applied

sciences
Article
Vibration Analysis of a Piezoelectric Ultrasonic Atomizer to
Control Atomization Rate
Esteban Guerra-Bravo 1 , Han-Joo Lee 2 , Arturo Baltazar 1, * and Kenneth J. Loh 2,3, *

1 Robotics and Advanced Manufacturing Program, CINVESTAV–Saltillo, Ramos Arizpe 25900, Mexico;
esteban.guerra@cinvestav.mx
2 Material Science and Engineering Program, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA;
hal257@eng.ucsd.edu
3 Department of Structural Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
* Correspondence: arturo.baltazar@cinvestav.edu.mx (A.B.); kenloh@ucsd.edu (K.J.L.)

Abstract: In this work, a mechanical vibrational analysis of an ultrasonic atomizer is carried out
to control its atomization mass transfer rate. An ultrasonic atomizer is a device constructed with
a piezoelectric ring coupled to a metallic circular thin plate with micro-apertures. The mechanism
of mass transfer by atomization is a complex phenomenon to model because of the coupling effect
between the fluid transfer and dynamic mechanics controlled by a piezoelectric vibrating ring element.
Here, the effect of the micro-apertures shape of the meshed thin plate coupled to a piezoelectric ring
during vibration, as well as the resonance frequency modes, are numerically studied using a finite
element analysis and compared with theoretical and experimental results. Good correlations between
the predicted and experimental results of the resonant frequencies and atomization rates were found.





 Keywords: atomization rate; finite element analysis; micro-apertures; piezoelectric; resonant fre-
quency; ultrasonic atomizer
Citation: Guerra-Bravo, E.; Lee, H.-J.;
Baltazar, A.; Loh, K.J. Vibration
Analysis of a Piezoelectric Ultrasonic
Atomizer to Control Atomization
Rate. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 8350. 1. Introduction
https://doi.org/10.3390/app11188350 Piezoelectric materials (such as lead zirconate titanate (PZT) transducers) have found
broad applications in areas such as elastic vibration sensing [1], force sensing in robotics [2],
Academic Editor: ultrasonic measurements of airflow in ducts [3], and ultrasonic cleaning in energy harvest-
Dimitrios G. Aggelis ing technologies, among others. Piezoelectric materials continue to be studied to achieve
better performances with lower costs and low energy requirements [4]. Important uses
Received: 14 August 2021
of piezoelectric devices include an ultrasonic atomizer for medical inhalation therapy,
Accepted: 6 September 2021
combustion with liquid fluids, and printed circuits, among others, where the actuator
Published: 9 September 2021
converts a liquid to atomized particles [5].
In particular, an ultrasonic atomization device is composed of a piezoelectric ceramic
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
and a metal cover plate. It uses the piezoelectric effect and converts electrical energy
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
into mechanical energy at a high-frequency resonance, causing the breakup of the liquid
published maps and institutional affil-
structure [6–8].
iations.
More recently, ultrasonic atomizers are being considered as replacements for pneu-
matic pumps for soft robotics actuation through atomization and vaporization [9]. Soft
robots have recently received attention due to its flexible adaptability and the low risk of
damaging the work environment and the objects they handle. Many soft robots require
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
small external compressors or pumps for driving the actuator. Actuator miniaturization
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
could be achieved with the use of an ultrasonic atomizer. For example, Lee and Loh [10]
This article is an open access article
proposed a soft inflatable one-DOF (degree of freedom) robot. It has a soft bellows structure
distributed under the terms and
that includes a lower chamber with an embedded ultrasonic atomizer of only 15 mm in
conditions of the Creative Commons
diameter and a heater to evaporate the atomized liquid and to control the vertical displace-
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
ment of the soft robot. In this system, the modes of vibration and resonance frequencies
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 8350. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11188350 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 16

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 8350 in diameter and a heater to evaporate the atomized liquid and to control the vertical2 dis- of 17
placement of the soft robot. In this system, the modes of vibration and resonance frequen-
cies have a direct effect on the displacement and actuation speed. Thus, there is a need to
develop a more comprehensive vibration analysis and mesh properties to have an opti-
have acontrol
mum direct of
effect on the
the soft displacement
robot complianceand actuation speed. Thus, there is a need to de-
control.
velop a moreofcomprehensive
Tuning the frequency vibration
and vibrationanalysis and mesh
parameters is properties to haveinanthe
a main objective optimum
design
control of the soft robot compliance control.
and optimization of an ultrasonic transducer. There are conventional methods to calculate
Tuning of the frequency and vibration parameters is a main objective in the design and
the modes in the free vibration of a plate, but they are limited to plates that have a contin-
optimization of an ultrasonic transducer. There are conventional methods to calculate the
uous homogenous structure without changes in the cross-section. Additionally, there are
modes in the free vibration of a plate, but they are limited to plates that have a continuous
methods to numerically approximate the modes of a vibration, for example, using the
homogenous structure without changes in the cross-section. Additionally, there are meth-
plane wave expansion method [11]; however, it can be computationally complex for inho-
ods to numerically approximate the modes of a vibration, for example, using the plane
mogeneous models. In addition, the coupling effect of piezoelectric energy with mechan-
wave expansion method [11]; however, it can be computationally complex for inhomoge-
ical energy needs to be considered, making the theoretical analysis and its general solution
neous models. In addition, the coupling effect of piezoelectric energy with mechanical
difficult to obtain. With the increase in the computational capacity, numerical approxima-
energy needs to be considered, making the theoretical analysis and its general solution dif-
tions of the piezoelectric phenomena can be studied using finite element (FE) methods.
ficult to obtain. With the increase in the computational capacity, numerical approximations
A typical structure of an ultrasonic atomizer is described in Figure 1. A main compo-
of the piezoelectric phenomena can be studied using finite element (FE) methods.
nent of the system
A typical is theofmesh
structure (i.e., lightatomizer
an ultrasonic gray section), whichinisFigure
is described formed1. by a thin
A main plate
compo-
with a thickness of 50 μm and micro-perforations. The holes are distributed
nent of the system is the mesh (i.e., light gray section), which is formed by a thin plate with within a cir-
cular area with a diameter 𝐷𝑎 . The
a thickness of 50 µm and micro-perforations. ring is the piezoelectric actuator (e.g., PZT)
The holes are distributed within a circular with a
thickness
area with of about 0.6Dmm.
a diameter A potential difference (voltage) is applied to the piezoelectric
a . The ring is the piezoelectric actuator (e.g., PZT) with a thickness
ring across the thickness using
of about 0.6 mm. A potential difference a signal (voltage)
generator. 𝐷𝑖𝑛 andto𝐷𝑜𝑢𝑡
is applied are the innerring
the piezoelectric and across
outer
diameters of the piezoelectric ring, respectively, and 𝐷 is the diameter
the thickness using a signal generator. Din and Dout are𝑎 the inner and outer diameters of of the disperser
or
themesh.
piezoelectric ring, respectively, and Da is the diameter of the disperser or mesh.

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of a typical ultrasonic atomizer device indicating the location mesh and
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of a typical ultrasonic atomizer device indicating the location mesh
its micro-aperture distribution.
and its micro-aperture distribution.
The objectives of this work are to first characterize the dynamic behavior of the
The objectives
complete of this
piezoelectric ringwork are to first
and meshed thincharacterize
plate using the dynamic behavior
FE modeling. Second, of thethe com-
effect of
plete piezoelectric ring and meshed thin plate using FE modeling. Second,
the shape of the micro-apertures on the resonant frequency spectra of the vibrating thin the effect of the
shape ofinvestigated.
plate is the micro-apertures
Last, the onnumerical
the resonant frequencyresults
simulation spectra
ofof
thethe vibrating thin
atomization rateplate
as a
is investigated. Last, the numerical simulation results of the atomization rate
function of the frequency response and voltage are verified using experimental tests. The as a function
of the frequency
proposed response
parametric andcould
results voltage are verified
allow using
to predict andexperimental tests. The proposed
control the atomization rate that
parametric
can be usedresults couldthe
to improve allow to predict and
performance of a control the atomization
soft actuation robot. rate that can be used
to improve the performance of a soft actuation robot.
2. Ultrasonic Atomizer Fundamentals
2. Ultrasonic Atomizer
An ultrasonic Fundamentals
atomizer features a thin plate with micro-apertures (mesh) that is
coupled to a vibrating
An ultrasonic PZT features
atomizer at the interface between
a thin plate with two media. The first
micro-apertures (mesh)is the
thatexternal
is cou-
medium,
pled where thePZT
to a vibrating plate
at is ininterface
the contact with the atmosphere,
between two media. Thewhile theissecond
first is internal
the external me-
and is the chamber in which the liquid is contained. When the device is
dium, where the plate is in contact with the atmosphere, while the second is internal and in operation, the
mesh experiences small and periodic mechanical deformations. This periodic
is the chamber in which the liquid is contained. When the device is in operation, the mesh movement
releases energy into the liquid in contact, which breaks the surface tension of the liquid
and produces droplets that are ejected, thereby producing atomization. A pumping effect
is achieved when the liquid ejects through the apertures to produce a homogeneous size of
droplets and making the atomization process more controllable [12]. A mechanical model
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 8350 3 of 17

to explain atomization should consider the dynamic deformation of the structure (i.e., PZT
ring and mesh) as a function of the applied voltage and frequency. Here, we first analyzed
the piezoelectric mechanical phenomena before coupling them to a meshed thin plate.

