GROUP 1

** DATE OF SUBMISSION: 07-04-2021

** Submitted to- Ms. Prabjot Kaur Sabharwal

CONTENTS:
| ** Livestock and Poultry Population in India
** Development of the Meat and Poultry Industry in India
my ** Types of meat( Glossary)
LIVESTOCK AND POULTRY POPULATION IN INDIA
¢ The Department of Animal Husbandry & Dairying under Ministry of
Fisheries, Animal Husbandry & Dairying attributes critical importance
to livestock and to the collection and availability of up-to-date and
accurate data related to livestock, as they are the vital component of
rural economy.
¢ The livestock census is conducted across the country periodically since
1919. The census usually covers all domesticated animals and head
counts of these animals are taken.2Oth Livestock Census is it has been
designed to capture Breed-wise number of animals and poultry birds.
Distribution of Livestock f POPULATION OF LIVESTOCK
ve Others a
2.01% : 37% Livestock Year / P opulation in Million
2000 2005 2010
Cow & Buffalo 470 518 580
Sheep 60 68 75
Goat 25 31 38
Pigs 17 21 25
Poultry 940 1370 2020
Source — Govt. of India, Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairy (2000)

It is increasing 485002 day by day due to its importance

as an alternative source of income and food also.
POULTRY POPULATION
¢ The total poultry has increased by 16.81% and the total poultry is
851.81 million during 2019.
¢ Over 45.78% increase in backyard poultry and total backyard poultry
is 317.07 Million in 2019.
¢ The commercial poultry has increased by 4.5% and the total
commercial poultry is 534.74 million.
Graph +: Poultry Population 2012 and 2019
900.00 851.81

$00.00 21

511.72 534.74

317.07
300.00 I

ie |

Toral Poultry Backyard poultry Comercial Poultry

DEVELOPMENT OF THE
MEAT AND POULTRY
INDUSTRY IN INDIA
THE POULTRY INDUSTRY
3 90,000

¢ The poultry industry in India has endured an exemplary

transformation in structure and operation during the last 7 80,000

two decades and modified into a mega-industry with the 70,000

presence of a huge number of workers from a mere

“E 60,000
backward poultry farming that appears to be very fast.

Egg Production (in mill. pieces)

Growth Rate (%)
« When we see the complete overview, the production of ea
crops has been growing at arate of 1.5-2% per annum

e~
7p.ag4 °2922 | 40,000
74,752
whereas the production of eggs and broilers has been 3
63,024 ©6450
69,731
30,000
growing at arate of 8-10% per annum. India is the
world's 3rd largest egg producer and 6th largest . = 20,000
producer of broilers. d
27,198
10,000
« Among the livestock sector Poultry Industry contributes
for about 1% to the national GDP and about 14% to the ° 1995-96 2000-01 2005-06 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 °

livestock GDP Egg Production (in mill.) —l— Growth Rate (%) of Egg Production

¢ The Indian Poultry has witnessed one of the fastest

annual growths of about 6% in eggs ,10% in meat Figure 1 — The development
production 8.35% in broiler production 1995/96 and 2015/16 |
* Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana hold the
first, second and third position in poultry Population
whereas Assam and West Bengal have maximum growth
in poultry Population during the year 2012 to 2019
THE MEAT INDUSTRY
According to a research, meat production in India is
estimated at 6.3 million tons annually and is ranked 5th in
Volume of meat produced across India from financial year
the world in terms of production volume. India is
responsible for 3% of the total meat production in the 2014 to 2019
world. The nation has the world's largest population of
livestock at about 515 million.
Almost 70% of the Indian population is non-vegetarian.
The per capita meat consumption in India every year is
around 5.2kg. Chicken and fish have the highest

on
consumption rate. The consumption of poultry meat in India
was over 3.9 million metric tons in 2020.

ow
Uttar Pradesh (UP) is the largest meat producer followed
by Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Maharashtra, and Tamil 0 i [

Nadu in the specified order FY 2014 FY 2015 FY 2016 FY 2017 FY 2018 FY 2019

The major item of export is de-boned frozen buffalo meat

which accounts for 97 per cent of the total meat
export. The major markets for Indian buffalo meat are
Malaysia and Egypt while for sheep meat and goat meat, the
markets are UAE, Iran, and Jordan. India also exports a
small quantity of processed meat to Thailand, Yemen, and
Japan and some poultry products to Saudi Arabia, Oman,
Kuwait, and Qatar.
 CHALLENGES FACED BY THE POULTRY INDUSTRY
1.A significant difference in the industry across various regions of India: - more than 60% of broilers are
produced in these 5 states of India (Andhra Pradesh with 20%, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Punjab, and West
Bengal) while more than 60% of eggs are produced in these 5 states of India (Andhra Pradesh, Haryana,
Maharashtra, Punjab, and Tamil Nadu). This creates logistic and quality issues related to transport.

2. Competition from the international market: On opening up duty-free imports, lifting of trade barriers, etc.

3. Disease outbreaks: Fowl pox, Fowl cholera, Avian influenza, E.coli infections, etc.

4. Feed ingredients and other logistics cost: Small-scale producers are facing problems like high feed and
transport costs, expensive vaccine costs, veterinary care services, and the non-availability of credit. It has
been noticed that due to high capital investments some farmers have been switched from layer production to
broiler production as output in broiler units can be fetched in six weeks.

5. Antibiotic misuse in poultry farms: It is leading to multi-drug resistance properties in bacteria (because of
unsafe disposal of poultry litter).

6. Lack of insufficient biosecurity standards taken by poultry keepers.

| 7. Presence of Salmonella spp. and Cholesterol in poultry meat. |

CHALLENGES FACED BY THE MEAT INDUSTRY
* One of the major challenges is improving the productivity of farm
animals. The average annual milk yield of Indian cattle is 1172 kg which
is only about 50 per cent of the global average. The frequent outbreak
of infections like the foot and mouth disease, black quarter infection,
and influenza severely impacts livestock health and lowers productivity.
India produces 6.3 million tones of meat, standing
* The next problem is the generation of greenhouse gases by the Sthin
rank ofthe work's meat production
humongous population of herbivorous animals in India. Reducing the
emissions through mitigation and adaptation strategies is a major
challenge.
* Crossbreeding of indigenous species with exotic stocks to enhance the = w a of
genetic potential of different species has been successful only to a a
limited extent. 62% 1% 10% 10% 5
¢ Unregulated meat markets, tropical climate, inadequate |
slaughterhouse hygiene measures, and the lack of surveillance of meat-
borne diseases enhance the risk of health-related and occupational
hazards. According to research, there are about 8000 registered and
more than 20,000 unregistered slaughterhouses in the country and
most of them are devoid of basic amenities like light and ventilation.
Moreover, the slaughtering and carcass-dressing processes are
performed in open areas in highly unhygienic conditions following which
the meat is sold with little or no veterinary inspection.
THE FUTURE OF THE INDUSTRY
Figure 1.1: Factors affecting broiler growth and quality

Raising animals ee are in good health : =

is esséntial for the production of good —~. hy
(ey meat. Farmers cooperatives can em eS Nutrition

a major role in the nourishment we ene

ind marketing of hale and hearty ro _..
livestock, Théy can also encourage |
supply

backward integration/contract seargéenty PE cts

farming. Abové all, if the Indian meat 4
industry Baal to achieve global
recognition the miele ncuee of food
safeTy at all stages of production, a
processing, , Storage, and eee |
marketing of meaf and meat-derived : ce
products while adhering to the ba ak ane Tae Oe
standards prescribed by the importing ES
countries e
a significant
shall mak xcomeam | |: ai
Impact. E
TYPES OF MEAT (GLOSSARY)
 BEEF
¢ Meat from cattle particularly skeletal
muscle.
- Best beef is obtained from early
maturing special beef breeds.
¢ Tenderness and flavour are improved
by ageing, injecting solution of |
exogenous proteolytic enzyme, salt and ee ee
sodium phosphate. Majority of oe wee
fencrizing effect occurs in first
10 é e v7 4 0 e 4
¢ High quality beef is firm, fine- grained "
Bla de wck Steak® shoulde k, Bone-In T-Bon ce tom Row

lean, bright red in colour and well e @ @ g @ ew

marbled.

