminating, toughening, coating, etc.

Toughened glass

Toughened glass is treated to be far more resistant to breakage than simple annealed glass and to break in a
more predictable way when it does break, thus providing a major safety advantage in almost all of its
applications.

Toughened glass is made from annealed glass treated with a thermal tempering process. A sheet of annealed
glass is heated to above its "annealing point" of 600°C; its surfaces are then rapidly cooled while the inner
portion of the glass remains hotter. The different cooling rates between the surface and the inside of the
glass produces different physical properties, resulting in compressive stresses in the surface balanced by
tensile stresses in the body of the glass.

Toughened glass has extremely broad applications in products for both buildings and, automobiles and
transport, as well as in other areas. Car windshields and windows, glass portions of building facades, glass
sliding doors and partitions in houses and offices, glass furniture such as table tops, and many other
products typically use toughened glass. Products made from toughened glass often also incorporate other
technologies, especially in the building and automotive and transport sectors.

Laminated glass

Laminated glass is made of two or more layers of glass with one or more "interlayers" of polymeric material
bonded between the glass layers.

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Laminated glass is produced using one of two methods:

1. Poly Vinyl Butyral (PVB) laminated glass is produced using heat and pressure to sandwich a thin
layer of PVB between layers of glass. On occasion, other polymers such as Ethyl Vinyl Acetate
(EVA) or Polyurethane (PU) are used. This is the most common method.
2. For special applications, Cast in Place (CIP) laminated glass is made by pouring a resin into the
space between two sheets of glass that are held parallel and very close to each other.

Laminated glass offers many advantages. Safety and security are the best known of these, so rather than
shattering on impact, laminated glass is held together by the interlayer. This reduces the safety hazard
associated with shattered glass fragments, as well as, to some degree, the security risks associated with easy
penetration. But the interlayer also provides a way to apply several other technologies and benefits, such as
colouring, sound dampening, resistance to fire, ultraviolet filtering and other technologies that can be
embedded in or with the interlayer.

Laminated glass is used extensively in building and housing products and in the automotive and transport
industries. Most building facades and most car windscreens, for example, are made with laminated glass,
usually with other technologies also incorporated.

Coated

Surface coatings can be applied to glass to modify its appearance and give it many of the advanced
characteristics and functions available in today's flat glass products, such as low maintenance, special
reflection/transmission/absorption properties, scratch resistance, corrosion resistance, etc.

Coatings are usually applied by controlled exposure of the glass surface to vapours, which bind to the glass
forming a permanent coating. The coating process can be applied while the glass is still in the float line with
the glass still warm, producing what is known as "hard-coated" glass.

Alternatively, in the "off-line" or "vacuum" coating process, the vapour is applied to the cold glass surface
in a vacuum vessel.

Float Glass
Float glass is manufactured using a melt process whereby recycled glass, silica sand, lime, potash and soda
are melted in a furnace and floated onto a bed of molten tin. The molten mass solidifies slowly while
flowing over the bed of molten tin, after which it is annealed to remove stresses induced during the cooling
process. Annealing also allows the glass to reach a more stable state resulting in a higher density and higher
refractive index.

Tinted float glasses are made by adding colouring agents during the melt process. Common colours include
grey, green, bronze and blue. While tinting may provide aesthetic alternatives to clear glass, tinted glasses
also provide materials with different properties including heat and light transmission (and/or reflectance),
ultraviolet transmission and insulation properties.

Reflective glasses are also available for applications where light transmittance is an important design factor.
These glasses have a metallic coating applied during manufacture

Typical thicknesses range from 2mm to 19mm for commercial applications.

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Key Properties
• High degree of light transmission

• Ability to be produced in a range of colours

• Ability to be produced in a range of opacities

• Good chmical inertness

• Attacked by hydrofluoric (HF) acid

Types of glass
There are nine types of glass according to the minor additions and variations in the ingredients used and
according to the methods of manufacturing. The different types of glasses are different in their properties
and uses.

1. Soda glass or soda-lime glass:

It is the most common variety of glass. It is prepared by heating sodium carbonate and silica. It is used for
making windowpanes, tableware, bottles and bulbs.

2. Coloured glass:

Small amounts of metallic oxides are mixed with the hot molten mixture of sand, sodium carbonate and
limestone. The desired colour determines the choice of the metallic oxide to be added, as different metallic
oxides give different colours to the glass.

Coloured glass is much in demand. It is used for decorating walls, making sunglasses, and for making light
signals for automobiles, trains and aeroplanes.

3. Plate glass:

Plate glass is thicker than ordinary glass. It has a very smooth surface. It is made by floating a layer of
molten glass over a layer of molten tin. It is used in shop windows and doors.

4. Safety glass:

It can also be called shatterproof glass. It is made by placing a sheet of plastic such as celluloid between
sheets of glass. The special quality of this glass is that in case of breakage the broken pieces stick to the
plastic and do not fly off. You must have noticed a broken window-pane of a bus or a car still in its place. It
is used in automobiles. It is also used for making bulletproof screens.

