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 PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

3. Which component of the cell produces hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) by using oxygen to remove
hydrogen atoms from specific substrates in an oxidative reaction?
a. Lysosomes
b. Peroxisomes
c. Ribosomes
d. Endosome
ANS: B
Peroxisomes are so named because they usually contain enzymes that use oxygen to remove
hydrogen atoms from specific substrates in an oxidative reaction that produces H2O2, which is
a powerful oxidant and potentially destructive if it accumulates or escapes from peroxisomes.
Ribosomes are RNA-protein complexes (nucleoproteins) that are synthesized in the nucleolus
and secreted into the cytoplasm through pores in the nuclear envelope called nuclear pore
complexes. Lysosomes are saclike structures that originate from the Golgi complex and
contain more than 40 digestive enzymes called hydrolases, which catalyze bonds in proteins,
lipids, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates. An endosome is a vesical that has been pinched off
from the cellular membrane.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

4. Which cell component is capable of cellular autodigestion when it is released during cell
injury?
a. Ribosome
b. Golgi complex
c. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
d. Lysosomes
ANS: D
The lysosomal membrane acts as a protective shield between the powerful digestive enzymes
within the lysosome and the cytoplasm, preventing their leakage into the cytoplasmic matrix.
Disruption of the membrane by various treatments or cellular injury leads to a release of the
lysosomal enzymes, which can then react with their specific substrates, causing cellular self-
digestion. The chief function of a ribosome is to provide sites for cellular protein synthesis.
The Golgi complex is a network of flattened, smooth vesicles and membranes often located
near the cell nucleus. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is involved in steroid hormone
production and removing toxic substances from the cell.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

5. Which cAMP-mediated response is related to antidiuretic hormone?

a. Increased heart rate and force of contraction
b. Secretion of cortisol
c. Increased retention of water
d. Breakdown of fat
ANS: C
 Antidiuretic hormone leads to increased retention of water in the body. Epinephrine causes
increases in heart rate and force of contraction. Increased cortisol secretion is due to ACTH.
Breakdown of fat is due to glucagon.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

6. During which phase of the cell cycle is DNA synthesized?

a. G1
b. S
c. G2
d. M
ANS: B
The four designated phases of the cell cycle are: (1) the G1 phase (G = gap), which is the
period between the M phase (M = mitosis) and the start of DNA synthesis; (2) the S phase (S
= synthesis), during which DNA is synthesized in the cell nucleus; (3) the G2 phase, during
which RNA and protein synthesis occurs, the period between the completion of DNA
synthesis and the next phase (M); and (4) the M phase, which includes nuclear and
cytoplasmic division.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

7. What organic compound facilitates transportation across cell membranes by acting as

receptors, transport channels for electrolytes, and enzymes to drive active pumps?
a. Lipids
b. Proteases
c. Proteins
d. Carbohydrates
ANS: C
Proteins have several functions, including acting as receptors, transport channels for
electrolytes, and enzymes to drive active pumps Lipids help act as the “glue” holding cell
membranes together. Proteases cause the breakdown of protein. Carbohydrates are involved in
cellular protection and lubrication and help produce energy via oxidative phosphorylation.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

8. Understanding the various steps of proteolytic cascades may be useful in designing drug
therapy for which human diseases?
a. Cardiac and vascular disorders
b. Autoimmune and malignant disorders
c. Gastrointestinal and renal disorders
d. Endocrine and gastrointestinal disorders
ANS: B
Understanding the various steps involved in this process is crucial for designing drug
interventions. Dysregulation of proteases features prominently in many human diseases,
including cancer, autoimmunity, and neurodegenerative disorders. Cardiac, vascular,
gastrointestinal, renal, and endocrine disorders do not involve this process.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