COSC eed
pulder Steak @& Back Ribs Sirloin Petite Bott 8 Cubed Steak
 VEAL
« Meat of calves of either sex and any
breed slaughtered at 3-4 weeks after
birth.
¢ Delicate in flavor, pale- grayish white in
color, firm and fine- grained with
velvety texture.
¢ Slightly more tender than beef due to
muscle not being worked.
¢ It has no marbling and small amount of
fat covering is firm and white.
¢ Has high amount of connective tissue,
rich in protein & iron and low
concentration of fat.
PORK f Tees
eT
¢ Meat of swine.
¢ Good quality pork is obtained, when
slaughtered at 3-12 months.
¢ Has rubbery texture, well marbled and
covered with outer layer of firm white
fat.
¢ Most desirable colour is grayish pink. wwe KY © .§.&
Color of young lean pork is highly pin‘ and 2. blade loin roast and chop “and chop . “chop 2. Canadian bacon

changes to rose pink as the animal mature. ge

¢ Pork may be infected with Trichinella
Jae

3. smoked and fresh

ham, butt portion

spiralis causing "trichionosis". It can be im | CRE S| &

destroyed by smoking or cooling at an ane Santinite
instant temperature of 58°C or frozen to a, & ea
-5°C for 20days or -28°C for 6 days. & IeVC Vow
bacon picnic hock pork slab bacon
© 2011 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
LAMB
¢ Meat of young sheep usually slaughtered
within a year.
¢ It can be consumed fresh or as
processed meats- canned or frozen lamb.
¢ High quality, lamb meat color vary from
tender pink to pale red ( color of lean
deepens as the animal grows older and
the meat hardens) and are firm, fine-
textured.
¢ It is high-quality protein source
(containing all 9 Essentials Amino Acids).
 TURKEY
¢ Meat of Turkey (domesticated or
wild)
° Uncooked poultry colour varies from
pink to red while cooked turkey has
goten brown colour having mild
avour.
* Some pathogens of concern in turkey
are Salmonella, Staphylococcus
campylobacter, coliforms which can
be prevented by a ce
storage or proper cooking.
¢ Turkeys are sold sliced or ground, as
well as "whole", ina manner similar to
chicken removing head, feet and
feather.
CHICKEN
* Most common type of poultry in the world
which can be prepared ina variety of ways
like baking, grilling, frying etc.
¢ Chicken meat contains about 2-3 times as
much polyunsaturated fat as most types of
red meat
¢ Generally contains low fat in the meat
itself (except castrated roosters) which is
highly concentrated on the skin
¢ 100g of baked chicken breast contains 4g
fat and 31g protein as opposed to 10g fat
and 27g protein in 100g broiled, lean skirt
steak WHOLE CHICKEN

eo &
CHEVON
« Meat from adult goats
¢ Not only low in cholesterol but also lower in fat content
¢ Relatively higher content of Vitamin B12, calcium and potassium than
other meat.
MUTTON
¢ Flesh of a mature ram or ewe at
least one year old
¢ Depending on cut,
1. Protein- 12-18%
2. Fat 13-32%
3. Energy 195-380 kcal (820-1600
kJ)
¢ A 150g portion (5% fat) is rich in
protein and niacin, good source of
Vitamin B2, source of iron and
Vitamin B1 and supplies 180 kcal (750
kJ)
¢ Baby pigeon that has not yet left the nest (also
called pigeon meat)
¢ Considered as an exquisite ingredient in cuisines
like the Cantonese, Moroccan and French
¢ Dark meat bird, like duck and goose, yet far
more tender and less fibrous
¢ When properly cooked, its flavor is a lush, rich
essence
¢ Rich store of beneficial minerals, particularly
iron, which is crucial for energy production and
a robust immune system
VENISON TROPHY c— Lo = DEER HARVEST
REMAINS
. i
Meat from any kind of deer | ——
, MoT gy
ie ——* | CHART
¢ Resembles beef and mutton in texture, fa ¢
color and other general characteristics
Pal

« May be eaten fresh, but generally hung

for a few days for ageing which oy
enhances the tenderness and 1
palatability of meat q y
¢ The kegs, saddle, loin and tenderloin &
are butchered for steals, chops, Pa, Us j
cutlets, etc. re @
¢ The shoulder, shank and breast are scomearem|
usually used in stews.
 shoulder loin

WILD BOAR
¢ Wild boar meat is the meat obtained from
wild pig.
¢ It is similar to pork, but is leaner & tends to
be darker red in color.
¢ It has a unique strong, nutty & rich flavor.
Nutritional profile
- The meat is rich in protein & is a good source #f;
of Monounsaturated fat and zinc in diet.
¢ Rich in [ron, Niacin, Thiamine, vitamin B6é.
¢ Low in Sodium
- The high level of alpha tocopherol in wild
boar might extend the shelt life of its meat.
FILET MIGNON
¢ Filet mignon is a meat cut of beef from the
thinner end of tenderloin part.
- It is often most expensive, tender & lean cut.
¢ As compared to other meats, it has a mild flavor &
is generally eaten with a sauce or wrapped ina
bacon.
¢ Good source of protein, iron & also has magnesium,
phosphorous, potassium.
¢ It is also high in saturated fats, which can cause
risks of some diseases.
CARABEEF
* Carabeef is the meat of buffalo & is known by
different names like red beef, buff etc.
¢ The meat is low in calories, fat & cholesterol
content.
¢ It is dark in color & is considered nutrient
dense. ae
¢ Carabeef is high in protein & is a good =e coy
substitute to beef. a ley
Se
sug ih
i}
BACON
¢ Bacon is made from pork & undergoes a process of salt
curing.
- It is the meat obtained from pig's belly, back or sides. f
¢ It's very fatty and has long layers of fat running f
parallel to the tough outer skin of pork. « \
¢ It can be eaten as a dish, side dish or an ingredient in
dishes.
- The fat, protein and sodium content varies depending
on the cut & cooking method used.
¢ Other than pork bacon, other alternatives can also be
used like turkey, beef, chicken bacon etc.
SPARE RIBS
¢ Spare ribs are pork ribs popular in Western &
Asian countries.
- It is the ribs portion cut from the lower end
of the pig, mainly belly and breastbones.
¢ It is a delicious treat and can be prepared by
smoking, grilling, baking with a sauce.
¢ They are naturally carb free, but has protein
& fat.
¢ It serves a high amount of saturated fats,
thus, is eaten occasionally.
¢ It has a good supply of minerals like iron &
zinc & vitamins like vitamin D & B-12.
DRUMSTICKS
¢ Chicken drumsticks are the lower joint of
leg of the chicken (from knee joint to
almost the foot).
¢ It is the dark meat & is rich in iron & zinc.
¢ It consists of more fat as compared to
breast portion.
POPPY
¢ It is the donkey meat, high in protein &a
culinary delight in China.
¢ It has a low fat content, but appreciable amount
of protein.
¢ Also, it has a good amount of potassium &
various other minerals like phosphorous, sodium,
magnesium.
¢ It can be used to make salami and some
fermented products.
¢ Chevaline is the meat obtained from horse.
¢ This meat is usually very lean & has a
favourable fatty acid profile.
¢ It is rich in protein & low in fat & cholesterol.
* Also, it has a high amount of iron & Vitamin B
as compared to beef.
- It has a sweet taste slightly similar as that of
beef.
¢ Steak is a meat generally sliced across the
muscle fibers, may or may not including a bone.
¢ It is generally referred for beef steak.
¢ It can be grilled or pan-fried & can also be
cooked in sauce.
¢ Beef meat is an excellent source of various
vitamins & minerals.
THANK YOU
MADE BY :-
ARYAMA DIPT (2019209)
ANSHIKA AGARWAL (2019207)
SAYANI NAG (2019233)
STUTI SHARMA (2019236)
TECHNOLOGY OF MEAT, PO
AND EGGS
PRESENTATION
KANIKA GOGIA(20
VAMIKA VERMA(201
TANISHKA RATHORE(
TEACHER: Ms. PRABHJOT KAUR SAB
 CONTENTS
1. EFFECT OF FEED, BREED AND STRESS ON PRODUCTION OF MEAT