5. Laminated glass:

It can also be called bulletproof glass. Several layers of safety glass are bound together with a transparent
adhesive. The larger the number of layers used the greater is the strength of the glass. It is stronger than
safety glass. It is used in aeroplanes and windshields of cars.
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Float Glass

The float glass is a transparent, colorless or colored glass, with uniform thickness and homogeneous mass. It
is the ideal glass for application that demand perfect visibility, as it does not present optical distortion and
has high light transmission.
It constitutes the raw material for the processing of all the other flat glasses, being applied to different
segments and it can be: laminated, tempered glass, curved, screen-printed glass and used in double
glazing. It is used in automotive industry, of household appliances, civil construction, furniture and
decoration.

Laminated Glass
The laminated glass is composed by two glass plates intercalated by a plastic skin of great resistance (PVB -
polyvinyl butyral). The laminated glass is the appropriate product for several applications, as cover, facades,
balconies, guardrail, doors, windows, partitions, showcase, floorings and others, as in case it breaks, the
shards are kept in the PVB skin, avoiding injuries and keeping the area closed until the glass replacement is
done. Besides that, the laminated glass has other benefits, as the reduction of external noise entrance (when
compared to the common glasses) and the protection against UV (Ultraviolet) rays, as the PVB stops 99.6%
of the solar UV (Ultraviolet) rays, protecting the people from damage caused by this type of ray, avoiding
the fading and aging of the furniture, curtains, carpets and other objects.

Have you ever imagine being in a noisy avenue and when closing the window there is no more noise? This
can be possible with the acoustic glasses that impede the noise from passing from one environment to the
other. This sound comfort can be obtained through two solutions: acoustic laminated glass and the double
glass (or insulated).

Acoustic laminated glass

It is a glass laminated with a special PVB (acoustic) and because of this it works as an excellent acoustic
insulator. It is an innovative product that ensures a powerful protection against noises.

Double glass or insulated

It is the set of two glasses separated by an air or gas layer, conferring a reduction in the sound propagation,
in the entrance of heat and endless decorative combinations. Largely used in buildings of European
countries the double glass is present in our daily life, as for instance, in freezers and refrigerators doors
(with the thermal insulation function). The double glazing can be composed by any type of glass, improving
the thermal and acoustic performance. Besides that, it can be equipped with internal blinds that give the set a
differentiated aesthetic effect.

Special Glasses

With the technological advance in the creation of micro layers, several special types of glasses have come
up. Actually, theses glasses have layers of diverse type of materials, these layers of microscopic dimension
that offer several differentiated characteristics to the glass. Types of special glasses: Solar control, self-
cleaning, low reflection and low-emissivity.

Sun protection glass

Also known as reflective glass or solar control, it offers a contemporary architectonic solution, being
indicated for places where there is great incidence of solar rays, like facade of buildings, windows, doors,
balconies and cover, as it provides a better thermal comfort. They have the function to reduce the entrance
of heat inside the environment, besides producing a control in the entrance of light for the interior of the
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buildings. From the solar radiation that passes through the glazing, part is automatically reflected for the
external environment, and part is absorbed by the glass, minimizing the heat quantity that effectively
reaches the internal environment. With this, the internal temperature is more pleasant and you reduce the
electric energy consumption with the air-conditioning and the artificial light. Ideal products within the
sustainable concept, because it provides condition to obtain certifications such as LEED, Aqua and others.

Self-cleaning glass
Self-cleaning glasses are produced from the float glass that receives one more layer in its manufacturing
process. This layer uses the strength of the UV (Ultraviolet) rays and from the rain water to fight the dirty
and waste that accumulate in the exterior and thus, it keeps the surface of the glass clean. This process has
an extremely strong sustainable character because, besides reducing the water consumption, as its cleaning
is less frequent and it uses the rain water for this, it reduces the consumption of detergents, that in many
times, affect the ecosystem. The self-cleaning glass is visual identical to the normal glasses, it ensures a
clear vision in all the situations, even on rainy days; and the self-cleaning layer is integrated to the glass and
because of this has a high level of durability, and do not wear out over the time. It shall be applied always in
the external part of the buildings like facades, covers, windows, doors, balconies and other in highly
polluted areas.

Low reflection glass

It is an extra clear float glass (glasses with low concentration of iron in its composition and because of this
are extremely clear and not green) that receives a layer capable to reduce the reflection in 5 times (compared
to the colorless float glass). Ideal for showcases, showrooms, museums, authorized dealers, displays and
other types of applications that need to avoid the discomfort of the light reflection in the glass, which many
times forces the person to create a shadow in front to observe the object that is behind the glass.

Low-emissivity glass
It is a glass produced in off-line process and that presents low emissivity, that is, it does not enables the heat
exchange between the internal and external environment. When used as a double glass, it thermally insulates
up to 5 times more than a transparent monolithic glass. It has the appearance of a colorless float glass,
reducing the entrance of heat or cold. Used in the commercial refrigerating market and on civil construction,
in facades and covers.

Colored Glass

There are two types of colored glasses: painted and screen-printed.

Painted glass
Produced from a float glass, it receives in the production line a special painting, which gives to it, besides
the colored and shiny finishing, greater resistance. Its versatility makes it possible to use in furniture,
residences, offices, hotels, stores and museums.

Screen-printed glass
In the process of screen printing the application of a vitrifying paint (ceramic glaze) is done in the ordinary
glass, colorless or colored in mass. Following it, this glass passes through a hardening furnace where the
ceramic pigments become part of it. At the end of the process, a tempered glass is obtained with extremely
resistant texture, including to the friction with sharp metals.