2.1. Piezoelectricity Theory

Piezoelectric materials are a type of dielectric materials that can be polarized, and
they respond in the presence of an electric field or mechanical stress. The piezoelectric
effect is the generation of an electric charge due to an external force. Initially, the molecules
of negative and positive charges are positioned so that the overall material is electrically
neutral. However, when an external mechanical stress is applied, the internal structure
can be deformed, thus causing displacement of the positive and negative centers of the
molecule. As a result, small electrical dipoles are generated.
According to the linear theory of piezoelectricity [13], the linear constitutive relation-
ship to identify the coupling between mechanical stress, mechanical strain, electric field,
and electric displacement is given as:
h i
σ = C E · ε − [e] · E, (1)

D = [e]T · ε + [ξ s ] · E (2)
where the superscript S indicates that the values are measured at a constant strain, and
the superscript E means that they are measured at a constant electric field. In addition,
σ is the stress tensor, D is the electric displacement vector, ε is the strain tensor, E is the
electric field, C E is the elastic

constant at a constant electric field, [e] is the piezoelectric
S

stress coefficients, and ξ is the dielectric tensor at a constant mechanical strain. The
conventional polarized ferroelectric ceramics used in ultrasonic transducers are governed
by the constitutive expressions given in Equations (1) and (2) and by the equations of
mechanical and electrical balance, respectively, such as:
..
ρu = ∇ · σ, (3)

∇·D = 0 (4)
To complete the description of the problem, the equations mentioned above are
complemented by the appropriate boundary conditions. The behavior of the PZT controls
the vibration modes of the thin plate, and these deformations give rise to the atomization
process [14]. There are three different vibration modes in a piezoelectric hollow disc (ring)
polarized in the thickness direction, which are thicknesses where the displacements of the
upper and lower surfaces are in the opposite phase, radial where the inner and outer walls
of the ring vibrate in the phase, and wall thickness direction where the inner and outer
walls of the ring vibrate in the opposite phase. Since the outer radius is larger than the
thickness in a thin ring, radial motion is induced due to Poisson’s ratio. Therefore, the
first modes are radial modes governed by radial boundary conditions. In this vibration
mode, the inner and outer surfaces of the ring vibrate in the phase, and this movement is
transmitted to the thin plate [15,16].

2.2. Approximate Plate Theory

It has been demonstrated that the mechanical vibrating characteristics of the meshed
circular thin plate in an ultrasonic atomizer controls the rate atomization [17]. There are
two kind of vibrations that can be used to study the mechanical behavior of a homogeneous
circular thin plate—namely, free and forced vibrations. In the case of the atomizer, the
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 8350 4 of 17

theoretical study is focused on a circular thin plate clamped on its edge. The analytical
solution usingstudy
theoretical the plate theory on
is focused gives naturalthin
a circular frequencies [18]: on its edge. The analytical
plate clamped
solution using the plate theory gives natural frequencies [18]:
𝛼ℎ 𝐸
𝑓𝑛𝑚 = 2
√ s (5)
2𝜋𝑅αh 12𝜌(1 E − 𝑣 2)
f nm = (5)
2πR2 12ρ(1 − v2 )
where 𝑅 is the radius of a circular plate with thickness ℎ, 𝜌 is the density, 𝐸 is the
Young’s
where modulus, 𝑣 is of
R is the radius thea Poisson’s
circular plateratio,with 𝛼 is a constant
andthickness thatdensity,
h, ρ is the dependsE on theYoung’s
is the num-
bermodulus,
of nodalv diameters (diameter lines that remain without displacement
is the Poisson’s ratio, and α is a constant that depends on the number of nodal (𝑛)) and the
number of nodal circles (concentric circumferences without displacement
diameters (diameter lines that remain without displacement (n)) and the number of nodal (𝑚)).
Figure
circles 2 shows circumferences
(concentric the behavior of withoutthe natural frequencies(m
displacement as)).a function of the thickness
of the plate,
Figureas2well as the
shows theelasticity
behaviormodulus, respectively,
of the natural frequenciesfor these modes. The
as a function of thefrequency
thickness
dependence on the thickness is linear, while a nonlinear behavior is observed
of the plate, as well as the elasticity modulus, respectively, for these modes. The frequency as a function
of dependence
the elastic modulus. It is expected
on the thickness is linear,that the addition
while a nonlinear of behavior
the micro-apertures
is observed toas aa homo-
function
geneous plate can have an inverse effect on the elastic modulus
of the elastic modulus. It is expected that the addition of the micro-apertures according to thetorule of
a homo-
mixtures [19]. Using the volume fraction of the openings, the results
geneous plate can have an inverse effect on the elastic modulus according to the rule show a decrease inof
themixtures
effective[19].
elastic modulus
Using as a function
the volume fractionofofthe thesize of the micro-openings
openings, the results showaffecting
a decreasethein
dynamic response
the effective of modulus
elastic the system. as aTherefore,
function of a more complete
the size dynamic and mechanical
of the micro-openings affecting the
model
dynamicof theresponse
atomizerofshould include
the system. the aperture
Therefore, shape
a more and distribution
complete dynamic of andmicro holes
mechanical
onmodel
the meshed
of the thin plate.should include the aperture shape and distribution of micro holes
atomizer
on the meshed thin plate.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure2. 2. Frequencies
Frequencies calculatedasasa afunction
calculated functionofof(a)
(a)the
the plate
plate thickness and
and (b)
(b) Young’s
Young’smodulus
modulusfor
forthe
thefirst
firstthree
threeaxisymmetric
axisymmetricmodes.
modes.

However,
However, including
including these
these variables
variables makes
makes the the system
system too too complex
complex to betoeasily
be easily cal-
calcu-
culated through analytical methods. Thus, an FE model might provide a
lated through analytical methods. Thus, an FE model might provide a better approxima-better approx-
imation
tion to understand
to understand the mechanical
the mechanical behaviorbehavior of the atomizer
of the atomizer andon
and its effect itsthe
effect on the
atomiza-
atomization
tion rate. rate.

3. Finite Element Analysis

3. Finite Element Analysis
The dynamic performance of the piezoelectric atomizer and its vibration optimization
The dynamic performance of the piezoelectric atomizer and its vibration optimiza-
were studied using a FE analysis. The device was considered as a multi-degree-of-freedom
tion were studied using a FE analysis. The device was considered as a multi-degree-of-
continuum system, which can be represented in a matrix notation as [6]:
freedom continuum system, which can be represented in a matrix notation as [6]:
.. .
[ M]u++[𝐶]𝒖̇
[𝑀]𝒖̈ [C ]u+ [ K ]u =
+[𝐾]𝒖 = 𝑭F (6)(6)
. ..
where𝒖,u,𝒖,̇ u,and
where and𝒖̈u represent
represent the vector
vector of
ofdisplacement,
displacement,velocity,
velocity,and
andacceleration,
acceleration, re-
respec-
spectively, for every node; [M] is the mass matrix; [C] is the damping matrix; [K]
tively, for every node; [M] is the mass matrix; [C] is the damping matrix; [K] is the stiffness is the
stiffness
matrix;matrix;
and F is andthe𝑭external
is the external excitation
excitation force.types
force. Two Twoof types of analyses
analyses were per-
were performed—
formed—namely,
namely, free andfree andvibrations.
forced forced vibrations.
The modalThe (free)
modalanalysis
(free) analysis is an eigenvalue
is an eigenvalue problem
assuming no external forces, F = 0. A forced harmonic analysis can also be carried out by
applying a frequency sweep for different applied input voltages to the piezoelectric ring.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 8350 5 of 17