. Effect of stress

. Effect of breed

. Effect of feed

2. EFFECT OF FEED, BREED AND STRESS ON MEAT QUALITY

= Effect of feed

= Effect of breed

= Effect of stress

3. MEAT QUALITY

= Meat color

= Flavor of meat

= Effect of cooking on flavor

= Factors affecting cooking flavor

= ‘Texture

= Water holding capacity

= Methods to estimate water holding capacity

= Fat holding capacity

= Methods to estimate fat holding capacity

EFFECT OF FEED,
BREED
AND STRESS ON
PRODUCTION OF
MEAT
 EFFECT OF STRESS
“> Stress is the biological response elicited when an individual being under a threat to its
homeostasis. An animal is under stress when it has to make extreme functional, structural,
behavioural or immunological adjustments to cope with adverse aspects of its
environment.

«> During stress, animals try to increase feed intake in an effort to meet their energy
requirements. Given the opportunity and gut capacity, animals eat more feed to help meet
their increased energy demands. This increases feed costs, increasing the cost of keeping
the animal, and hence, increases the production cost of meat.

«> Under prolonged or extreme stressful conditions, the effect on animal health can be
significant resulting in irreversible losses in productivity or even death.
It is necessary for animals to be stress and injury free during operations prior to slaughter, so as
not to unnecessarily deplete muscle glycogen reserves. It is important that the glycogen levels in
the muscles of the slaughtered carcass are as high as possible, to develop the maximum level of
lactic acid in the meat. Lactic acid in the muscle has the effect of retarding the growth of
bacteria that have contaminated the carcass during slaughter and dressing. These bacteria cause
spoilage of the meat during storage, particularly in warmer environments, and the meat develops
off-smells, color changes, rancidity and slime. This decrease the shelf life of meat and is
perhaps the biggest cause for meat wastage during the production processes.

Bruising is the escape of blood from damaged blood vessels into the surrounding muscle tissue.
This is caused by a physical blow by a stick or stone, animal horn, metal projection or animal
fall and can happen anytime during handling, transport, penning or stunning. Meat that is bruised
is wasted as it is not suitable for use as food because:
It is not acceptable to the consumer.

It cannot be used for processing or manufacture.

It decomposes and spoils rapidly, as the bloody meat is an ideal medium for growth of
contaminating bacteria.

It must be, for the above reasons, condemned at meat inspection. Bruising is a common cause of
meat wastage and leads to low production of meat.
When selecting between breeds, it is important to choose a breed that is able to perform well within the relevant
environment, and that will meet the appropriate market demands. At a global level we see that the dominant
livestock types are poultry, cattle (which includes beef and buffalo meat), pig, and sheep & goat to a lesser
extent. However, the distribution of meat types varies significantly across the world; in some countries, othef
meat types such as wild game, horse, and duck can account for a significant share of total production.

Globally, cattle meat production has more than doubled since 1961 — increasing from 28 million tonnes per
year to 68 million tonnes in 2014. Global production of poultry meat has increased rapidly over the last 50
years, growing more than 12-fold between 1961-2014. Since 1961, global pigmeat production has grown 4-5
fold to 112 million tonnes in 2014.

As a global average, per capita consumption of pigmeat is the highest of meat commodities. Whilst other meat
types (such as wild game, horse, and rabbit meat) account for a very small fraction of meat consumption at
the global level.

Breed has a clear effect on the amount (kg) and yield (%) of valuable cuts. Traditionally, offspring are destined
to lamb meat production. They are fed on lactose substitutes and/ or concentrates and slaughtered with low
weights, which give special characteristics to the meat of these animals. Breed has a large effect on carca$s
morphology. It is a complex factor and difficult to assess when only its effects on the amount of fat om/meat
quality are considered.
Different production systems are used to raise and fatten ruminant liveStoek for
food production. The popular categories include conventional feeding and
natural or organic feeding systems.
Conventional feeding systems use different combinations of pasture or
extensive grazing, and intensive fattening with concentrates that may includé
different raw materials, feed additives, antimicrobials and hormonal growth
implants.
Natural and organic feeding systems differ somewhat, but both are usually
based on planted pastures or extensive grazing (sometimes referred to a$
grazing or grass-fed systems) with minimal or no feed supplements and usually
no hormonal growth implants.
e
Grass feeding normally results in slower growth rates because hormonal growth
e
concentrate feeds are not generally used, and feed supplements are limited to strate
energy and protein supplements. Slower growth ultimately leads to low production
animals.
Mortality rates are significantly lower in conventional systems, compared with organ
systems.
Overall feedlot performance and production of cattle is improved significantly after rela
short treatment periods (30 days) and use of low concentrations of feed additives.
Grass feeding also has beneficial effects on the shelf life of meat products owing to the
presence of antioxidants such as vitamin E, which may prevent autoxidation of poly-
unsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and improve visual carcass attributes and shelf life and there
increasing the production. Beef and lamb from pasture-fed animals are generally less tender,
shelf life is better, owing to the presence of antioxidants such as vitamin E.
e
Concentrate feeding generally yields a more consistent carcass composition than pastur
e

animals, which addresses the necessity for more consistent meat quality for consumpti
The quality of livestock products has acquired greater importance from
the distinct perspectives of the different participants in the agricultural
food chain. Consumers, producers and the industry give different
levels of importance to the parameters of meat and carcass quality. The
quality of meat can be influenced by different factors such as breed, feed
and stress. The effects of all these factors should be considered to obtain
a quality product that satisfies consumer demand.
 The meat quality attributes are affected by the amount and type of nutrient intake\by the
animal. The feed mainly affects carcass conformation and several physicochemical and
organoleptic parameters of meat quality such as proximal composition, the fatty\acid
profile, tenderness and colour.
Grass feeding produces a stronger flavored meat. Increased energy density of the diet results
in heavier carcass, higher fatness and marbling. Thus, animal diet greatly contributes for
the quality of meat.
The feeding level and protein : energy ratio can be used to manipulate growth rate or
composition of weight gain. Decreasing the protein : energy ratio of the diet actually increases
IMF and improves eating quality, but gives fatter carcasses. In contrast, a progressive reduction
in the protein : energy ratio leads to similar carcass composition at slaughter but with higher
IMF.
Restricted feed allowance strongly reduces growth rate and carcass fatness and Also
intramuscular fat (IMF) level, resulting in decreased meat tenderness or juiciness.
 A diet with lower than recommended protein reduces the yield of méat and
increases the fat content of the carcass and saturation of the carcass Tat
The feeding system can affect the composition of the carcass and the degree
of fattening. Animals fed by grazing present low levels of fat, which inereases
their acceptability to consumers. Likewise, the fat of grass-fed animals\tends to
be yellow. The carcasses of grass-fed animals weigh less than those fed on
concentrates that are slaughtered at the same age, thus animals fed mainly\on
concentrates require less time to be prepared for slaughtering.
When animals are fed forages, growth rate is slower, animals attain slaughter
weight at later age and the carcass has less fat. The meat is leaner, darker in
color and has more species specific flavors. B-carotene is present in high
concentrations in fresh leaf tissue and is responsible for the undesirable yellow
color of fat.
Grass feeding produces a stronger flavored meat, whereas, cereals
milder flavored meat.
In general, as the energy density of the diet increases, either through
high quantity grains that replace forages or by adding fat, the growth
animals increase, animals reach slaughter weight at younger age, the res
carcass is heavier and higher in overall fatness.
Concentrate diets improve meat flavor and juiciness. The meat is brighte
cherry red in color and the fat is whiter.
When diets have a high fibre and low-energy content, carcasses are les
fattened, the skeleton is more developed and the lipid content of the carcass is
very low, but water and protein content seem to be high. Higher crude fibr
feeding leads to lower energy content of the meat.
 The breed can influence weight, yields, and the conformation of the carcass,
among other variables, as well as the pH level and the fatty acid composition
of the meat.
Breed effect is significant for fatness, carcass weight, carcass length;
buttock and chest measurements, and lean and fat proportions in the left
half of the carcass.
The type of breed determines the colour parameters of meat, water holding
capacity of the meat.
Though, local breeds have some advantages such as crude feed tolerance;
high reproductive performance, low maintenance requirements, their
growth performance and dressing percentage are low.
The stress effects the meat quality in different ways. There can be:
Long term stress
Short term stress
Long term slaughter stress, such as fighting, cold weather, fasting Vand
transit, which occurs 12 to 48 hours prior to slaughter depletes, museleé
glycogen, resulting in meat which has higher Ph, darker color, and is drier.
Short term acute stress, such as excitement or fighting immediately prior
to slaughter, produce lactic acid from the breakdown of glycogen. This results
in meat which has a lower pH, lighter color, reduced water binding capacity,
and is possibly tougher.
 The energy required for muscle activity in the live animal is obtained from sugars (glycogen) in the muscle: In the
healthy and well-rested animal, the glycogen content of the muscle is high. After the animal has been slaughtered,
the glycogen in the muscle is converted into lactic acid, and the muscle and carcass becomes firm (rigor mortis).
This lactic acid is necessary to produce meat, which is tasteful and tender, of good keeping quality and good
colour. If the animal is stressed before and during slaughter, the glycogen is used up, and the lactic a@id level that
develops in the meat after slaughter 1s reduced. This will have serious adverse effects on meat quality,