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Types of glass
Float Glass: Float glass is also called soda lime glass or clear glass. This is produced by annealing the
molten glass and is clear and flat. Its modulus of rupture is 5000-6000 psi. Stronger than Rocky Balboa
taking punches from 2000 psi punches man Ivan Drago. It is available in standard thickness ranging from
2mm to 20mm. and has weight range in 6-26kg/m2. It has too much transparency and can cause glare. It is
used in making canopies, shop fronts, glass blocks, railing partitions, etc.

Tinted Glass: Certain additions to the glass batch mix can add color to the clear glass without compromising
its strength. Iron oxide is added to give glass a green tint; sulphar in different concentrations can make the
glass yellow, red or black. Copper sulphate can turn it blue. Etc.

Toughened Glass This type of glass is tempered, may have distortions and low visibility but it breaks into
small dice-like pieces at modulus of rupture of 3600 psi. Hence it is used in making fire resistant doors etc.
They are available in same weight and thickness range as float glass.

Laminated Glass: This type of glass is made by sandwiching glass panels within a protective layer. It is
heavier than normal glass and may cause optical distortions as well. It is tough and protects from UV
radiation (99%) and insulates sound by 50%. Used in glass facades, aquariums, bridges, staircases, floor
slabs, etc.

Shatterproof glass: By adding a polyvinyl butyral layer, shatter proof glass is made. This type of glass does
not from sharp edged pieces even when broken. Used in skylight, window, flooring, etc

Extra clean glass: This type of glass is hydrophilic i.e. The water moves over them without leaving any
marks and photocatylitic i.e. they are covered with Nanoparticles that attack and break dirt making it easier
to clean and maintain.

Double Glazed Units: These are made by providing air gap between two glass panes in order to reduce the
heat loss and gain. Normal glass can cause immense amount of heat gain and upto 30%of loss of heat of air
conditioning energy. Green, energy efficient glass can reduce this impact.

Chromatic glass: This type of glass can control daylight and transparency effectively. These glass are
available in three forms- photochromatic (light sensitive lamination on glass), thermochromatic (heat
sensitive lamination on glass) and electrochromatic (light sensitive glass the transparency of which can be
controlled by electricity switch.) It can be used in meeting rooms and ICUs

Glass wool: Glass wool is a thermal insulation that consists of intertwined and flexible glass fibers, which
causes it to "package" air, and consequently make good insulating materials. Glass wool can be used as filler
or insulators in buildings, also for soundproofing.

Glass blocks: Hollow glass wall blocks are manufactured as two separate halves and, while the glass is still
molten, the two pieces are pressed together and annealed. The resulting glass blocks will have a partial
vacuum at the hollow center. Glass bricks provide visual obscuration while admitting light.

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Extra
Mirrored glass

To produce mirrored glass, a metal coating is applied to one side of the glass. The coating is generally
made of silver, aluminium, gold or chrome. For simple mirrored glass, a fully reflective metal coating is
applied and then sealed with a protective layer. To produce "one-way" mirrors, a much thinner metal
coating is used, with no additional sealing or otherwise opaque layer.
Mirrored glass is gaining a more prominent place in architecture, for important functional reasons as well
as for the aesthetic effect.

Patterned

Patterned glass is flat glass whose surfaces display a regular pattern. The most common method for
producing patterned glass is to pass heated glass (usually just after it exits the furnace where it is made)
between rollers whose surfaces contain the negative relief of the desired pattern(s).

Patterned glass is mostly used in internal decoration and internal architecture. Today, it is typically used
for functional reasons, where light but not transparency is desired, and the patterns are accordingly subtle.
However, it has also at times been fashionable as a design feature in itself, in such cases often displaying
more prominent patterns.

Extra clear glass

Extra clear glass is not the result of processing of annealed glass, but instead a specific type of melted
glass. Extra clear glass differs from other types of glass by its basic raw material composition. In
particular, this glass is made with a very low iron content in order to minimise its sun reflection properties.
It therefore lets as much light as possible through the glass. It is most particularly of use for solar energy
applications where it is important that the glass cover lets light through to reach the thermal tubes or
photovoltaic cells. Anti-reflective properties can be further increased by applying a special coating on the
low-iron glass. It can also be used in windows or facades as it offers excellent clarity, which allows
occupants to appreciate true colours and to enjoy unimpaired views.

Glass is a mixture having no definite boiling of freezing points. It is also called a super cooled liquid.
Chemically, most glasses are silicates. It is transparent and not affected by chemicals. It can be moulded
into any shape. The ingredients for making glass are:-

1. Limestone (CaCO3),

2. Soda ash (Na2CO3), and

3. Sand (SiO2)

6. Optical glass:

Optical glass is softer than any other glass. It is clear and transparent. Potassium and lead silicates are
used in making optical glass. It is also called flint glass. The main use of flint glass is in the manufacture of
lenses, prisms and other optical instruments.

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7. Pyrex glass:

Pyrex glass is highly heat resistant. In ordinary glass, silica is the main constituent. In pyrex glass some of
the silica is replaced by boron oxide. Boron oxide expands very little when heated, thus, pyrex glass does
not crack on strong heating. Pyrex glass is also called borosilicate glass. It has a high melting point and is
resistant to many chemicals. Laboratory equipment and ovenware are made of pyrex glass.