 9. Which structure prevents water-soluble molecules from entering cells across the plasma
membrane?
a. Carbohydrate chains
b. Glycoprotein channels
c. Membrane channel proteins
d. Lipid bilayer
ANS: D
The bilayer’s structure accounts for one of the essential functions of the plasma membrane. It
is impermeable to most water-soluble molecules (molecules that dissolve in water) because
the water-soluble molecules are insoluble in the oily core region. The bilayer serves as a
barrier to the diffusion of water and hydrophilic substances while allowing lipid-soluble
molecules, such as oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2), to diffuse through it readily.
Carbohydrate chains, glycoprotein channels, and membrane channel proteins do not prevent
water-soluble molecules from entering cells across the cell membrane.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

10. A student asks for an explanation of the absolute refractory period of the action potential.
What response by the professor is best?
a. A stronger than normal impulse will evoke another response.
b. No stimulus is able to evoke another response at this time.
c. Multiple stimuli can produce more rapid action potentials.
d. The hyperpolarized state means a weaker stimulus produces a response.
ANS: B
During the absolute refractory state of the action potential, no stimulus is able to evoke
another response from the cell. A stronger than normal impulse may generate a response in
the relative refractory period. This period of time is not related to the number of stimuli. A
hyperpolarized state means a stronger than normal stimulus would be needed to generate a
response.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

11. Which form of cell communication is used to communicate within the cell itself and with
other cells in direct physical contact?
a. Protein channel (gap junction)
b. Plasma membrane-bound signaling molecules
c. Hormone secretion such as neurotransmitters
d. Extracellular chemical messengers such as ligands
ANS: B
Cells communicate in three main ways; they display plasma membrane-bound signaling
molecules that affect the cell itself and other cells in direct physical contact with it, they affect
receptor proteins inside the target cell, and they form protein channels (gap junctions) that
directly coordinate the activities of adjacent cells. Neurotransmitters are released by neurons
and cross the synaptic cleft to communicate with the cells they innervate. Ligands are
involved in binding processes.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

12. Which mode of chemical signaling uses blood to transport communication to cells some
distance away?
a. Paracrine
b. Autocrine
c. Neurotransmitter
d. Hormonal
ANS: D
Chemical signaling can be classified into three categories: (1) local-chemical mediator, (2)
hormone, and (3) neurotransmitter. Hormones are released by one set of cells and travel
through tissues or the bloodstream to another set of cells where they produce a response by
those cells. In paracrine signaling, cells secrete local chemical mediators that are quickly
absorbed, destroyed, or immobilized. Paracrine signaling requires close membrane-to-
membrane contact. Paracrine signaling usually involves different cell types; however, cells
also may produce signals that they, themselves, respond to, which is called autocrine
signaling. Neurotransmitters are released by neurons and cross the synaptic cleft to
communicate with the cells they innervate.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

13. Which mode of chemical signaling uses local chemical mediators that are quickly taken up,
destroyed, or immobilized?
a. Paracrine
b. Autocrine
c. Neurotransmitter
d. Hormone
ANS: A
In paracrine signaling, cells secrete local chemical mediators that are quickly taken up,
destroyed, or immobilized. Autocrine signaling occurs when the target cells produce signals
that they themselves respond to. Neurotransmitters are released by neurons and cross the
synaptic cleft to communicate with the cells they innervate. Hormones are released by one set
of cells and travel through tissues or the bloodstream to another set of cells where they
produce a response by those cells.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

14. Neurotransmitters affect the postsynaptic membrane by binding to which structure?

a. Lipids
b. Ribosomes
c. Amphipathic lipids
d. Receptors
ANS: D
In each type of chemical signaling, the target cell receives the signal by first attaching to its
receptors. The other options do not correctly describe this process.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

15. How do cells receive communication from the extracellular fluid surrounding them?
a. Protein channel (gap junction)
 b. Plasma membrane-bound signaling molecules (involving receptors)
c. Hormone secretion such as neurotransmitters
d. Chemical messengers such as ligands
ANS: D
Signal transduction involves incoming signals or instructions from extracellular chemical
messengers (ligands) that are conveyed to the cell’s interior for execution. The other options
do not correctly describe how cells receive communication from the surrounding extracellular
fluid.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