Pale Soft Exudative (PSE) meat

PSE is caused by severe, short-term stress just prior to slaughter, for example during off-loading, handling;
holding in pens and stunning. Here the animal is subjected to severe anxiety and fright caused by manhandhing;
fighting in the pens and bad stunning techniques. All this may result in biochemical processes in the muscle im
particular in rapid breakdown of muscle glycogen and the meat becoming very pale with pronounced acidity (pH
values of 5.4-5.6 immediately after slaughter) and poor flavor. This type of meat is difficult to use or cannot be
used at all by butchers or meat processors and is wasted in extreme cases. Allowing pigs to rest for one hour prior
to slaughter and quiet handling will considerably reduce the risk of PSE.

II. Dark Firm and Dry (DFD) meat

This condition can be found in carcasses of cattle or sheep and sometimes pigs and turkeys soon after slaughter.
The carcass meat is darker and drier than normal and has a much firmer texture. The muscle glycogen#has been
used up during the period of handling, transport and pre-slaughter and as a result, after slaughter, thereds little
lactic acid production, which results in DFD meat. This meat is of inferior quality as the less pronounced taste
and the dark color is less acceptable to the consumer and has a shorter shelf life due to the abnornaally high pH-
value of the meat (6.4-6.8). DFD meat means that the carcass was from an animal that was stressed, injured or
diseased before being slaughtered.
“ Excitement and fighting are called psychological stress
have more detrimental effect on meat quality than fasting or
weather which are called physical stressors.
“> If the animal undergoes stress before slaughtering, adrenali
hormone 1s released which uses up glycogen, which means ther
not enough lactic acid produced postmortem.
“» This affects different kind of meat in different ways, but in ike
will be tough, tasteless, and high in pH, and will go bad quicker
than unstressed meat.
MEAT QUALITY
In the food industry, color measurements are used as an important quality control. In the case of poultry) producing a
chicken with a consistent skin color is very important to consumers who have certain expectations for a Wholesome
product.
The red/brown meat color of meat is mainly provided by the myoglobin meat pigments. The two major pigments are the
hemoglobin that is found in the red blood cells and, therefore, is called the pigment of the blood, and the myéglobim
that is a smaller molecule found in the muscle tissue.
Overall, the hemoglobin molecule is basically constructed of four myoglobin subunits.

The myoglobin is a complex molecule consisting of two major parts: the protein portion called globin and thé
nonprotein portion called heme ring. The latter has an iron molecule in the center and is responsible for binding ێrtain
components (e.g., oxygen). The protein component consists of a globular protein attached to the iron molecule.

The state of the iron molecule (i.e., reduced, oxidized) and the compounds attached to the ring affect meat color. When
an oxygen molecule is attached, as is the case when the blood is carried from the lungs to the muscles, the color is bright
red. This color can also be formed in chicken/turkey leg meat exposed to oxygen. The iron molecule is in its reduced
ferrous (Fe) state.

In the industry, this color is referred to as “bloom” and is especially important in for marketing fresh red meats. In@his
state, the pigment associated with oxygen is called oxymyoglobin. The interior of the meat cut is brown, resulting from
the oxidized state of the pigment (metmyoglobin in which the iron molecule is in its ferric, Fe, form). This is due to a
lack of oxygen inside the muscle, but it can be reversed when the meat is exposed to air, provided microbial/counts are not
too high.

The change between metmyoglobin and oxymyoglobin is reversible under normal conditions. However, when
microbial counts are high, the return to the oxymyoglobin state is difficult to achieve because the™mieroorganisms
consume most of the oxygen and can physically degrade the pigment.
 oxygen addition
Myoglobin > Oxymyoglobin
a . .

(purple red) oxygen removal (bright red/pink)

reduction
+ nitrite oxidanion reduction oxidation

Nitrosomyoglobin + nitrite Metmyoglobin

(reddish) (brown, tan)

+ heat + heat

Nitrosohemochrome Denatured Metmyoglobin

(light pink) (gray, brown)

oxidation
oxidation

Oxidized Porphyrin
(yellowish, colorless)
Figure 13.7. The Different States of Myoglobin and Colors of Red Poultry Muscle
(e.g., Chicken Thigh Meat). Single Arrow Represents a Nonreversible Reaction.
¢ On cooking, the protein part of the meat pigment is denatured and gives the meat its typical grayish
cooked color. When nitrite is added to meat, prior to cooking, a typical reddish color will imitially
develop. Later, upon heating, it will change to the stable light pink pigment called nitrosohemochrome, The
difference between cured and noncured meat products can resulting in the typical gray/brown Color, or when
it is cured, by nitrite (e.g., turkey ham), in a processing plant resulting in a pink cured color. In addition; the
overall color of the meat is also affected by the structure and spacing of the muscle building unitS=the
sarcomeres. The physical structure of the sarcomeres affects the light absorbed and reflected bythe museles
surface.

FACTORS AFFECTING SKIN AND MEAT COLOR

A. Skin pigmentation is the result of melanin deposition (i.e., pigment produced by the bird) and/or
xanthophyll obtained from plant material. The skin color usually reflects local feeding practices as welljas
genetic stocks kept in the area. Broilers’ skin color depends on two major factors:
1. first is the genetic capability to produce the pigment melanin and deposit it either in the dermal or te
epidermal layer of the skin.
2. second factor is the genetic ability to absorb and deposit carotenoid pigments from plantdnaterial or a
synthetic source.
> A white skin color results from no melanin or xanthophyll deposition. The black-skinn
strain that has the ability to deposit melanin in the dermis and epidermis layers and, there
very dark/black skin. Yellow skin is the result of xanthophyll present in the epidermis. B
seen in some strains and is the result of melanin deposition in the dermis (none in epidermis).
color is the result of xanthophyll plus melanin.