8. Photo-chromatic glass:

Photochromatic glass acquires a darker shade when exposed to bright light and returns to its original
lighter shade in dim light. This happens because silver iodinde is added to this glass. (silver iodide gets
coloured with the intensity of light.)

9. Lead crystal glass:

Lead crystal glass has high refractive index, and so has the maximum brilliance. It sparkles and is used for
high quality art objects and for expensive glassware. It is also called cut glass because the surface of the
glass objects is often cut into decorative patterns to reflect light. In order to increase the refractive index,
lead oxide is used as flux in crystal glass, therefore it is also called lead crystal glass.

The major disadvantage of ordinary glass is that it is brittle. It cracks when subjected to sudden changes of
temperature. When the glass has been moulded into a finished article, it is cooled very slowly to prevent
brittleness. The process in which a finished glass article is cooled slowly is called annealing.

Printed Glass
The printed glass is a translucent flat glass, colorless or colored, which receives the printing of a pattern
(drawing) when is leaving the furnace. It is used in civil construction, household appliances, furniture and
decoration

It is produced from the float glass, aiming to reduce the risks in case of accident and accidental break. The
safety glasses are defined by ABNT as “those that, when broken, produce fragments less susceptible to
cause serious injuries”. It can be: Tempered and laminated.

Tempered glass
The tempered glass is a float glass that receives a thermal treatment (it is heated and cooled quickly), which
makes it more rigid and resistant to breakage. If it breaks it produces tips and edges less cutting, and it
fragments in small round pieces.

Extra Clear Glass

It is an extremely transparent glass, that is, without the green shade common to the colorless glasses. This
happens because in its composition there is one less concentration of iron oxide. Used in civil construction,
decoration and household appliances.

Mirrors

Mirrors are produced from a float glass that receives a silver base layer. Then this layer is protected by
painting layers.

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Acid-etched glass They are glasses treated with acid and with whitish appearance. It offers several
aesthetic options for architect and decorators, as they combine lightness of the glass with the subtlety of
translucence, giving a touch of nobility to the design of furniture and to the decoration of the most diverse
environments.

Etched glass

It is a glass worked with jets of sand grains that mechanically attack the glass, transforming it in
translucent and slightly rough. It is used in furniture and decoration.

Fire-rated Glass

The fire-rated glasses, without the metal mesh, are laminated glasses composed by several intercalated
plates with transparent chemical material that melts and dilates in case of fire. This reaction is activated
when the temperature of one of the faces of the glass reaches 120°C.

Properties of glass
Transparency: This property allows visual connection with the outside world. Its transparency can be
permanently altered by adding admixtures to the initial batch mix. By the advent of technology clear glass
panels used in buildings can be made opaque. (Electro chromatic glazing)

U value: The U-value is the measure of how much heat is transferred through the window. The lower the U-
value the better the insulation properties of the glass– the better it is at keeping the heat or cold out.

Strength: Glass is a brittle material but with the advent of science and technology, certain laminates and
admixtures can increase its modulus of rupture( ability to resist deformation under load).

Greenhouse effect: The greenhouse effect refers to circumstances where the short wavelengths of visible
light from the sun pass through glass and are absorbed, but the longer infrared re-radiation from the heated
objects are unable to pass through the glass. This trapping leads to more heating and a higher resultant
temperature.

Workability: It is capable of being worked in many ways. It can be blown, drawn or pressed. It is possible to
obtain glass with diversified properties- clear, colorless, diffused and stained. Glass can also bewelded by
fusion.

Recyclable: Glass is 100% recyclable, cullets (Scraps of broken or waste glass gathered for re-melting) are
used as raw materials in glass manufacture, as aggregates in concrete construction etc.

Solar heat gain coefficient: It is the fraction of incident solar radiation that actually enters a building through
the entire window assembly as heat gain.

Visible transmittance: Visible transmittance is the fraction of visible light that comes through the glass.

Energy efficiency and acoustic control: Energy-efficient glazing is the term used to describe the double
glazing or triple glazing use in modern windows in homes. Unlike the original single glazing or old double
glazing, energy-efficient glazing incorporates coated (low-emissivity) glass to prevent heat escaping through
the windows. The air barrier also enhances acoustic control.
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Properties of glass
Polycarbonate: This elastic is 300 times stronger than glass, is resistant to most chemicals, is twice as lighter
than class, has high abrasion and impact resistance. It can transmit as much light as glass without many
distortions. Applications include window, green house glazing etc.

Acrylic: Acrylic is made of thermo plasticsis weather resistant, is 5 times stronger than glass but is prone to
scratches. It has excellent optics, is softer than glass but can accumulate a lot of dust. This is extensively
used in to make playhouses, green house etc.

GRP panels: GRP is manufactured by combining hundreds of glass strands together using a pigmented
thermosetting UV resin.Glass-reinforced plastics are also used to produce house building components such
as roofing laminate, canopies etc. The material is light and easy to handle. It is used in the construction of
composite housing and insulation to reduce heat loss.

ETFE: Ethylene tetrafluoroethylene is a plastic with high strength and corrosion resistance. It has high
energy radiation resistance properties, it is strong, self cleaning and recyclable.

How glass is used in construction

From the beginning of 20th century modern architecture has been instrumental in mass production of
concrete, glass and steel buildings in the factories we call cities. This ideology helped accommodate housing
needs of the burgeoning middle class. Glass and steel construction have become the symbol of development
in many countries, where people tend to see these buildings as symbols of affluence and luxury.