For the first example, a numerical modal analysis on a stainless-steel circular thin
plate was carried out. The mechanical properties of the plate are given in Table 1. In these
calculations, 16,746 elements (SOLID186 with 20 nodes that exhibit quadratic displacement
in ANSYS) were used. The boundary conditions of the thin plate were clamped5 atof the
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16
edge to the piezoelectric ring, as is shown in Figure 3. Thus, the displacements in the
circumferential area were assumed to be zero (u x = uy = uz = 0 at r = 8 mm). The
simulation
problem was carried
assuming out using
no external an FE𝐹model
forces, = 0. Aimplemented in ANSYS;
forced harmonic thecan
analysis pseudocode for
also be car-
the analysis is given in Appendix A. Figure 4 shows the results for the lowest
ried out by applying a frequency sweep for different applied input voltages to the piezo- axisymmetric
modes when the largest displacement is at the center of the plate. To check the validity of
electric ring.
the calculations, Figure 5 shows the first nine resonant frequencies using the modal analysis
For the first example, a numerical modal analysis on a stainless-steel circular thin
of a single, clamped, circular, and homogeneous thin plate. These results are compared
plate was carried out. The mechanical properties of the plate are given in Table 1. In these
with the theoretical approximation given by Equation (5). The results shows that the FE
calculations, 16,746 elements (SOLID186 with 20 nodes that exhibit quadratic displace-
analysis only deviated by ~0.12% on average from the theoretical predictions.
ment in ANSYS) were used. The boundary conditions of the thin plate were clamped at
the edge to the piezoelectric ring, as is shown in Figure 3. Thus, the displacements in the
Table 1. Mechanical and geometric parameters of the piezoceramic vibrating mesh atomizer reported
circumferential area were assumed to be zero (𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢𝑦 = 𝑢𝑧 = 0 at 𝑟 = 8 mm). The simu-
in References [6,20].
lation was carried out using an FE model implemented in ANSYS; the pseudocode for the
analysis is givenYoung’s
in Appendix
Modulus A. Figure
Density 4 shows the results Inner/Outer
Poisson’s for the lowest axisymmetric
Thickness
Material kg
modes when the largest displacement
(GPa ) ( is
m3
at
) the center
Ratio of the plate.
Diameter To check
(mm ) the validity
(mm) of
the calculations,
PZT Figure 5 shows
Values in Table 2 the first
7500 nine resonant
0.32 frequencies
8/16using the modal
0.63anal-
ysis of a single,
Stainless steel clamped,
186.8 circular, and7980 homogeneous0.31 thin plate.16These results are 0.05com-
pared with the theoretical approximation given by Equation (5). The results shows that
the FE analysis only deviated by ~0.12% on average from the theoretical predictions.
Table 2. Piezoelectrical properties of the PZT ring [14].
Table 1. Mechanical and geometric parameters of the piezoceramic vibrating mesh atomizer re-
ported Dielectric Constants
in References [6,20]. Piezoelectric Constant Elastic Constant
(10−9 C/Vm) ( mC2 ) (GPa)
Young’s Modulus Density Poisson’s Inner/Outer
C11 = C22 Thickness
= 139
Material
(𝐆𝐏𝐚) e13𝐤𝐠
= e23 = −5.2
Ratio C12
Diameter = C21 = (𝐦𝐦)
(𝐦𝐦) 77.8
e11 = e22 = 6.45 ( 𝟑)
e = 5.61
𝐦e33 = 15.1 C13 = C31 = 74.3
PZT 33 Values in Table 2 e7500 0.32
52 = e61 = 12.7 8/16 C33 = 115 0.63
Stainless steel 186.8 7980 0.31 44 = C55 = C66 =
C16 30.6
0.05

Figure
Figure3.3.Clamped
Clampedcircular
circularplate
plateused
usedfor
forthe
theFEM
FEMstudy.
study.

Figure 4. (a) Geometry used for the FEM modal analysis. (b–d) Contour plots of the first three ax-
isymmetric vibrational modes estimated for the homogeneous thin plate.
 Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 8350 6 of 17

Figure 3. Clamped circular plate used for the FEM study.

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Figure 4.
Figure (a)Geometry
4. (a) Geometryused
usedfor
forthe
theFEM
FEMmodal
modal analysis.
analysis. (b–d)
(b–d) Contour
Contour plots
plots of the
of the firstfirst three
three ax-
axisymmetric vibrational modes estimated for the homogeneous thin
isymmetric vibrational modes estimated for the homogeneous thin plate.plate.

5. Comparison
Figure 5.
Figure Comparison between the analytical
between and FEM
the analytical andresults
FEM of the resonant
results of thefrequency
resonantoffrequency
the o
vibration modes from a clamped circular plate.
bration modes from a clamped circular plate.
The mechanical behavior of the thin plate is expected to be affected by the loading
fromThe mechanical
the liquid that will behavior
be atomized. ofHowever,
the thinthe plate is expected
theoretical to be affected
and experimental resultsby the l
from
show the
that liquid
the shapethat will
of the be atomized.
vibration modes isHowever,
not modified; the theoretical
that andofexperimental
is, the presence liquid
show that the shape of the vibration modes is not modified; that is, theofpresence
loading only shifts the values of the resonant frequencies with the invariant shapes the o
vibration modes [21].
loading only shifts the values of the resonant frequencies with the invariant shape
In a preliminary numerical harmonic analysis (see the description of the pseudocode
vibration
in Appendix modes [21].
A), a stainless-steel circular thin plate coupled to a piezoelectric ring was
In a preliminary
modeled. The mechanical,numerical harmonic
piezoelectric, analysis
and physical (seeofthe
properties the description of the pseu
materials are given
in Tables 1 and 2. The thin plate was modeled as a deformable plate using
in Appendix A), a stainless-steel circular thin plate coupled to a piezoelectric rin fully integrated
elements with 20 nodes. Due to the symmetry of the model, only a one-quarter model was
modeled. The mechanical, piezoelectric, and physical properties of the materials ar
needed, thus reducing the number of grids and the overall computational demand (see
in Tables
Figure 1 and 2. The thin plate was modeled as a deformable plate using fully inte
6) [22].
elements
Next, with 20 nodes.with
micro-apertures Duethree
to the symmetry
different of the
geometrical model,
shapes: only a one-quarter
cylindrical, pyramidal, mod
needed,
and conicalthus reducing
were added tothe the number
model of ofthegrids and
circular thinthe overall
plate to form computational
a meshed thin dema
plate (thin-plated
Figure 6) [22]. with micro-apertures), which was then coupled to the piezoelectric ring.
The meshed plate contained 551 micro-apertures with the dimensions shown in Figure 7,
where d = 10 µm and D = 80 µm. These were distributed over the thin plate following a
rectangular array.
 In a preliminary numerical harmonic analysis (see the description of the pseudocode
in Appendix A), a stainless-steel circular thin plate coupled to a piezoelectric ring was
modeled. The mechanical, piezoelectric, and physical properties of the materials are given
in Tables 1 and 2. The thin plate was modeled as a deformable plate using fully integrated
elements with 20 nodes. Due to the symmetry of the model, only a one-quarter model was
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 8350 7 of 17
needed, thus reducing the number of grids and the overall computational demand (see
Figure 6) [22].

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 16

Next, micro-apertures with three different geometrical shapes: cylindrical, pyrami-

dal, and conical were added to the model of the circular thin plate to form a meshed thin
plate (thin-plated with micro-apertures), which was then coupled to the piezoelectric ring.
The(a)meshed plate contained 551 micro-apertures with the (b) dimensions shown in Figure 7,
where d= 10 μm and 𝐷 = 80 μm. These were distributed over the thin plate following a
Figure
Figure 6.
6. FEM
FEMmodel
modelshowing
showing (a)
(a) aa sectional
rectangular sectional view
view of
array. of the
the atomizer
atomizer and
and boundary
boundary conditions
conditions and
and (b)
(b) mesh
mesh of
of the
the system.
system.

Table 2. Piezoelectrical properties of the PZT ring [14].

Dielectric Constants Piezoelectric Constant

Elastic Constant
𝐂
(𝟏𝟎−𝟗 𝐂/𝐕𝐦) ( 𝟐) (𝐆𝐏𝐚)
𝐦
𝐶11 = 𝐶22 = 139
𝑒13 = 𝑒23 = −5.2 𝐶12 = 𝐶21 = 77.8
𝜖11 = 𝜖22 = 6.45
𝑒33 = 15.1 𝐶13 = 𝐶31 = 74.3
𝜖33 = 5.61
𝑒52 = 𝑒61 = 12.7 𝐶33 = 115
𝐶44 = 𝐶55 = 𝐶66 = 30.6

(d)
Figure 7.
Figure 7. Geometrical
Geometrical shapes
shapes of
of the
the micro-apertures of (a)
micro-apertures of (a) conical,
conical, (b)
(b) cylindrical, and (c)
cylindrical, and (c) pyramidal
pyramidal holes.
holes. (d)
(d) Section
Section view
view
of a solid model of the atomizer disc with micro-apertures on the meshed thin plate.
of a solid model of the atomizer disc with micro-apertures on the meshed thin plate.