Table 13.1. Possible Skin Color due to Dietary Xanthophyll Being Deposited
in the Epidermis or Melanin Being Produced by Malanophores.
Adopted from Fletcher (1999a).

Skin Color Epidermis Dermis

White None None

Black Melanin Melanin
Yellow Xanthophyll None
Green Xanthophyll Melanin

B. Fiber type and myoglobin content have a strong effect on meat color. The basic color differences, b
muscles are a result of the relative amounts of white and red muscle fibers Meat color is largely
on the amount of meat pigment, myoglobin, present in the fiber.
* Chicken breast muscle is predominantly composed of white fibers, which have a low myoglobin level and, the
the other hand, thigh meat is mainly composed of red fibers and shows a darker color. Different poultry species
amount of pigment in their muscles. The overall amount of myoglobin in the muscle varies depending on the speci
muscle and the age of the bird (i.e., muscles from young animals are lighter than those from mature animals).
be related to muscle activity, where the domestic chicken breast muscle is lighter than its wild ancestor who was mu

C. Lighting Conditions

The color that we see is the result of the light reflected from the meat’s surface and, therefore, the source of light used f
can greatly affect the color. Different types of light sources can be used, and the three main ones include incandescent (IN
(FL) and metal halide (MH). These sources have different spectral patterns, and the decision to install one over the other d
factors such as energy efficiency, heat output, cost of the lightbulb and its life expectancy.

D. If nitrite is added to products such as turkey ham, the typical pink cured meat color, called nitrosohemochrome, is formed.
is very stable once the complex is formed and heated.

E. During slow roasting, the surface of the meat and/or skin develops a typical brown color that results from the Maillard reacti
reaction between amino acids and reducing sugars causes this desirable browning effect.

F. Smoking has a profound effect on obtaining a brownish golden color to the surface of the product. The four main grou
found in smoke include organic acids, phenols, carbonyls and polycyclic hydrocarbons. Of these compounds, carbon
important in developing the brownish color, as they participate in the Maillard reaction.
COLOR DEFECTS
Different color problems can be seen in fresh and cooked meat. In fresh meat, they can range f
splashes to greening of the muscle. In addition, uneven color of breast fillets placed on the same
considered a color problem by the consumer. Several color problems can also be seen in the cooke
ranging from nitrate burns to pinkness of the traditional white oven-roasted turkey breast product
cases, a problem might develop over time, such as fading or off-color formation by microorganisms
certain pigments or oxidizing chemicals.
Blood splashes and hemorrhages are related to muscle injury. When the bird is bruised or suffers
dislocation/break, rupture of the blood vessels occurs. Using moldy feed containing mycotoxin, at a
low as 5 ppm, has also been reported as a potential problem. During injury, cellular components, are
into the muscle and cause a detrimental physiological or pathological response. The cellular component
released from injured cells and blood vessels can trigger an inflammatory response and a visible\blood
During the process, coagulation factors such as thromboplastin can cause localized or systemic vascular
coagulation.
In addition, the breakdown of cell membranes can result in the release of proteases and lipases enzymes an
destabilize other cells. Injury can happen at different stages of the bird’s life. During the growing period, bi
housed in barns can injure themselves due to bumping into sharp objects, fighting or even sitting down for
extended periods of time. Later, during the catching and transportation operations, there is a greater risk#or
injury when the birds are harvested.
Gas stunning can eliminate some of the problems associated with pulling the live birds from the gfates}
because stunning can be done while the birds are still in the crates. In general, a red bruise indicates a recent
injury, and a more brownish-gray discoloration on the surface can indicate an older bruise.
II .Pale soft exudative (PSE) is seen as lighter than normal meat and results in a poor quali
water-holding capacity. This is very important to the processors because lean muscle con
75% water. In the case of PSE breast muscle, the meat not only has problems holding on to
moisture (i.e., added during further processing) but also holding its own water.
This can be critical when large individual turkey breast muscles are injected, tumbled and the
bag to produce a premium oven-roasted turkey breast product. Due to the poor water holding,
moisture and some of the original water would not be held within the product. At the end of the
cycle, the bag will have to be opened and exudated moisture drained. This reduces profits and
substantially shortens the shelf life of the product.
III. Color variation in fresh meat presentation might be perceived as a problem by consumers purch
on or skinless poultry when different color fillets are placed on the same tray. The human eye is
sensitive in detecting color variations in objects around us , and variations in packaged poultry me
exception. This represents a fairly large color variation of skinless fillets that, regardless of the rea
growing, transportation stresses), can stop the consumer from buying a package showing colo
IV. Deep pectoral myopathy, also known as “green muscle disease,” can sometimes be see
and broilers. It has been reported by some that this abnormality is an inherited defect. It is
selection for increased muscle size may have altered blood flow to the deep pectoral mus
eventually result in the death of muscle fibers in this area and the green appearance. On the
affected birds usually show a sunken area on one side of the breast which, upon cutting, will
greenish discoloration.
V. Freezer burn is caused by moisture loss from the surface during storage of unprotected/uncov
Such dehydration causes protein denaturation and a grayish discoloration. This can result\fro
inappropriate wrapping material or holes in the packaging material. Besides discoloration, the\mea
area will be dry and tasteless and exhibit oxidative rancidity described by consumers as old/stale fl
The characteristics of the packaging material used for protecting frozen poultry are very important. I
be moisture proof and, ideally, a stretchable film that can be made to come in close contact with the m
This is important to assure fast freezing (i.e., eliminating insulating air) and prevent water evaporation
ice accumulation inside the package. Vacuum packaging is more expensive than conventional packaging
can form into a skintight packaging and also help in minimizing oxidation during prolonged frozen stora
VI. Bone darkening is a phenomenon that can be induced by the freezing of young poultry,
muscle around the bone may have a dark/bloody appearance. This is the result of bone m
from the porous bone structure of young poultry. Later, during cooking, the hemoglobin co
marrow is heat denaturated and forms the dark discoloration. Usually, the problem is mor
around bone ends in the knee joint, wing joint and leg joint areas. The problem is aestheticall
but does not affect the safety and texture of the product. As indicated above, the problem is mo
seen in young chicken fryers and seldom in mature chickens, turkeys or ducks.
VIL. Nitrite burn can be seen in cooked products that were injected in an uneven manner. This can
problems with the injector (e.g., blocked needles, excessive pressure) that cause an uneven distribu
brine ingredients that is later seen as discoloration where nitrite levels were too high. This is a disti
visual defect that can be accompanied by areas that were not cured by nitrite, showing the grayish
denatured myoglobin color. The appearance of such a defect usually indicates that other ingredients,
as salt and spices, have not been evenly distributed.
VIII. Pinkness of cooked white meat products can sometimes be seen in further processed and thermally tre
products due to nitrite contamination. A very small nitrite concentration (i.e., 2—5 ppm) can cause a
noticeable pinkness. The nitrate can come from the water used in the plant, from a spice mix, from gases
discharged from the truck hauling the live birds and from gas-fired ovens. It has been reported that well
water can have high nitrite concentrations (i.e., agricultural areas where nitrogen fertilizers are heavily Used),
and the problem may show after extensive snowmelt or heavy rainfall. Therefore, it is recommended that
processing plants monitor the nitrite levels in their water on a routine basis.
Ingredients such as salt and phosphate are added to processed poultry products to impro
myofibrillar proteins and, hence, binding. Ahn and Maurer (1989) reported that salt (2.5%
decreased the heat stability of myoglobin and hemoglobin at 68 and 74°C while it incre
stability of cytochrome c. Sodium tripolyphosphate (0.5%) addition, followed by heating t
and 85°C, increased the heat stability of myoglobin; however, its addition decreased the heat
cytochrome c due to pH increase. Dextrose, used in the same study, increased the stability of h
68°C and that of cytochrome c at 85°C but not myoglobin. It was noted that oxidation-reductio
decreased by adding salt and phosphate. They indicated that potential changes could have a stron
pinkness of cooked turkey breast, particularly if the oxidation-reduction potential of the meat is ar
mV or —S0 mV.
Cooking temperature can also play a role in the pinkness problem. Time and temperature were foun
factors in determining the amount of undenatured pigment present in cooked meat. Research in ‘red m
poultry has indicated that the undenatured pigment in cooked meat is mainly oxymyoglobin. The USD
requires a minimum temperature of 71.2°C for all precooked poultry meat products to destroy pathoge
(products are usually cooked in water, steam-cooked under pressure or heated in an oven). Cooking turk
rolls to various end-point temperatures, using a rotary oven, showed more pink color problems when end&
point cooking temperatures were below 71°C. Normally, the end-point temperature should exceed 74°C) bat
processing temperatures could fall below this target if not closely monitored.
IX. Color fading is caused by exposure to light that can result in oxidizing the meat pigme
forming oxidized porphyrin. The problem is usually more pronounced in cooked product
transparent package. Fluorescent light, which has a relatively high proportion of ultraviolet
be more damaging to the color and can cause faster fading then exposure to incandescent li
light intensity. Protecting the color from oxidation is desirable and can also be achieved by'\t
antioxidants. Vitamin E represents the most common option, because it is a natural ingredie
incorporated into poultry diets without any special labeling. Vitamin E is found in different pl
where its function is to protect from lipid oxidation. Given in the diet, it will be distributed thro
body and it can be stored in the tissue.
X. Discoloration (greening, yellowing, etc.) can be caused by microorganisms present in the produc
color change is usually seen developing over time. In some severe cases, microorganisms such as
Streptococcus faecium sub- species casseliflavus, can cause the development of a yellow pigment
initially appear as tiny yellow dots but later will cover the whole surface and will appear as a layer
mustard. Such discoloration makes the product unappealing and potentially dangerous to consume.
case of the Streptococci, the contamination usually takes place after cooking because the microorgani
fairly heat sensitive and is destroyed under normal cooking procedures. Cross contamination by slici
equipment, people and contaminated air can spread the microorganism to many packages. It takes this
microorganism a few weeks to develop (under refrigerated temperature), meaning that the problem will
appear later during the distribution and selling of the product.
Microorganisms such as Pseudomonas fluorescens can cause the development of a shiny transparent
greenish exudate. Such an appearance can be mistaken to be an iridescence problem. Microbial
degradation of the heme pigment can be distinguished from the iridescence problem by rotating she
product 90°. If the greenish color does not disappear, it is a pretty good indication that the problemas
microbial. If the color disappears, the problem is most likely related to iridescence.
> Green rings in a sausage-type product can indicate an improper cooking procedure.
A green core indicates that the target internal cooking temperature has not been
achieved, and microorganisms capable of breaking the heme-ring are still active. This
kind of oxidation is irreversible. The appearance of a green ring on the peripheral part
of the sausage might indicate the use of meat with a high microbial load. In such a
case, the microorganisms can oxidize the heme-ring even before the cooking operation
starts (i.e., before thermal destruction of the bacteria).
XI. Iridescence, or the appearance of green-orange colors on the surface of a meat
product is the result of a unique light reflection phenomenon. The exact mechanism is
not fully understood, but it is known that certain muscle structures can cause optical
diffraction, resulting in splitting of white light into its components. It is interesting to
note that the processor can reduce or eliminate the problem by using a dull knife
instead of a sharp knife for slicing. The latter is usually recommended to maintain high
product quality and unnecessary breaks and tears in a sliced product. In meat, the
greenness due to iridescence has an almost monochromatic purity of color that is absent
in even the most extreme green discoloration produced by degradation of the heme
pigment.
Flavor is a combination of taste and smell that is perceived by the taste buds and the olfactory
receptors in the nose.
Flavor and taste perception is a very complex system that is affected by many factors (e.g., ratio of
different flavor compounds, temperature). Taste is perceived by sensors located on the tongue
capable of detecting four major tastes, namely salty, sweet, sour/acid and bitter.