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Glass in buildings: characteristics and functions
 Themal Insulation
 Solar Control
 Safety & Security
 Fire Resistance
 Noise Control
 Decorative
 Self cleaning

The glass used in today's window and facades does more things than many people perhaps realise. From
prime concerns like safety, security, and environmental protection to convenient functions like self cleaning
or practical qualities like scratch resistance or design aspects, the choices are many and varied.

Thermal insulation

Thermal insulating glass for windows and facades, also known as "low-E" (for low-
emissivity) glass, usually forms the inner pane of an insulating glass unit (IGU). A
transparent metallic coating reflects heat back into the room rather than allowing it to
escape through the windows. At the same time, low-E glass allows solar heat to pass
into a building and warm the interior (this is known as "passive solar heat gain").

Recent regulations call for the use of energy-efficient products to cut CO2 emissions
and protect the environment. Thermally insulating double glazing is a way to meet
national government targets and cut domestic fuel bills.

Thermally insulating glass can be one of several desirable properties such as

maintenance, solar control, noise reduction, decorative glass and enhanced safety and security.

Solar control

Solar control glass is glass designed to reduce or prevent solar heating of buildings. There are two
approaches that can be used: the glass is either tinted (coloured) throughout the material (called a "body
tint"), or else it has a microscopically thin and transparent coating on one side.

In the body tint approach, the colour causes the glass to absorb solar energy, which is then re-radiated back
out and away from the building. Coated glasses immediately reflect the heat away.

These technologies reduce the solar heating that tends to take place in large buildings, and thus reduce the
need for air conditioning. It is therefore an energy-saving technology.

In dwellings it helps prevent uncomfortable overheating in conservatories and other rooms with large areas
of glazing, and it can also reduce irritating glare from direct sunlight.

Solar control glass can be combined with many other features for multifunctional glazing, such as thermal
insulation, self cleaning, noise reduction, decorative glass and enhanced safety and security.

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Safety and security

To improve its resistance to impact and breakage, glass can be either toughened or laminated, depending on
where and how it is being used.

Toughened glass offers a distinct safety advantage, not only being less likely to break but also, when it does
break, producing very small fragments that are relatively harmless.

Laminated glass can be made so strong that it is practically impossible to break, making it feasible to use
glass wherever desired, even where high security requirements apply, including bullet-resistant applications.
In the case of breakage, fragments adhere to the flexible "interlayer" between glass layers, reducing the
chance of injuries.

These features can be combined with other glass functions for additional comfort: thermal insulation, solar
control, acoustic insulation, low-maintenance and decorative glass.

Fire resistance

A range of fire-resistant glass types is available that offers increasing levels of protection, which is
measured in defined time periods (30, 60, 90, 120, 180 minutes). Fire-resistant glass must meet strict levels
of integrity and insulation, or integrity only which are set down by European CE standards. Fire-resistant
glass must always be specified as part of a tested and approved glazing system and installed by specialists to
be sure of reaching expected fire performance, if required.

Noise control

Acoustically insulating glazing can be a major contributor to comfort

levels in buildings and houses. Its benefits are greatest for people
living or working near busy high streets, urban traffic, motorways,
railway lines and airports, or on a flight path.

The acoustic glass in a double-glazed unit uses a special interlayer

that acts as a dampening core so that sound energy is effectively
blocked from passing from the outside to the inside pane of glass.

Acoustic glass can be combined with many other products for

multifunctional glazing, such as thermal insulation, solar control, and
self cleaning glass.

Decorative: interior design: Glass can transform living spaces and work
environments. A wide range of effects, patterns and colours allows interior
designers endless possibilities in look and atmosphere. Glass can be
combined with stone, wood or metal for a strong visual and tactile effect.
In offices and other professional settings, glass offers a fresh, light yet
serious aesthetic and has the advantage of being a material that wears
exceptionally well and is impervious to moisture and most cleaning
products.

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Self cleaning glass

Self cleaning glass has been coated with a special dual function layer that harnesses the elements to which
windows and facades are exposed - namely the sun and rain - to break down and wash away dirt. This first
function is photo-catalytic; in other words, it is activated by light to break down the dirt that collects on it.
The second function is to spread rain water evenly over the glass. Most glass is hydrophobic (water
repellent), causing water to bead into droplets before it runs off, thus touching only a fraction of the surface.
The hydrophilic self cleaning coating prevents this beading into droplets, causing water to run across the
entire surface, washing away the components that the dirt has been broken down into.

Glass for windows and facades

"At the beginning, the desire is to design, not the respective function. The function "slips in" (Professor
Klaus Pracht, architect and author in Bad Muender am Deister.)

Apart from the primary purpose of a window, more and more additional features, mostly application and
structural solutions, have been demanded. As a result, we now speak of functional glazing and facades.
Primary use (inter alia)

 Supply of natural daylight

 Protection from rain, wind, and cold
 Transparency or translucency
 Means of communication
 Supply of fresh air
 Secondary use (inter alia)
 Heat protection
 Sound protection
 Solar protection
 Object and personal protection
 Fire protection
 Temporary heat and solar protection
 Use of solar energy
 Living comfort
 Means of design
 Electromagnetic dampening.