A forced harmonic analysis with a sinusoidal variation of the voltage was performed
on this
this system
systemas asdescribed
describedinin Figure
Figure 6. The
6. The resonant
resonant frequencies
frequencies of device
of the the device andmax-
and the the
maximum out-of-plane
imum out-of-plane displacements
displacements ofmesh
of the the mesh
werewere recorded
recorded for the forthree
the three micro-ap-
micro-aperture
erture shape geometries.
shape geometries. FigureFigure
8 shows 8 shows a summary
a summary of results
of results of theof the estimated
estimated out-of-
out-of-plane
plane displacement
displacement measured measured at the of
at the center center of the
the thin thin
plate plate against
against the voltagethe voltage
amplitude amplitude
applied
to the piezoelectric
applied ring when
to the piezoelectric thewhen
ring devicethe
was drivenwas
device at the resonant
driven at thefrequency.
resonant The results
frequency.
indicate that the displacement increased linearly with the applied voltage
The results indicate that the displacement increased linearly with the applied voltage for all three types
for
of aperture
all shapes.
three types The results
of aperture show
shapes. only
The a small
results change
show onlyina the
smallresonance
change frequency, which
in the resonance
seems to bewhich
frequency, correlated
seems to to
a loss of densityto
be correlated due to the
a loss of volume
density removed
due to the byvolume
micro-apertures
removed
in the
by thin plate, as predicted
micro-apertures in the thinby the plate
plate, theory (Equation
as predicted by the plate(5)).theory
Thus, (Equation
cylindrical(5)).
openings
Thus,
with a constant
cylindrical diameter
openings withhave the largest
a constant volumehave
diameter and,the
also,largest
a resonance
volume frequency,
and, also, followed
a reso-
by thefrequency,
nance conical and pyramidal.
followed by theHowever,
conical andin pyramidal.
this work, However,
our focus in will
thisbework,
on the ourconical
focus
aperture because of the valveless pumping effect reported in the
will be on the conical aperture because of the valveless pumping effect reported in literature and its better
the
atomization
literature andperformance [23].
its better atomization performance [23].
 by micro-apertures in the thin plate, as predicted by the plate theory (Equation (5)).
cylindrical openings with a constant diameter have the largest volume and, also, a
nance frequency, followed by the conical and pyramidal. However, in this work, our
will be on the conical aperture because of the valveless pumping effect reported
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 8350 8 of 17
literature and its better atomization performance [23].

Figure
Figure8.
8. Displacement against
Displacement against the voltage
the voltage amplitude.
amplitude.

Table 3 shows the results of FEM analysis with a frequency sweep while applying
80 V to the PZT ring. A cross-section view of the vibration mode shape at the resonance
frequency is also
REVIEWshown. These results were obtained using the model
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER 8 of 16 of the meshed thin
8 of 16

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 16

plate
Appl. Sci. 2021,with conical
11, x FOR PEER REVIEW shape apertures. The results gave the first five 8 vibration
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
of 16
8 of 16
modes. The
subscript “s” indicates Table 3 thatthe
Table 3 shows
shows the
the mode
results
results of FEM was identified
of FEM analysis
analysis
with a frequency as
with a frequency
sweep
sweep axisymmetric.
while applying 80
while applying 80 In all cases, the
V to the PZT ring. A cross-section view of the vibration mode shape at the resonance fre-
largest out-of-plane to Table 3 shows
thedisplacements Athe results of FEM analysis with a frequency sweep while applyingfre- 80
ofwere
ofidentified in the center of the 80 meshed thin plate,
Vquency PZT
is alsoring.
shown. cross-section
These view the vibration mode theshape atofthe resonance
V Table
to the PZT 3 ring.
shows the
Athe resultsresults
cross-section FEM
view
were obtained
analysis
of the with ausing
vibration frequency
mode
model
sweep the
while meshed
applying thin
quency
plate Table
is
with 3conical
alsoshows
shown.
shape results
These of FEM
results
apertures. analysis
were
The with
obtained
results gave ausing
the the shape
frequency
first model
five
atofthe
sweep theresonance
while
vibration applying
meshed
modes.
fre-
80
thin
The
V to the PZT ring. A cross-section view of the vibration mode shape at the resonance fre-
with a maximumquency V 110-kHz
to
plate
quency
theisPZT
with
subscript
also ring.
conical
is“s”
also
mode
shown.
A
shape
indicates
shown.
These found,
results
cross-section
apertures.
that
These
view
theresultsThe
mode was
the
were
of the
results
were
value
obtained
vibration
gave
identified
obtained
using
theclose
mode
asusing
the shape
first model
five
axisymmetric.
thefive
to
model
those
ofthe
at
vibration
Inofall
reported
theresonance
meshed
modes.
cases,
the
thin
fre-
The
the larg-
meshed thin
for an ultrasonic
plate
quency with
subscript conical
is“s”
also shape
shown.
indicates apertures.
These
that theresults
mode The
were
was results gave
obtained
identified the
using first
the model vibration
Inofall
the modes.
meshed The
thin
atomizer, with similar est
plate with materials
out-of-planeconicaldisplacements
shape reported
apertures. The in
were identified
results theas
Reference
in gave axisymmetric.
center
the of the
first [11].
fivemeshed
vibration
cases,
thin the larg-
plate,
modes. with
The
subscript
plate
est with“s”
out-of-plane indicates
conical shapethatapertures.
displacements the mode was results
The identified
were identified theascenter
ingave axisymmetric.
the first five
of the In allthin
vibration
meshed cases, the larg-
modes.
plate, The
with
asubscript
maximum “s”110-kHz
indicates mode found,
that the mode the value
was close toasthose
identified reported for
axisymmetric. ancases,
In all ultrasonic at-
the larg-
est out-of-plane
asubscript displacements
“s”110-kHz
indicates that the were
mode identified
was in theto center of the meshed thin plate,
the with
maximum
omizer,
est with
out-of-planesimilar mode
materials
displacements
found, the
reported inidentified
value
were identified
close
Reference
in the
as axisymmetric.
those
[11].
center
reported In
forall
of the meshed
an cases,
ultrasonic
thin
larg-
at-
plate, with
aomizer,
estmaximum with110-kHz
out-of-plane mode found,
displacements
similar materials werethe
reported value
identified close to[11].
in the
in Reference those of
center reported for anthin
the meshed ultrasonic at-
plate, with
Table 3. A summary a maximum
of3. with
the 110-kHz modevibration
firstofmaterials
five found, the in
value
modes,close to[11].
those reported foramplitudes
an ultrasonic at- calculated
omizer,
aTable
maximum Awith
similar
110-kHz
summary mode
the
reported
firstfound,
five the value
vibration
Reference
close to shapes,
those and
and reported for an ultrasonic
with at-
with FEA.
omizer, similar materials reported inmodes, shapes,
Reference [11]. amplitudes calculated
Table
FEA. 3. A
omizer, summary
with of materials
similar the first five vibrationinmodes,
reported shapes,
Reference [11].and amplitudes calculated with
Table
FEA. 3. A summary of the first five vibration modes, shapes, and amplitudes calculated with
Table 3. A summary of the first five vibration modes, shapes, and amplitudes calculated with
FEA.
Table 3. A summary of the first five vibration modes, shapes, and amplitudes
Max. Posi- calculated Max. Positive
with Max. Negative
Symmetric Frequency
FEA.
Sym- Max.
tive Posi-
Max.
Max.
Neg-
FEA.
Sym- Frequency Shape Dis- ativeNeg-
Displacement
Dis- Displacement
metric Shape Max. Posi- Max. Neg-
Modes (kHz)
Sym-
metric
Frequency
(kHz) Shape
tive Dis-
placement
Max. Posi-
ative Dis-
placement
Modes
Sym-
metric
Modes
Frequency
(kHz)
Frequency Shape
tive Dis-
placement
Max. (𝛍𝐦)
tive
Posi-
Dis-
ative
Max. (µm)
Max.Dis-
(𝛍𝐦)
Neg-
placement
Neg- (µm)
Sym- (kHz) placement ative
placementDis-
metric
Modes Frequency Shape (𝛍𝐦)
tive Dis- (𝛍𝐦)
ative Dis-
metric (kHz) Shape placement placement
1 1
Modesf
1 1s
Modes
=5 𝑓(kHz)
1𝑠 = 5
𝑓1𝑠 = 5
(𝛍𝐦)
1.18
placement
(𝛍𝐦)
1.18
(𝛍𝐦)
−0.67
placement
(𝛍𝐦)
−0.67
1.18 −0.67
12 (𝛍𝐦) (𝛍𝐦)
2𝑠 = 5
𝑓1𝑠 20 1.18
2.09 −0.67
−4.62
2 f
21
213 2s
= 20𝑓2𝑠 𝑓1𝑠==205
𝑓3𝑠
𝑓𝑓2𝑠1𝑠===20
5
28
2.09
1.18
1.18
2.09
6.71
−4.62
−0.67
−0.67
−4.62
−17.1
2.09 −4.62
32 𝑓𝑓 2𝑠=
3𝑠 =28
20 6.71
2.09 −17.1
−4.62
2 𝑓 = 20
3 f
34
433s
= 28𝑓𝑓3𝑠
𝑓𝑓
4𝑠 =
2𝑠 =28
62 2.09
6.71
7.76 −4.62
−17.1
−18.5 6.71 −17.1
4𝑠3𝑠= =62
28 7.76
6.71 −18.5
−17.1
43 𝑓𝑓3𝑠 = = 62
28 6.71
7.76 −17.1
−18.5
54 𝑓4𝑠
𝑓4𝑠==110 24 −10.7
4 f
54 4s = 62
𝑓𝑓
6𝑠
6𝑠
62
= 110
4𝑠 = 62
7.76
24
7.76
−18.5
−10.7
−18.5 7.76 −18.5
5 𝑓6𝑠 = 110 24 −10.7
5 𝑓6𝑠 = 110 24 −10.7
5 f 6s = 110
5 Figure 𝑓96𝑠provides
= 110 details of the distribution of the displacement
Figure 9 provides detailsmode
of the distribution of the
24through the−10.7
displacement
disk for 24
through theusing
disk for
−10.7
the axisymmetric
the Figure 9 provides
axisymmetric
vibration
details of the𝑓𝑓6𝑠 obtained of
distribution at a frequency
athe displacement of 110 kHz and
110through theusing an
disk for
applied voltage
Figure invibration
9 provides the range mode
detailsofof5theV 6𝑠to obtained
80 V. Theatlocation
distribution
frequency
ofa the of the of
displacement largest kHz and
displacement
through the
an
diskwas
for
the axisymmetric
appliedFigure 9
voltage in vibration
providesthe range mode
detailsof of5 V
the𝑓6𝑠
to obtained
80 V.
distribution
The atof frequency
the
location displacement
of the of 110through
largest kHz and the
displacementusing
disk an
for
was
around the center of
the axisymmetric the thinmode
vibration plate where
𝑓to the micro-apertures
obtained at a frequency were located.
of 110 This using
kHz and value anof
applied
the voltage
axisymmetric in of
the range
vibration of
thinmode 5 Vwhere 6𝑠 80
𝑓frequency V. The location of thewere largest displacement was
around the
displacement center the
corresponded plate
to 6𝑠 obtained
the at a frequency
micro-apertures ofthe
110 kHz
located. and
Thisusing
value an
of
appliedthe
around voltage
center inofthe
therange
thin toof the
plate 5 Vwhere
to 80the
Figure 9 provides details of the distribution of the displacement through the disk for tuning
V. The value,
location
micro-apertures of with
the
werelargestbest performance
displacement
located. was
This valuewasof
of
applied
displacement
the voltage
atomizer in the
corresponded
foundofinthe range
our of 5
the V
experimental to 80
frequency V. The location
tuning value, of the
with largest
the displacement
best performance of
around
displacementthe center
corresponded thin plate
toplate whereresults
the frequency
(discussed in were
the micro-apertures the Experimental
located. Thissection).
valueofof
around
the the center
atomizer found ofinthe thin
our experimentalwhere the tuning
results value, with
micro-apertures
(discussed thethe
in were best performance
located.
ExperimentalThis value
used of
thensection).
the axisymmetric vibration mode f obtained at a frequency of 110 kHz and using an
The
the
modeling
displacement
atomizer
displacement
The modeling
methodology
corresponded
found
corresponded
methodology
to
to
forthe
in our experimental
the
for
the
6s atomizer
frequency
frequency
the results
atomizer
dynamic
tuning value,
(discussed
tuning
dynamic value,
performance
inwith
withthethe
performance
the wasperformance
best
Experimental
best
was section).
performance
then used
to
of
of
to
study
the the control
atomizer found of the
in atomization
our experimental rate by correlating
results it to the
(discussed in maximum
the displacements
Experimental section).
applied voltage in the range of 5 V to 80 V. The location of the largest displacement was
The
the
study
as
The
modeling
atomizer
the
a functioncontrol
modeling
methodology
found of in
the
of methodologyour for therate
experimental
atomization
frequency andfor voltage
atomizer
results
by dynamic
(discussed
correlating
amplitudes.
the atomizer
it performance
to in
dynamic performance
the the
maximum wasdisplacements
then section).
Experimental used to
was then used to
study
The
as the control
modeling
a function of the atomization
of methodology
frequency andfor therate
voltage by correlating
atomizer
amplitudes. dynamicit to the maximum
performance wasdisplacements
then used to
around the center of the thin plate where the micro-apertures were located. This value of
study
as
study
the control
a function of the atomization
of frequency
the control and voltage
of the atomization
rate by correlating it to the maximum displacements
amplitudes.
rate by correlating it to the maximum displacements
as a function of frequency and voltage amplitudes.
displacement corresponded to the frequency tuning value, with the best performance of
as a function of frequency and voltage amplitudes.