Other sensations such as “umami”, astringency, metallic and pain (“hot” and “cooling” foods)
are also known.
Proteins, peptides, amino acids and nucleotides are the most important compounds. Most are
actually present at below their taste threshold concentration, suggesting that synergistic effects are
important in taste perception.
The process of removing individual compounds from the mixture was used to identify the
contribution of each one. The major compounds were glutamic acid, inosine monophosphate and
potassium ions. The glutamic acid and the inosine monophosphate conferred the “umami” and
salty tastes, and the inosine also produced some sweetness. The potassium ions were responsible
for salty, bitter and some sweet sensations. During cooking, a change in the concentration of
reducing sugars, free amino acids and nucleotides could be seen. These changes affect the taste and
aroma of poultry meat, because many of the substances are precursors for chemical reactions
responsible for odor formation during cooking, roasting or frying.
~
>,
Most of the odor/aroma compounds are formed during the cooking process.
evident from the fact that cooked meat has a completely different aroma than r
About 500 volatile aroma compounds have been identified in chicken meat.
the compounds have relatively high odor thresholds and present little contributio
overall aroma and flavor.

oo
The compounds are grouped into sulfur-containing compounds, other heterocyclic
compounds (containing sulfur, oxygen and nitrogen) and the group of aldehydes,
ketones and lactones. Individually, such compounds can be responsible for one major
aroma note such as fruity, mushroomy, meaty, sulfurous or toasted, but together they
combine to provide the typical aroma of a cooked chicken. It was indicated that the
important compounds for cooked chicken aroma development are different from those
important for cooked beef in that 2-methyl-3- furyl disulfide, methional and
phenylacetaldehyde are less important, whereas certain lipid oxidation by-products
such as trans-2, 4-decadienal and trans- undecenal are of greater importance in
cooked chicken.
 Overall, it is well known that the flavor and aroma differ depending on the cooking method,
indicating that certain volatiles are more important in a product prepared by roasting, frying or Water
boiling.
Cooking methods can have a marked effect on the flavor and aroma of poultry meat. Cooked chicken
has high amounts of linoleic acid and 2,4-decadienal.
Among the chemical reactions important for aroma production are:

1. MAILLARD REACTION
The Maillard reaction is a reaction between amino acids and reducing sugars. This reaction can
result in over 100 volatile products. It represents a fairly complex sequence of chemical reactions in
which one or more amino acids react with reducing sugar(s) by different pathways to yield a
variety of products, some responsible for flavor and some for the browning of the surface. The first
compound, hydrogen sulfide, is produced by a reaction between the amino acid cysteine and
dicarbony] as part of the Strecker degradation reaction, which is part of the overall Maillard
reaction. This specific reaction contributes to the overall aroma and also produces a key stlfur-
containing intermediate for other reactions.T
2. DEGRADATION OF THE B, VITAMIN (THIAMINE)
Thiamine degradation can result in different compounds containing sulfur and nitrogen resultmg from the
breakdown of the vitamin bicyclic structure. Some of these compounds have a potent aroma, ‘such as the 2=
methyl-3- furanthiol compound that is responsible for a “meaty” aroma and flavor of chicken meat, The
compound can be formed by thiamine degradation or by a reaction between cysteine and ribose, 2-Furan=
methanethiol can also be formed by thiamine degradation, and it provides a roasty aroma.
3. LIPID OXIDATION
Oxidation of fatty acids contributes to desirable flavors and aroma, as well as potential problems with
rancidity development. Cooking results in thermal oxidation, which is responsible for generating desired
flavor notes. However, oxidation occurring at ambient temperature, usually by endogenous enzymes,\Can
result in the production of negative flavor notes, described as rancid or cardboard-like odors. Under
“Aldehydes, ketones and lactones,” about 10 compounds that result from thermal oxidation (1.e., 1-Octen= 3=
one, trans-2-nonenal, trans-trans 2, 4-nonadienal and trans-trans 2, 4-decadienal; all are from thermal
oxidation of n-6 fatty acids), all of which are believed to contribute positive flavor notes to cooked chicken\
The most reactive lipids are the polyunsaturated fats, followed by unsaturated and saturated lipids. Some
are also known to contribute to the unpleasant odor of reheated cooked poultry described as the warmeéed-
over-flavor (WOF).
The overall flavor and aroma of poultry meat is influenced by the concentration of the different
precursors (e.g., amino acids, sugars, lipids), temperature, pH and other chemicals present. The lack
of some precursors can be a limiting factor in aroma development and may explain the bland flavor of
some meats.
Cooking temperature affects the extent of the Maillard reaction and oxidation of fatty acids. It has
been demonstrated that the amounts of volatiles produced increases as cooking temperature is raised from
60° to 80°C. Higher temperatures can increase the rate of the chemical reactions and the release of free
amino acids and other precursors.
Quantities of lipid oxidation by-products, namely, nonanal and heptanone, increased as temperature
was raised from 60° to 70°C and later plateaued. On the other hand, the amounts of 2, 3-butanedione and
dimethyldisulfide increased at an almost constant rate between 60° and 80°C.
Overall, the characteristic flavor of poultry is derived from the presence and concentration of various
water-soluble compounds, as well as volatile aroma compounds. These compounds’ concentrations and
interactions can be affected by various factors including the genetic stock, sex, age and diet, as well as
processing factors such as slaughter method, evisceration time, chilling rate, storage and cooking
method.
One of the most important factors is the age of the bird. Other factors, such as genotype and weight,
are considered by some to be extremely important.
The effect of age can be attributed to physiological changes that occur during the growing period
and, as birds reach maturity, these changes can affect the concentration of the flavor
compounds/precursors. It was shown that flavor intensity in male chickens continually increased
up to 14 weeks of age, which is the time it takes to reach sexual maturity.
The sex of the bird has been reported by some to affect the flavor, with males tending to have a
stronger flavor. Others have indicated that there are usually no flavor differences among sexes until
broilers reach sexual maturity at about 14 weeks of age.
Diet may affect flavor, but overall large changes are required to produce a small effect on flavor.
However, some feeds, such as oxidized fats (e.g., fish oil), can induce fishy aroma in both meat and
eggs when fed at a low concentration. In terms of enhancing the shelf life of stored poultry meat, a
dietary supplement of vitamin E has been used to effectively retard lipid oxidation and off-flavor
formation during prolonged storage. Researchers have demonstrated that supplementary vitamin E
can be accumulated in the muscle and later minimize off-flavor formation during fresh/frozen
storage.
A series of studies dealing with Label Rouge broilers (i.c., slow-growing chickens), low stocking
densities, high cereal diets and exposure to outside environment; showed that birds raised for a
minimum of 12 weeks had a more intense odor and flavor.
 TEXTURE
Determining the textural parameters of a poultry product is important in optimizing growin
and processing conditions so an acceptable product can be offered to the consumer. In the
area of fresh products (e.g., chicken breast, turkey thigh meat), a product that is too tough to
chew is unacceptable to the consumer as is a product that is too mushy and falling apart.
The textural parameters can be measured by different tests that basically include shear,
penetration, compression, tension and torsion. Another test that is used more for research
purposes is dynamic scanning rigidity monitoring, which employs low strain (i.e.,
nondestructive testing). The test is mostly used for monitoring the gelation process (i.c.,
during heating) and interactions between different meat and non-meat gelling components.
a) Shear | V b) Penetration | i

c) Compression d) Tension
- single
- double - Texture Profile Analysis

LT

CT :

e) Torsion

Figure 14.5. Different Modes of Texture Analysis.

 WATER-HOLDING CAPACI
(WHC)
Most poultry products contain 60-80% moisture that is held by the protein matrix.
The amount of protein is usually around 10-20% of the product.
A minimum of 11% protein is required to be present in various processed meat
products, where 9.5% should be meat proteins; otherwise, words like “imitation” should
be included in the product’s name.
The other major component is fat, which usually ranges between 5—35%.
Obtaining protein with good functional properties is of paramount importance.
The quality of the proteins, in terms of water-holding capacity, is influenced by the type of
muscle, pre- and post-rigor conditions (DFD and PSE meat), and processing
treatments such as freezing (i.e., freezing would usually have a negative effect on water-
holding capacity).
 SCIENTIFIC BASIS
Over the years, researchers measuring WHC have used terms such as water binding, water r
hydration capacity, water absorption, suction potential and swelling to describe the pheno
of WHC. For practical reasons, water held within a protein structure (e.g., fresh muscle,
comminuted meat product) can be divided into three major categories.

- BOUND WATER—includes water directly attached to the protein molecule that is no longer
available as a solvent. In muscle food, it usually amounts to 4-10 g water/100 g of the meat protein.
In this case, the polar water molecules react with the charged side chains of the amino acids.
- IMMOBILIZED WATER—tepresents water molecules attached (commonly by hydrogen bonds) to
the bound water in bonds that become successively weaker as the distance from the protein charged
groups is increased. In muscle food, it usually amounts to 20-60 ¢/100 g protein.
. FREE WATER—is mainly held by surface forces. This category is of major importance in further
meat processing and usually represents 300-600 ¢g/100 ¢ protein. This water can be relatively easil
squeezed out of the meat, and the processor’s goal is to keep it in the product. In other instances,
where the processor adds extra moisture by injection/marination, the increase is mainly to the free
water category.
>» Amore detailed description of the types of water found in a food protein sy
provided by Kinsella et al. (1989).

They distinguished between six basic categories: structural water that is tightl
bound to the protein molecules and unavailable for chemical reaction, hydropho
hydration water found around apolar residues of amino acids, monolayer water
that is the first layer of water absorbed to the protein groups and may be available
some reactions, unfreezable water consisting of water that does not freeze at the
first sharp transition temperature, capillary water that is held by surface tension
forces and hydrodynamic hydration water that loosely surrounds the proteins.
> FACTORS AFFECTING AMOUNT OF WATER BOUND
The amount of water and degree of binding of each of these categories are affected by factors su
pH, protein type and concentration, number of exposed charged groups, salt and temperatur
PH is a shorthand way of designating the hydrogen ion activity of a solution. By definition, pH is
negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion activity. Similarly, pOH is the negative logarithm of the
hydroxyl ion activity.

1
pH = —log [H"] = log lH)

A protein molecule (e.g., actin, myosin) consists of a chain of individual amino acids attached to each
other by peptide bonds. This consists of the primary structure that refers to the sequential order of
amino acids in a protein. Secondary and tertiary structures relate to the three-dimensional
organization for the polypeptide chain. Quaternary structure refers to the geometric arrangement
among various polypeptide chains, as these chains linked by bonds that, in most cases, are not
covalent.
 ,
~°
The side chains of the amino acids are “sticking out” from the main strand of the protein mole
The side chains can be neutral or positively or negatively charged depending on the amino a
and the pH of the environment. After slaughter, the pH of the muscle drops due to the
accumulation of lactic acid in the muscle. The pH drop results in an overall reduction of reacti
charged groups on the protein molecules. These reactive groups are the ones available for water
binding. The shift in pH causes a reduction in WHC that can be explained as the result of three
main factors:
I. NET CHARGE EFFECT— refers to the amount of charged groups on the protein molecules
that are available for water binding. pH reduction in postmortem meat occurs due to lactic acid
accumulation resulting in the pH approaching the isoelectric point of the muscle proteins (pH at
which the number of negatively and positively charged groups is equal). As a result, the side chain
groups will have fewer groups available for water attachment (also known as the net charge effect).
At the normal body pH (around 7.0), more water can be bound to the muscle proteins compared to
the post-rigor meat at a pH of about 5.6. This means that at a higher pH, the net charge is greater
and more bound or immobilized water can be attached to the proteins.
Il. STERIC EFFECT—refers to the repulsion phenomenon seen when side chains are charged
similar charge. Basically, similarly charged groups will repel each other. This, in turn, is benef
to the meat processor because larger spaces are created and made available for water molecul
to reside. This can happen on both sides of the isoelectric point, where a high proportion of
negatively or positively charged groups will result in more repulsion. Because the pH of the
postmortem meat is usually approaching the isoelectric point, the WHC is reduced. Ingredients
such as alkaline phosphates and acids are sometimes used to shift the pH, and hence, increase
WHC.