These purposes, which are characteristic for windows, can be achieved by means of special
multifunctional designs. Sophisticated window and facade systems combine technical demands with the
creative freedom of planning.
Such systems are a challenge for architects and manufacturers. With the increasing demands of
window and facade systems, the demands of glazing also increase in terms of quality and versatility.
Most requirements concern increased protection, which can only be achieved with modern
functional insulation glazing. Multifunctional insulation glazing incorporates numerous such protective
functions.

Depending on the design requirements, the potential of glass is not only in increasing the
transparency and, therefore, the quality of living, but it can also emphasise the vitality of reflecting surfaces
and the presence of structures.

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Outlook

The developments in the glass sector are not at all limited to its classic properties, such as energy savings
and solar protection, but can also improve and change its stability and surface. Many times, nature is the
role model, e.g., in the case of the lotus effect. Innovative solutions for decorative facade glazing are another
favourite with planners.

Structural glazing with design coating

Structural glazing provides for a particularly harmonic facade appearance, because the mountings for the
individual glass panes are invisible from the outside. In order to protect the inside from outside views, but
also to maintain maximum transparency, a sort of 3d architecture was created. The facade was equipped
with double glazing, or two layers of the "net curtain." In addition, the inner and outer patterns were offset
against each other. From the outside, it looks as if the patterns lie on top of each other in order to keep
viewers from looking inside.

Why is energy saving so important?

Today Europe faces a triple challenge in the field of energy policy as it seeks to ensure the security of its
energy supply, adress climate change and deal with fluctuating energy costs. The most secure energy is
saved energy, and reducing energy consumption can provide effective and low cost solutions to many of
Europe's energy and climate challenges by:

 Cutting the CO2 emissions caused by energy generation

 Reducing Europe's dependence on energy imports, which are set to rise to 70% of EU energy
consumption by 2020
 Avoiding negative economic impacts caused by steadily rising energy prices

If Europe meets its targets of a 20% reduction in energy consumption by 2020, this would amount to an
annual reduction of some 780 million tonnes of CO2 emissions. Beyond this horizon, the European
Commission committed in the road map towards a Low Carbon Economy to reducing energy consumption
in buildings by 88% to 91% by 2050. This would require a tripling of Europe's building deep renovation rate
therefore a much more ambitious apporach will have to be at the heart of Europe's efforts to save energy
if these targets are to be achieved.

What role can glass play in reducing energy consumption in buildings ?

Using advanced glazing solutions can significantly reduce the need for heating and cooling in buildings,
thereby reducing energy consumption and associated CO2 emissions. Independent studies2 show that
savings of more than 100 million tonnes of CO2 could be achieved annually if all
Europe's buildings were fitted with advanced energy saving glass.

On the basis of these findings, the EU could achieve around one third of the
energy saving targets for buildings identified in the 2006 "Action Plan for
Energy Efficiency" simply by promoting the use of energy saving glazing.

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The potential for improving the glazed facades and windows of Europe's building is enormous. A recent
study on glazing type distribution in the EU building stock 3 reveals that:

 44% of the windows in Europe's buildings are still single glazed.

 Less than 15% of Europe's windows contain energy-saving glass whereas these solutions have been
available on the market for over 20 years!

 Early uncoated double glazing is still used in a vast number of buildings. Although their energy
performance is limited compared to solutions available nowadays, they are too often regarded as
efficient by poorly informed property owners

What are the glazing solutions available and how do they work?

Low-Emissivity Glass

Low-Emissivity (Low-E) glass is specially treated with a

microscopically thin, transparent coating. The coating
reflects heat back into the building, thereby reducing the
heat loss through the window. It also reduces the heat
transfer from the warm (inner) pane of glass to the
cooler (outer) pane, thus further lowering the amount of
heat that escapes from the window. These properties
thus reduce the demand for energy in order to heat the
building.

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In addition, the coating allows large amounts of free solar energy to enter the building, thereby heating it
passively. Low-E insulating glazing can therefore be a net contributor of energy in buildings.

Other innovations such as triple glazing products can offer additional improvements in the window's
insulating properties while the use of low-iron glass can increase light transmittance and free solar-heat
gain. These technologies offer additional benefits in terms of energy efficiency.

Solar Control Glass

Solar control glass is a high performance coated product that reflects and radiates away a large degree of the
sun's heat while allowing daylight to pass through a window or façade. The indoor space stays bright and
much cooler than would be the case if normal glass were used.

Solar control glass incorporates invisible layers of

special materials on the glass which have the dual
effect of allowing sunlight in, while repelling solar
heat.

This technology is particularly beneficial in

warmer southern climates where it can help to
reduce the load on a building's air conditioning
system, thus reducing energy demand, while
maintaining a comfortable working environment.
In addition, solar control glass units are typically
double glazed and therefore combine both Low-E
and solar control properties, to maximize
insulation in cooler periods and solar control
properties in summer.

What about double-glazing and triple glazing?

This is a very legitimate question but there is no one-size fits all answer as it will depend on a number of
parameters including the building or house itself, its location, the insulation of the rest of the building
envelope, etc. Tailor-made advice from professionals is always required. That being said, there is
understandably a wide degree of confusion on double and triple glazing and part of it can be raised.

First of all, there is no such thing as standard double glazing. Double glazed windows installed from the 70s
to the late 80s after the first series of petroleum crises helped achieved energy-saving at the time but are
now completely outdated.