the atomizer found in our experimental results (discussed in the Experimental section).
The modeling methodology for the atomizer dynamic performance was then used to study
the control of the atomization rate by correlating it to the maximum displacements as a
function of frequency and voltage amplitudes.

Figure 9. Distribution of the displacements along the cross-section of the thin plate for the 110 kHz
Figure 9. Distribution
(axisymmetric of the displacements
mode) resonance along
frequency as the cross-section
a function of the thin plate for the 110 kHz
of the voltage.
Figure 9. Distribution
(axisymmetric of the displacements
mode) resonance along
frequency as the cross-section
a function of the thin plate for the 110 kHz
of the voltage.
Figure 9. Distribution
(axisymmetric mode) of the displacements
resonance frequency asalong
a the cross-section
function of the of the thin plate for the 110 kHz
voltage.
Figure 9. Distribution of the displacements along the cross-section of the thin plate for the 110 kHz
(axisymmetric mode) resonance frequency as a function of the voltage.
(axisymmetric mode) resonance frequency as a function of the voltage.

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 8350
applied voltage in the range of 5 V to 80 V. The location of the largest displacement was
around the center of the thin plate where the micro-apertures were located. This value of
displacement corresponded to the frequency tuning value, with the best performance of
the atomizer found in our experimental results (discussed in the Experimental section).
The modeling methodology for the atomizer dynamic performance was then used 9 of to
17
study the control of the atomization rate by correlating it to the maximum displacements
as a function of frequency and voltage amplitudes.

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 16

Figure 9. Distribution of the displacements along the cross-section of the thin plate for the 110 kHz
(axisymmetric mode) resonance
(axisymmetric mode) resonance frequency
frequency as
as aa function
function of
of the
the voltage.
voltage.
4. Model of Atomization Volume Flow
4. Model of atomization,
In mesh Atomizationthe
Volume Flow
atomizer releases energy into the liquid to break the surface
tensionInand
mesh to atomization,
allow the liquid the droplets
atomizertoreleases energy
escape from theinto the liquid
surface. to break
To control the the surface
droplet
tension
size and to allow
distribution and tothe liquid
make thedroplets
atomization to escape
process from
morethecontrollable,
surface. To micro-apertures
control the droplet
sizeadded
are distribution
to formand to makethin
a meshed theplate
atomization
driven by process more controllable,
a piezoelectric micro-apertures
ring. In Maehara et al.
are added
[14], to formperformance
the atomizer a meshed thin as aplate driven
function of by
theanumber
piezoelectric ring. In Maehara
of micro-apertures wasetstud-
al. [14],
ied.
the A rough approximation
atomizer performance asofathe deformation
function for the lowest
of the number symmetric modes
of micro-apertures can be A
was studied.
found
roughfollowing the thinof
approximation plate
the theory [24]. The
deformation forcoordinate
the lowest system assumes
symmetric that the
modes canneutral
be found
surface
followingis inthe 𝑥𝑦 plate
thethin plane, perpendicular
theory to the 𝑧-axis.
[24]. The coordinate The flow
system in the
assumes micro-tapered
that ap-
the neutral surface
erture is closely connected with the chamber volume change given
is in the xy plane, perpendicular to the z-axis. The flow in the micro-tapered aperture by the deformation of
the thin plate
is closely [25].
connected with the chamber volume change given by the deformation of the
thinIn Cai [25].
plate et al. [12], the atomization rate was studied, focusing on the effect of the vol-
ume change
In Cai etatal.the liquid
[12], chamber (container)
the atomization due to the
rate was studied, deformation
focusing of theof
on the effect thin
theplate
volume
during
changethe at vibrations at the lowest
the liquid chamber vibrationdue
(container) mode. Additionally,
to the deformation theofcontribution
the thin plate byduring
the
small deformation
the vibrations of the
at the micro-apertures
lowest vibration mode. of the mesh duringthe
Additionally, thecontribution
vibration to by thethe
masssmall
flow was studied
deformation of theformicro-apertures
that mode. Thisofidea is illustrated
the mesh in Figure
during the vibration10, to
where the conical
the mass flow was
micro-aperture
studied for thatdeforms
mode. This by the
ideaglobal deformation
is illustrated of the
in Figure 10,thin plate.
where theDuring
conical the periodic
micro-aperture
vibration, any point on the non-neutral surface moves in two
deforms by the global deformation of the thin plate. During the periodic vibration,possible conditions. First,any
the point is bent in the upward direction and then is released back
point on the non-neutral surface moves in two possible conditions. First, the point is to equilibrium, fol-
bent
lowed
in the by a compressed
upward directionstate to itsislower
and then limitback
released andtoback to equilibrium.
equilibrium, followed Thisbymechanism
a compressed
acts
stateasto
a micro-pump,
its lower limit promoting
and backthe generation of atomized
to equilibrium. drops [26].
This mechanism acts as a micro-pump,
promoting the generation of atomized drops [26].