Il. ION EXCHANGE—1akes place during the meat aging process (after rigor mortis has been
completed), where enzymatic degradation of cellular structure results in redistribution of ions.
Replacing some of the divalent ions, such as calcium, with monovalent ions, such as sodium, helps
to free charged protein side groups and increase WHC. The calcium ion is mentioned here because
it is released during the postmortem process and is capable of attaching two negatively charged side
groups and, by that, neutralizing two negatively charged groups. Once replaced by monovalent
ions, the proteins can bind more water. Addition of NaCl to meat system is known to significantly
improve WHC.
SALTING OUT

The addition of sodium chloride to a meat system is known to significantly improve the W
This can be seen in Figure 14.9, where the WHC curve is shifted to the left. This is the result
solubilizing the myofibrillar proteins (also called the salt-soluble fraction) and of adding more
negative chloride ions to the system.
There is an optimal salt level that could be used to increase WHC or, in other words, decrease
shrink. The figure shows that increasing the salt concentration from 0-3% has a dramatic
effect on reducing shrink.
However, above 5%, the reverse is seen due to the so- called “salting-out” effect. At high salt
concentration, the proteins will aggregate and, by doing so, they will fold, and their protein-
charged side groups will not be available for water binding (1.c., side groups are “buried”
inside the protein structure).
 ae
A oF Meat + 2% salt

Water Holding Capacity (WHC)

t t t t >
4.5 5 5:35 6
pH

— 3 oo
<a
4 * __ =
+ + ~~

Repulsion Repulsion

(A) (B) (C)

* Tsoelectric point
Figure 14.9. Effect of pH on the Amount of Immobilized Water Present in Meat due
to Its Impact on the Distribution of Charged Groups on the Myofilaments and the
Amount of Space Between Them. (A) Excess Positive Charges on the Filaments.
(B) Balance of Positive and Negative Charges. (C) Excess Negative Charges on the
Filaments. Adapted from Price and Schweigert (1987).
 METHODS TO ESTIMATE WATER
HOLDING CAPACITY
1. PRESSURE APPLICATION
According to this approach, an external force is applied, commonly by a hydraulic press or a
centrifuge, to extract various degrees of water from the sample.
Press methods have been used to evaluate the amount of “squeezable” water. The sample is
compressed between two parallel plates using a hydraulic press or a texture analyzer. The
released moisture is collected on a preweighed filter paper.
During the test, the sample is usually compressed into a thin film and most/all of the free water is
squeezed out. They range from a force of 0.01-44 KN, sample size of 0.3—1.5 g, temperature of 4—
23°C and compression time from 1—20 minutes. In addition, different filter papers have been used.

2. HIGH-SPEED CENTRIFUGATION has been applied to samples placed in test tubes and
revolved at high rpm to apply pressure. Then, the water oozed out is weighed.
3. STUDY OF MICROSTRUCTURE
As indicated in the previous section, the structure of a gel can be assessed by microscopical
examination. The structure can be viewed by low magnification light microscopy or by high
magnification (scanning or transmission) electron microscopy, which can reveal much more
detail. The electron beam strikes the meat sample and forms a precise image.

4. SPECIAL INSTRUMENTS (NMR, DSC)

Special instruments such as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and differential scanning
calorimetry (DSC) can be used to indirectly measure the degree of WHC in various foods. These
instruments can provide precise in- formation on water molecule relaxation time (by NMR) and
the degree of hydration and/or amount of freezable water in a protein system (by DSC).
Magnetic field is created and the protons are measured.

5. OPTICAL SENSORS
One example in the meat industry where color measurements are commonly used to sort out the
pale, soft, exudative (PSE) meat is in the pork industry. In the poultry industry, only a few
processors are starting to use the procedure. The relationship between color and WHC in meat i
very complex and not fully understood. However, for practical application, it was found that t
lightness value can be used to predict the PSE condition.
 FAT-HOLDING CAPACITY
The ability of a further processed product, such as a frankfurter, that contains up to 30% fat, to
retain its fat is of great importance to the meat industry.
Fat is solid at 20°C. Keeping the fat within the product represents a challenge to the processor,
especially during the cooking phase when the fat is converted to liquid (i.e., at a temperature
>50°C). The liquid fat can flow out of the product if not properly held.
Fat is important for juiciness and flavor in poultry meat and its losses would leave voids in the
product and adversely affect the texture and mouthfeel. Therefore, methods to predict fat-holding
capacity in processed products have been developed.
The fat in a meat product is held either within fat cells (i.e., cellular structures used in the body fo
fat deposits) or as fat droplets that have lost the cellular “envelope.” The latter is the case in
emulsified meat products where the fat tissue is finally chopped in a high-speed, silent cutter or an
emulsion mill. In such a case, the interactions between the protein matrix and fat are very important
because the protein serves as an emulsifier (i.e. having hydrophilic and hydrophobic sites) that
creates an intermediate between the aqueous and fat phases.
A. PRESSURE APPLICATION
As with methods described for WHC, high- and low-speed centrifugation have been used to study fat
binding in meat products. An external force is applied, commonly by a hydraulic press or a centrifuge, to
extract various degrees of water from the sample.

B. COOKING TEST
Observing a sample during a normal cooking process and monitoring the amount of fat (and/or water) lost
are very common and used in numerous research and industry reports. Such an observation can indicate
advantages/disadvantages of using certain meats, employing certain processes and using different non-meat
ingredients. The test is easy to perform and used to study fat holding capacity in a muscle protein system.

C. STUDY OF MICROSTRUCTURE
As indicated earlier, this approach is used to evaluate the structure of a product and to study the relationship
between microstructure and fat/water holding. Overall, the protein gel matrix has an open structure with
fat globules embedded within the matrix. Usually, there is a thin protein coat around the fat globule that
serves as an intermediate layer separating the fat and the aqueous phase (i.e., an emulsifying agent).
Examining this interaction is important in understanding some of the mechanisms responsible for fat holding
and does not require sophisticated equipment. The size of the pores within the protein matrix, as well as t
extent of interfacial protein film, determine the amount of fat that can be held within the product. This
of work can only be done at high magnification where scanning/ transmission electron microscopes
used.
D. MEASURING EMULSIFICATION CAPACITY
These tests are done by overloading the system with liquid oil (usually vegetable oil) and
determining the maximum fat emulsification point. During the test, a high-speed homogenize
(or sometimes a food processor) is used to emulsify the oil, which is added slowly, at a constant
rate, to a known protein solution. The oil is gradually emulsified until it overloads the system
and reaches a point known as “breakdown” when the oil and protein phases separate.

E. SOLVENT EXTRACTION
This test has been used by some researchers to extract unstable fat from meat products using
soxhlet apparatus. The unstable fat has been referred to as fat that is not surrounded by cellular
membrane structure or fat that is not properly emulsified and surrounded by an interfacial protein
film. Hexane is used to extract unstable fat from hamburger-type products produced with 20%
fat. The extraction results were similar to the net-test results obtained by centrifugation. Most of the
unstable fat could be released by either a mild centrifugation force or by the hexane extraction
method. It is an empirical method capable of measuring coalescence stability over a wide range.

F. OPTICAL METHODS
Spectrophotometry is not commonly used to assess fat binding in food products, but it is rel
widely used to monitor the absolute fat content in foods by using infrared.
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