Double-glazing units now readily available in European markets are equipped with coating, such as Low-
Emissivity coatings and / or Solar-control coatings. These coatings increase considerably the insulation
performance of the double-glazed units but they also allow free solar-heat gains. Buildings equipped with
early uncoated double glazed windows or glazed facades can therefore be upgraded with Low-E glazing,
which can be between 2.5 to 5 times more efficient.

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 Triple-glazing is even more efficient and helps achieve extra
energy savings. The ‘U value' of coated triple glazing units
usually reaches 0.7, which is over 8 times more efficient than
single glazing (U value of 5.8) and nearly 4 times more
efficient than early basic double glazing; (the lower the U
value, the better the insulation).

In general terms, coated triple glazing is an essential

component of ‘nearly-zero energy buildings', which is to
become the standard for all new buildings in the EU by 2020.
High performance triple glazing has become the ‘norm' in
Scandinavian countries in recent years, and it is now enjoying
rapid growth in Germany, where it now represents nearly 40% of the glass market.

As a result of its wider use in these countries, prices of triple glazing have decreased. Studies 4 also show
that significant additional energy savings can be achieved in the central parts of Europe with cold winters
such as the UK, Poland, France, Benelux, etc. thanks to the installation of triple glazing on the most exposed
orientations of buildings, in combination with Low-E double glazing on the south facades.

Is energy-efficient glazing of any real use in the South of Europe?

Yes. Even in the warmest regions of Europe, heating in winter is often necessary. It is true however that
preventing over-heating in summer is the main challenge for most types of building. Thanks to solar-
control coatings, glazing can play a role in preventing over-heating in buildings and therefore reduce the
use of air-conditioning,5 which is a major consumer of energy in Southern Europe.

In addition, solar-control glazing most often comes in double glazed units, which provides insulation in
winter. Solar-control and Low-Emissivity properties can be combined into a glazing unit thus further
contributing to insulation from both cold and heat depending on the season.

This most often provides the best energy saving balance since free solar heat gains are only limited during a
few winter months and are compensated by reduced loads on air-conditioning units for the most part of the
year. Upgrading to energy-efficient glazing in Southern Europe is thus an efficient way of increasing indoor
comfort while making substantial energy savings.

What should glazed areas be in new constructions?

The influence of glazing on the energy performance of a buildings is only one of several factors which will
determine the area of glazing chosen by an architect.

Traditionally, glazing was regarded as the "weak point" of the building envelope. This was because single
glazing or uncoated double glazing had a relatively high heat loss compared to other parts of the building
fabric. Modern glazing solutions however, with their coatings and inert gas fillings, can reduce heat loss to
levels approaching those of the opaque fabric. But, unlike the opaque components, glass allows free solar
heat gain to enter the building. In most cases, the gains exceed the losses and so large windows become net
contributers of energy.

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In situation where architects wish to avoid solar gain, designers have the option to use glass with a solar
control coating to reject unwanted heat. Since these coatings also have low emissivity properties, large areas
of glazing can be used without excessive heat losses and demands on the air conditioning system.

Glazing also allows daylight to enter into buildings. The larger the glazed areas, the lower will be the need
for artificial lighting. This is a particularly valuable benefit of glazing, as electricity is the most expensive
and carbon intensive form of energy in many countries. Daylight also makes buildings more comfortable
and pleasant places. It contributes to building occupants' well-being, health and productivity.

Many green building certifications, such as the Active House concept 6, include specifications on 'daylight
factor' and 'direct sunlight availability'. Some countries, such as France, even go further in imposing
minimum surfaces of glazed areas within new constructions.7

It is therefore no surprise that many architects specialising in low-energy consumption buildings promote
large glazed areas and that these glazed buildings and houses regularly win 'green awards'.

Thanks to these unique properties of modern glazing, architects now have a new-found freedom to
incorporate large areas of glazing as they wish into their designs, knowing there will not be any negative
impact on the energy performance of a building.

What is the pay-back period or return on investment of upgrading glazing?

Calculating the return on investment of upgrading complete windows is difficult as it depends on the type of
glazing initially in place, the energy source and fluctuations in prices, the energy needs, the energy-
efficiency of other components of the building envelope, etc. It must also take account of potential financial
incentives or fiscal rebates which are often granted when choosing best performing glazing.8 Depending on
all these various parameters, the payback period of replacing complete windows can range between 3 to 9
years and the situation varies between countries. It is clear anyhow that compared to the lifetime energy
savings - a window stays in a building for 20 to 25 years on average - the payback period is much shorter,
while providing the added benefit of long-lasting energy bill and CO2 savings.

That being said, what is all the more important is that the incremental cost of installing high performance
glazing when a building's windows are replaced is relatively small. Indeed, when installing replacement
windows, a large proportion of the costs results from the framing materials and most substantially from the
cost of labour to assemble and install the windows on-site. The incremental cost of choosing high-
performance glass compared to ordinary glazing is therefore a very minor proportion of the overall installed
cost. As a consequence, when windows are being replaced, choosing high-performance glass is the most
rationale and cost-optimal choice.

Finally, the choice of high-performance glazing must also be seen as a property investment. With the
introduction of mandatory Energy Performance Certificates for buildings, building owners and purchasers
now have a means of expressing and understanding a building's energy performance. This has facilitated a
growing recognition that the most energy efficient buildings have higher inherent value and greater
marketability, particularly in today's competitive property market.