Figure 10. Dynamic deformation of a micro-aperture with a conical shape, (a) prior to deformation,
Figure 10.deformation
(b) with Dynamic deformation
in upwardofdirection,
a micro-aperture with a conical
and (c) downward shape, (a) prior to defor-
direction.
mation, (b) with deformation in upward direction, and (c) downward direction.

Thus, the total flow could have two contributions—namely, one from the global vol-
ume change of the thin plate (𝑞𝑣𝑎 ) and another possible from the micro-aperture volume
change (𝑞𝑣𝑐 ), which could then be expressed as:
𝑄 = 𝑞𝑣𝑎 + 𝑞𝑣𝑐 ≈ (𝑛∆𝑉𝐷 + ∆𝑉𝑆 ) 𝑓𝜉 (7)
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 8350 10 of 17

Thus, the total flow could have two contributions—namely, one from the global
volume change of the thin plate (qva ) and another possible from the micro-aperture volume
change (qvc ), which could then be expressed as:

Q = qva + qvc ≈ (n∆VD + ∆VS ) f ξ (7)

where ∆VD is the change in the volume in the micro-aperture during vibration that can
be obtained by considering the deformation of the neutral surface and the estimation of
a triple integral to calculate the change of volume of the micro-cone aperture. ∆VS is the
corresponding change in volume in the chamber created by the thin plate vibration, f is
the oscillation frequency of the plate, and ξ is a pressure loss coefficient described below.
The volume of the atomized liquid displaced by the mechanical oscillation of the plate for
the lowest vibration mode is given by Reference [12]:
2
πhrout
∆VS = (8)
2
where rout is the radius of the plate, and h is the thickness of the thin plate. However, since
the vibrational modes studied in this work are of a higher order, there is a nonhomogeneous
displacement distribution across the radius. In this case, numerical integration techniques
were used to approximate the displaced volume, as will be described later. The effective
pressure loss coefficient, ξ, is expressed as:

ξ Dd − ξ Dn
ξ= (9)
2 + ξ Dn + ξ Dd

where ξ Dd is the pressure loss coefficient related to the diffuser effect, and ξ Dn is related to
the nozzle effect. To relate the volume changes to the mass flow, it is necessary to consider
the resistance of the flow through the conical aperture. In a dynamic cycle, the cone
aperture acts as nozzle or as diffuser, and the difference between the two flow resistances
determines the flow rate. In Zhang et al. [23], the empirical curves of the cone angle against
the diffuser and nozzle pressure loss coefficients on a macroscopic level are given. The
pressure loss coefficient is a dimensionless number to characterize the pressure loss in a
hydraulic system, which involves pressure loss by friction and by changes in the aperture
geometry. In our case, the micro-apertures have a half angle of 35◦ , which, from the tables
reported by Q. Yan et al. [27], give a loss factor of ξ Dd = 0.62 and ξ Dn = 0.49 when the
cone acts as diffuser and as the nozzle, respectively. An equation for the net volume flow
rate when the throat of the tapered aperture is exposed to the air and the flared side is in
contact with the liquid was also reported by Q. Yan et al. [27]. The equation involves the
change in volume of the apertures and the change in volume of the liquid chamber, where
n is the number of apertures, and f is the vibration frequency of the PZT.

5. Experimental Setup
A commercial vibrating mesh atomizer was used for the experiments. The physical
properties of the atomizer device are described in Table 4. The mesh atomizer consists of
a piezoelectric ring and a thin metal plate meshed with conical holes. The atomizer was
positioned so that the bottom layer of the mesh was in contact with the liquid stored in a
small container. As the ring vibrated, small droplets were ejected into the air through the
meshed thin plate.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 8350 11 of 17

Table 4. Atomizer physical properties.

Physical Property Value

Outer diameter of PZT ring Dout = 16 mm
Inner diameter of PZT ring Din = 8 mm
Diameter of stainless-steel disk Dout = 16 mm
Diameter of apertures zone Da = 3.6 mm
Thickness of thin plate h = 0.05 mm
Thickness of PZT ring h PZT = 0.63 mm
Resonant frequency f r = 110 kHz
Number of apertures n = 551
Large/Small diameter of cone aperture Dl = 80 µm/Ds = 10 µm

The experimental setup to measure the atomization rate is shown in Figure 11. The
AC voltage was produced with a power amplifier (Electronics & Innovation, Ltd., model
500S06, Rochester, NY, USA), which was used to modulate the amplitude of the atomizer
vibrations. To find the resonant frequency, a signal generator (Keysight, model 33210A,
Santa Rosa, CA, USA) with a frequency sweep modulation in the range from 1 to 150 kHz
was used. The atomizer was placed on the surface of water inside a plastic petri dish.
This petri dish was placed above a scale (Mettler Toledo, model ME204E, Columbus, OH,
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
USA) to measure the weight loss over time. The weight was measured every 5 s for 11
60 of
s to16
calculate the average of the atomization rate.

Figure11.
Figure 11. Scheme
Schemeof
ofthe
theatomization
atomizationrate
ratemeasurements.
measurements.

6.
6. Results
Results and
and Discussion
Discussion
Numerical
NumericalFEM FEMsimulations
simulationsof the atomizer
of the werewere
atomizer performed, and theand
performed, vibration modes
the vibration
and the resonant frequencies were determined using a forced harmonic analysis
modes and the resonant frequencies were determined using a forced harmonic analysis (as de-
scribed in Appendix A). In particular, a numerical frequency sweep of the system
(as described in Appendix A). In particular, a numerical frequency sweep of the system using the
physical properties described in Table 4 was carried out, and the mesh atomizer surface
using the physical properties described in Table 4 was carried out, and the mesh atomizer dis-
placements with conicalwith
surface displacements apertures
conicalcorresponding to differentto
apertures corresponding frequencies were estimated
different frequencies were
and plotted in Figure 12. The first five resonant frequencies were estimated, and after a
estimated and plotted in Figure 12. The first five resonant frequencies were estimated, and
further analysis, the vibrational modes with the largest out-of-plane displacements were
after a further analysis, the vibrational modes with the largest out-of-plane displacements
located at two resonance frequencies of about 110 kHz ( f 6S ) and 140 kHz ( f 7 ).
were located at two resonance frequencies of about 110 kHz (𝑓6𝑆 ) and 140 kHz (𝑓7 ).

Figure 12. Numerical results of the frequency sweep for 20 V obtained by FEM. A schematic of the

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 8350
modes and the resonant frequencies were determined using a forced harmonic analysis
(as described in Appendix A). In particular, a numerical frequency sweep of the system
using the physical properties described in Table 4 was carried out, and the mesh atomizer
surface displacements with conical apertures corresponding to different frequencies were
estimated and plotted in Figure 12. The first five resonant frequencies were estimated, and
12 of 17
after a further analysis, the vibrational modes with the largest out-of-plane displacements
were located at two resonance frequencies of about 110 kHz (𝑓6𝑆 ) and 140 kHz (𝑓7 ).

Figure 12. Numerical results of the frequency sweep for 20 V obtained by FEM. A schematic of the
frequency mode cross-section
frequency mode cross-section is
is shown
shown above
above every
every detected
detected frequency.
frequency.

In Figure 13, the numerical simulation findings (line plots) at various various voltage
voltage levels
(20–80 V) are
are compared
comparedwith withthe
theexperimental
experimentalresults
resultsofof the
the atomization
atomization rate
rate obtained
obtained by
by a frequency sweep over the range from 100 kHz to 150 kHz. The small
a frequency sweep over the range from 100 kHz to 150 kHz. The small discrepancies were discrepancies
were expected,
expected, as theasPZT
thering
PZTwasringbonded
was bonded
to thetometal
the metal
meshmeshusingusing
epoxyepoxy andwires
and the the wires
were
were soldered
soldered to theto the system.
system. Overall,Overall,
the peaktheatomization
peak atomization rates matched
rates matched closely
closely with thewith
res-
the resonant
onant frequencies
frequencies from thefrom the numerical
numerical simulations,
simulations, with thewith
maximathe maxima
occurringoccurring
at frequen- at
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
frequencies 12 that
of 16
cies around around
110 kHz 110 kHz
and 141and 141 From
kHz. kHz. From
these these results,
results, it is possible
it is possible to observe
to observe that the
the resonance
resonance frequency
frequency is altered
is not not altered
withwith the voltage
the voltage change;
change; onlyonly the amplitude
the amplitude of theofcen-
the
central displacement is affected.
tral displacement is affected.

Figure 13.Comparison
Figure13. Comparison between
between the
thefrequency
frequencysweep
sweepFEM
FEMresults
resultsfor
fordifferent
differentvoltages
voltagesand
andthe
the
experimental
experimentalresults
resultsofofthe
theatomization
atomizationrate.
rate.

The
Thevolume
volumegenerated
generated bybythethe
global deformation
global deformation of the thinthin
of the (∆Vs(∆𝑉
plateplate ), as𝑠 ),well as theas
as well
additional contribution of the micro-aperture deformations ( ∆V )
the additional contribution of the micro-aperture deformationsD (∆𝑉𝐷 ), were also numeri- , were also numerically
estimated.
cally estimated. The maximum
The maximum deformation
deformationof theofmicro-aperture
the micro-aperture located nearnear
located the center of
the center
the thinthin
of the plate was
plate wasmeasured
measured directly
directlyfrom FEM
from FEM at at
110110kHz
kHz for
forthe
thevalues
valuesofofthe thevoltage
voltage
in [ −
in the range [−80, 80] V, as shown in Figure 14. A symmetric cyclic behavior ofthe
the range 80, 80] V, as shown in Figure 14. A symmetric cyclic behavior of thesmall
small
(D
(𝐷s1𝑠1) )and
andlarge l1 ) diameters
(D(𝐷 was found; however, these changes were very small (about
large 𝑙1 ) diameters was found; however, these changes were very small
0.025
(about ) with
µm0.025 respect
μm) withtorespect
their initial value
to their at rest.
initial Thus,
value its contribution
at rest. to the total value
Thus, its contribution to the
change ( ∆V ) was not found to be significant.
total value Dchange (∆𝑉 ) was not found to be significant.
𝐷

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 8350
cally estimated. The maximum deformation of the micro-aperture located near the center
of the thin plate was measured directly from FEM at 110 kHz for the values of the voltage
in the range [−80, 80] V, as shown in Figure 14. A symmetric cyclic behavior of the small
(𝐷𝑠1 ) and large (𝐷𝑙1 ) diameters was found; however, these changes were very small
(about 0.025 μm) with respect to their initial value at rest. Thus, its contribution to
13 the
of 17
total value change (∆𝑉𝐷 ) was not found to be significant.

Figure
Figure14.
14.FEM
FEMestimation
estimationofofthe
themaximum
maximummicro-aperture
micro-aperturevariations
variationsasasaafunction
functionofofthe
thecycling
cycling
changes
changesininthe
theapplied
appliedvoltage.
voltage.

Additionally,the
Additionally, theglobal
globalliquid
liquidvolume
volumedisplaced
displacedbybythethethin
thinplate
platewas
was calculated
calculated
based on the FEM results (Figure 15). The distribution of the particle displacement atatthe
based on the FEM results (Figure 15). The distribution of the particle displacement the
surfaceofofthe
surface thethin
thinplate
plateasasgiven
givenby
bythetheFEM
FEMwaswascalculated
calculatedby byusing
usingthe
theshell
shellmethod
methodof of
integration[28].
integration [28].An
Anillustration
illustrationof
of the
the integration
integration method
method considering
considering thethe limits (𝑎n𝑛, ,bn𝑏)𝑛is
limits (a )
isdescribed
describedininFigure
Figure15.
15.This
This method
method allows
allows obtaining volumes generated
obtaining volumes generatedby byrotating
rotatingan an
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW f (r ) and 13 of 16
areabetween
area betweenanyanytwo
two functions,
functions, 𝑓(𝑟) andg(𝑔(𝑟),
r ), where
wheref (r𝑓(𝑟)
) is the displacement
is the displacementcurvecurveand
g(r )𝑔(𝑟)
and is a threshold.
is a threshold.

Figure 15. Approximation of the volume caused by the out-of-plane displacement distribution. On
the left, the shell method for integration
integration ofof the
the solid
solid of
of the revolution about
about the
the z-axis
z-axis is described.
described.
The function f𝑓(𝑟)
(r ) isisintegrated alongr, 𝑟,
integratedalong with
with itsits value
value subtracted
subtracted bybythethe threshold
threshold function
function g(r𝑔(𝑟).
).

According to our
According our experimental
experimental findings, findings,atomization
atomizationwas wasnot notdetected
detectedbelowbelow2020 V.
Therefore, the displacement amplitude (or volume variation)
V. Therefore, the displacement amplitude (or volume variation) at that value was used as at that value was used as a
th𝑡ℎ
athreshold
threshold(∆V (Δ𝑉S𝑆 ).).Thus,
Thus,the theeffective
effectivevolume
volumeused usedfor
forthe
thenumerical
numerical results
results was
was given
given as
ef f
𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑡ℎ th
∆V
Δ𝑉 𝑆S =
= ∆V
Δ𝑉 𝑠s−− Δ𝑉∆V
s s . The
. The changes
changes in
in volume
volume due
due to
to deformation
deformation of the apertures
apertures ∆VD
((∆𝑉 𝐷)
was neglected
neglectedfor forthethecalculations
calculationsofof thethe atomization
atomization rate,
rate, since
since it was
it was veryvery
smallsmall com-
compared
ef f 𝑒𝑓𝑓
pared to thevolume
to the total total volumechangechange ∆VS .Δ𝑉 On 𝑆 .
the On the
other other
hand, hand,
the the
pressurepressure
loss loss coefficient
coefficient ( ξ ) is
(𝜉) is difficult
difficult to accurately
to accurately assess its assess
value,its since
value,the since themicro-apertures
actual actual micro-apertures are manu-
are manufactured
factured by micro-abrasion
by micro-abrasion electroforming electroforming
and drillingand drilling which,
techniques, techniques, which,give
in practice, in irregular
practice,
give
conicalirregular
shapes conical
and edges shapes and edges
[7]. Thus, in order [7].toThus,
obtaininanorder to obtain
estimate an estimate of
of the approximate the
value
approximate value of (the
of the loss coefficient ξ a )loss coefficient
, correlated (𝜉𝑎experimental
to the ), correlated to the experimental
atomization atomization
rate (413 mg/min)
rate (413 mg/min)
obtained at 80 V and obtained
110 kHz, at 80the V following
and 110 kHz, the following
procedure procedure was
was implemented. imple-
Figure 16
shows the
mented. linear16relation
Figure shows the (solid line)relation
linear between the atomization
(solid line) betweenrate theand the pressure
atomization rate loss
and
the pressure loss coefficient 𝜉, as given in Equation (7). By using this linear estimate, an
approximate value of 𝜉𝑎 = 6.11 × 10−3 corresponding to the experimentally determined
atomization rate (𝑄 = 413 mg/min) was estimated. The value was found to be smaller
than the theoretical one (𝜉 = 4.18 × 10−2 ) for an ideal conical shape micro-aperture, but
 𝑒𝑓𝑓
pared to the total volume change Δ𝑉𝑆 . On the other hand, the pressure loss coefficient
(𝜉) is difficult to accurately assess its value, since the actual micro-apertures are manu-
factured by micro-abrasion electroforming and drilling techniques, which, in practice,
give irregular conical shapes and edges [7]. Thus, in order to obtain an estimate of the
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 8350 14 of 17
approximate value of the loss coefficient (𝜉𝑎 ), correlated to the experimental atomization
rate (413 mg/min) obtained at 80 V and 110 kHz, the following procedure was imple-
mented. Figure 16 shows the linear relation (solid line) between the atomization rate and
the pressure
coefficient ξ, loss coefficient
as given 𝜉, as given
in Equation (7). in
ByEquation
using this(7).linear
By using this linear
estimate, estimate, an
an approximate
−3
approximate value of 𝜉− 3 = 6.11 × 10 corresponding to the experimentally
value of ξ a = 6.11 × 10 𝑎 corresponding to the experimentally determined atomization determined
atomization rate (𝑄 = 413 mg/min)
rate (Q = 413 mg/min) was estimated. The value was found to be smallerbethan
was estimated. The value was found to smaller
the
−2
than the theoretical
theoretical one ×
one (ξ = 4.18 (𝜉10= 4.18
− 2 × an
) for 10 ideal
) for an ideal
conical conical
shape shape micro-aperture,
micro-aperture, but this can but
be
athis can be a consequence
consequence of the actual of the actual
conditions conditions
found found in the micro-apertures
in the micro-apertures of the
of the experimental
experimental
ultrasonic ultrasonic atomizer.
atomizer.