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Beyond glazing, how else can glass contribute to sustainable buildings?
Glass plays an important role in the generation of solar power by way of two technologies: solar thermal
and photovoltaic.

Photovoltaic technologies are used to convert solar energy directly into electricity. There are many different
technologies available to suit various requirements and they can come in various shapes and colours
offering flexibility for design integration and building integrated applications (BIPV). The most common
photovoltaic technology is based on crystalline silicon solar cells. In this application glass acts as a
protective outer layer, while transmitting the solar light to the photovoltaic cells interconnected underneath.
In another technology called ‘thin films', transparent conductive coated glass not only allows light through
to the photoactive films, but also conducts the generated electricity out of the modules.

Solar thermal collectors are intended to collect heat which is then used to supply hot water or heat
exchangers, for domestic or industrial applications. There are various kinds of solar thermal collectors but
most require a flat glass cover, or glazing, which serves not only to protect the panel while letting the
sunlight through, but also to prevent cooling of the panel from exposure to cold air.

Thanks to high-tech glass, the properties of solar-energy technologies are optimised. Indeed, extra-clear
glass and mirrored glass can also be used to produce electricity from the sun at utility scale in Concentrated
Solar Power systems (CSPs).

Is glass also playing a role in the development of cleaner cars and transport?

As a supplier to car makers, the glass industry is aware of its responsibility to offer automotive glazing
solutions which help reduce vehicles' energy consumption and the overall environmental footprint of road
transport.

One essential method of improving vehicles' energy efficiency is to reduce their overall weight. Nowadays,
the average glass content in a vehicle represents only 3% by mass. 11 If this figure is relatively low, it is
thanks to the glass industry's efforts to reduce glass windshields and windows weight while increasing
safety and security for passengers. In addition, glass is now incorporated as a structural component thus
limiting the need to recourse to heavier materials to guarantee the structural integrity of vehicles. Glass
components can therefore increase in size in order to accommodate newer aerodynamic designs. In parallel,
technologies are being developed to reduce even further the weight of glass in vehicles. 12

Another way of reducing fuel consumption and extending the range of electric vehicles is to limit the need
for air-conditioning.

The glass industry has developed solar control glazing which provides not only good visibility and
durability but also minimizes solar heat entrance inside vehicles exposed to the sun. Its use can considerably
lower the need to air-condition vehicles' cabins or at least to reduce its load. In this way, solar control glass
in vehicles helps save between 2 and 4% of gasoline,13 improves passengers' comfort and contributes to
cleaner cars.

Last but not least, automotive glass is dismantled, processed and recylced at the end of vehicles' lives. In
line with legal requirements, systems are in place and being constantly improved to achieve higher recycling
rates.

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What is the life cycle impact of energy efficient glass?
The process of manufacturing flat glass for building applications inevitably has a cost in terms of CO 2
emitted. However this is more than compensated for by the CO2 saved by replacing single glazing with
energy efficient glazing. According to a detailed study undertaken in 2005, 14 the manufacture of 1m2 of
low-E double glazing leads to the emission of 25 kg of CO2, and this has subsequently been further reduced
by the introduction of new manufacturing technologies in recent years. On the other hand, 91 kg of CO 2 per
year are saved by replacing one square metre of single glazing with low-E double glazing. The CO2 emitted
during production is thus offset after only 3.5 months' use.

At the level of the European Union (EU 25), the total CO2 emitted by buildings is 765 million tonnes CO2
per year. By comparison, the manufacture of architectural glass only releases 4.6 million tonnes per year.
Considering the potential savings of 100 million tonnes of CO2 per year through the use of energy-saving
glass, CO2 linked to glass production would quickly be outweighed even if additional production was
required.

Glass is also a recyclable product. Even at the end of the lifecycle of the window this valuable resource is
not lost and can be recycled. This recycled glass, when melted again to produce new glass products, helps
further reduce the CO2 emitted by manufacturing facilities.15

Is the glass manufacturing process energy-efficient?

Glass manufacturing requires energy since glass furnaces need to be heated to temperatures of 1600 C° at
which point raw materials melt to become glass. Because of this rule of material physics, energy accounts
for the largest share of manufacturing costs. In this context, reducing energy consumption is an economic
imperative and constant goal of all glass manufacturers. In fact,studies have shown that the glass indusrty
has been able to reduce energy consumption by 55% between 1970 and 2000 while production was on the
rise.

Today, Europe's glass manufacturers continue to invest and apply best available techniques in all
installations. They carry energy audits and have taken commitments to reduce energy consumption even
further. That being said , without major technological breakthrough, improvements will remain limited
hence glass manufacturers' investments in extensive reasearch programmes.

The carbon content of final glass products is

also heavily affected by the geographical location of
manufacturing installations. Glass is a relatively heavy
product, which is not convenient to transport over long
distances. For this reason, importing glass from outside
Europe inherently means importing glass with a much
higher carbon content. Maintaining energy-efficient
glass manufacturing installations in Europe is thus
to the benefit of Europe. It is all the more important
that installations can then recycle glass, which
contributes to further lowering energy consumption in
manufacturing and to preserving natural resources.

The glass industry is committed to energy-efficiency of its products and their manufacturing for one obvious
reason: throughtout its lifecycle, energy-efficient glass is a CO2 saving product!
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