Figure16.
Figure 16. Approximation
Approximation of
of an
an effective
effectivepressure
pressureloss
losscoefficient
coefficientusing
usingthe
theexperimental
experimentalresults.
results.

Using the found loss coefficient (ξ a ), an approximation of the atomization rate as a

function
 of the
 voltage can be obtained using Equation (7). The variations of the volume
ef f
∆VD , ∆VS were calculated for every displacement distribution of the thin plate as
given by the FEM at the resonance frequency of 110 kHz. For these calculations, the loss
coefficient was kept constant.
Using these estimations, the results of the atomization rate measurements at the
resonant frequency of 110 kHz were compared with the numerical calculations. As it was
shown, at this frequency, the displacement amplitude distribution of the vibrational mode
was rather complex, with a harmonic decreasing spatial distribution as a function of the
thin plate radius. Thus, it is reasonable to assume that the total deformation between the
compression and tension cycles was expected to contribute to the atomization rate. In
Figure 17, the obtained results showed a good correlation between the experimental (scatter
points) and numerical predictions (solid line) by FEM. The predicted atomization rate was
nearly linear, with a minimum at 20 V, which was the preset threshold. A small rate was
observed below 40 V, which we attributed to the set constant threshold, thus indicating
that the shape of the mode was not affected by the voltage, only its amplitude.
The proposed approach assumes that the coefficient ξ a is constant for all voltage values
and that the distribution of aperture openings during the dynamic cycles is homogenous
over all the area, whilst, in reality, it depends on the vibrational mode behavior. Despite
these considerations, it is interesting to notice that the predictions predicted well the
experimental results. The predicted behaviors appeared to follow the experimental results
with a roughly linear behavior, indicating a directly proportional relationship between the
voltage and the out-of-plane displacements through the center of the thin plate, which
controls the atomization rate and can be used to optimize it.
 thin plate radius. Thus, it is reasonable to assume that the total deformation between the
compression and tension cycles was expected to contribute to the atomization rate. In Fig-
ure 17, the obtained results showed a good correlation between the experimental (scatter
points) and numerical predictions (solid line) by FEM. The predicted atomization rate was
nearly linear, with a minimum at 20 V, which was the preset threshold. A small rate was
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 8350 15 of 17
observed below 40 V, which we attributed to the set constant threshold, thus indicating
that the shape of the mode was not affected by the voltage, only its amplitude.

Figure
Figure17.17.Total
Totalatomization
atomization rate voltage using ξ𝜉a𝑎,,with
rate vs. voltage withthe
theresult
resultused
usedasasa areference
referencethreshold
threshold
in
inthe
thecalculation
calculationofofthe
the displaced
displaced volume.
volume.

7. Conclusions
The proposed approach assumes that the coefficient 𝜉𝑎 is constant for all voltage
valuesInand
thisthat the distribution
research, three main of aperture
aspects wereopenings
considered;during
first,the dynamic
a FEM dynamiccycles is ho-
modeling
mogenous over all the area, whilst, in reality, it depends on the vibrational
of an ultrasonic atomizer was developed; second, a study of a higher vibrational mode mode behavior.
Despite
analysisthese considerations,
as a function it is interesting
of the aperture shape ofto anotice
meshedthatthin
theplate
predictions predicted well
was investigated; and
the experimental
third, a numericalresults. The predicted
approximation of thebehaviors
atomization appeared
rate basedto follow the experimental
on a combination of the
experimental
results and numerical
with a roughly results was
linear behavior, proposed.
indicating The finite
a directly element analysis
proportional provided
relationship be-
a method
tween to determine
the voltage and thethe vibration modes
out-of-plane of the complete
displacements through the system (meshed
center thinplate,
of the thin plate
coupled
which to a PZT)
controls the in response torate
atomization an applied
and canharmonic
be used tovoltage,
optimize which
it. is a complex problem
to solve analytically. The behavior of the atomizer system for three types of apertures was
7.analyzed.
ConclusionsThe results showed that the resonant frequency was only slightly affected by the
shape of the aperture,three
In this research, withmain
a larger response
aspects werefor the conical
considered; aperture
first, a FEMwhen compared
dynamic with
modeling
a pyramidal shape. In all cases, the maximum out-of-plane displacement
of an ultrasonic atomizer was developed; second, a study of a higher vibrational mode showed a linear
behavioraswith
analysis the applied
a function of thevoltage.
apertureNumerical
shape of asimulations
meshed thinofplate out-of-plane displacement
was investigated; and
distribution were used to obtain an approximation of the volume
third, a numerical approximation of the atomization rate based on a combination of change generated bythe
the
dynamic oscillations at the resonant frequency. The experimental results
experimental and numerical results was proposed. The finite element analysis provided a also demonstrated
that a minimum threshold voltage was required to achieve atomization. A prediction of
method to determine the vibration modes of the complete system (meshed thin plate cou-
the atomization rate was determined considering the effect of the mass transfer, vibration
pled to a PZT) in response to an applied harmonic voltage, which is a complex problem
analysis, and geometry of the aperture. The results were compared with the experimental
to solve analytically. The behavior of the atomizer system for three types of apertures was
results, and a good correlation was found. This study indicated that FEM provides correct
analyzed. The results showed that the resonant frequency was only slightly affected by
information of the mechanical behavior occurring during the ultrasonic atomizing process.
The results could allow to optimize the atomization parameters by finding the optimum
driving frequency and voltage for a specific design of the meshed thin-plate coupled to
a PZT. The next step in our research could be to implement the results for soft actuation
optimization of a soft robotic system.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, E.G.-B., K.J.L., H.-J.L. and A.B.; methodology, E.G.-B.;
validation, E.G.-B. and H.-J.L.; formal analysis, E.G.-B. and A.B.; writing—original draft preparation,
E.G.-B., A.B. and K.J.L.; and writing—review and editing, E.G.-B., A.B. and K.J.L. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by 2019 UC MEXUS-CONACYT, grant number CN-19-153 and
partial support was also provided by the U.S. National Science Foundation under grant numbers
CMMI-1762530 and CMMI-2032021 (principal investigator: Kenneth J. Loh).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The datasets generated for this study are available on request by
contacting the corresponding authors.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 8350 16 of 17

Acknowledgments: This project was supported by the 2019 UC MEXUS-CONACYT grant no. CN-
19-153. Partial support was also provided by the U.S. National Science Foundation under grant
numbers CMMI-1762530 and CMMI-2032021 (principal investigator: Kenneth J. Loh).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A
Pseudocode for the modal and harmonic analysis implemented in ANSYS to solve the
single thin plate and the meshed thin plate coupled to the PZT ring system problems.

Table A1. Stages of FEM implementation in ANSYS.

Define the initial material and geometry parameters

Define the engineering data Young0 s modulus ( E), Poisson0 s ratio (v), density (ρ), and element type (Solid-186).
Attach the geometry (circular plate described before).
Apply the mesh controls (discretize the domain).
A1: Modal analysis: A2: Harmonic analysis:
1. Analysis settings: Set Analysis Type > New Analysis > Modal. 1. Define the contact regions between the PZT ring and the
2. Define mode extraction method : Reduce method plate (contact type = Bonded always).
eigen - solver on [K ] − ω 2 [ M ] = 0 to find the frequency 2. Apply loads and supports conditions, u x = uy = uz = 0

roots ω 2 ) and specify the number ( N > 0 ) of modes in thenedge of o

the plate and a harmonic voltage
to find. V = Vmax eiφ eiΩt , where φ is the phase shift, and Ω is
3. Apply loads and support conditions, u x = uy = uz = 0, the frequency of excitation. The voltage is applied as is
in the edge of the plate. shown in Figure 7.
4. Solve the system. 3. Define the frequency range ∆Ω = (fmax − f min )/n, where
n is the number of intervals.
4. Define the solution method : Superposition method and
 
solve the harmonic equation : −Ω2 [ M] + iΩ[C] + [K]
{u1 + iu2 } = {V1 + iV2 }.
For a linear system, one can express the displacements u
as a linear combination of the mode shapes.

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