16. Which molecule provides the second messenger necessary for extracellular communication to
be activated?
a. Guanosine triphosphate (GTP)
b. Adenosine monophosphate (AMP)
c. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
d. Guanosine diphosphate (GDP)
ANS: B
The two major second-messenger pathways are cyclic AMP (cAMP) and calcium (Ca++).
GTP, ATP, and GDP are not major second-messenger pathways. GTP and GDP are
“middlemen” or intermediaries. Nutrients are transformed into energy in the form of ATP.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

17. Under anaerobic conditions, what process provides energy for the cell?
a. Oxidative phosphorylation
b. Glycolysis
c. Lactolysis
d. Passive transport
ANS: B
Glycolysis provides energy to the cells when oxygen delivery is insufficient or delayed.
Oxidative phosphorylation is the process by which energy produced from nutrients is
transferred to ATP. Lactolysis is the breakdown of lactose. Passive transport is the movement
of water and small, nonelectrically charge molecules across plasma membranes.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

18. What is the mechanism by which the energy produced from carbohydrates, proteins, and
lipids is transferred to adenosine triphosphate (ATP)?
a. Anaerobic glycolysis
b. Oxidative cellular metabolism
c. Oxidative phosphorylation
d. Tricarboxylic acid phosphorylation
ANS: C
 Oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondria and is the mechanism by which the
energy produced from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins is transferred to ATP. Glycolysis
provides energy to the cells when oxygen delivery is insufficient or delayed. Oxidative
cellular metabolism and tricarboxylic acid phosphorylation are not involved in transferring
energy to ATP.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

19. Passive transport is best described with which statement?

a. Being driven by osmosis, hydrostatic pressure, and diffusion
b. Involving receptors that can bind with substances being transported
c. Being capable of transporting macromolecules
d. Requiring energy generated by the cell
ANS: A
Water and small electrically uncharged molecules move easily through pores in the plasma
membrane’s lipid bilayer. This process, called passive transport, naturally occurs through any
semipermeable barrier. It is driven by osmosis, hydrostatic pressure, and diffusion, all of
which depend on the laws of physics and do not require life. The other options do not
correctly describe passive transport.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

20. Which is the best example of active transport?

a. Movement across a membrane due to differences in solute concentration
b. Movement requiring the expenditure of metabolic energy
c. Movement of two molecules simultaneously in one direction
d. Movement of two molecules simultaneously in opposite directions
ANS: B
Active transport requires a life, biologic activity, and the expenditure of metabolic energy.
Movement due simply to differences in concentration gradients is called passive transport.
Movement of two molecules in the same direction is called symport, while moving two
molecules in opposite directions is called antiport.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

21. Which method of transport uses transmembrane proteins with receptors with a high degree of
specificity for the substance being transported?
a. Active
b. Mediated
c. Transmembranous
d. Passive
ANS: B
Mediated transport (passive and active) involves integral or transmembrane proteins with
receptors having a high degree of specificity for the substance being transported. Active and
passive transport are opposites with active transport requiring the use of energy and passive
transport relying on osmosis, hydrostatic pressure, and diffusion and not energy.
Transmembranous means “across membranes.”
 PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

22. The movement of fluid across the arterial end of capillary membranes into the interstitial fluid
surrounding the capillary is an example of which fluid movement process?
a. Hydrostatic pressure
b. Osmosis
c. Diffusion
d. Active transport
ANS: A
Hydrostatic pressure is the mechanical force of water pushing against cellular membranes.
Osmosis is the movement of water “down” a concentration gradient, that is, across a
semipermeable membrane from a region of higher water concentration to a region of lower
water concentration. Diffusion is the movement of a solute molecule from an area of greater
solute concentration to an area of lesser solute concentration. Active transport requires a life,
biologic activity, and the expenditure of metabolic energy.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

23. A student asks why osmolality is preferred over osmolarity as the measurement of osmotic
activity in the clinical assessment of individuals. What response by the professor is most
accurate?
a. Plasma contains sodium and chloride, which influence the volume of solution.
b. Volume affects perfusion more than the weight of solutes.
c. More of the weight of plasma is influenced by solutes rather than by water.
d. Osmotic activity depends on the concentration of solutes present in plasma.
ANS: C
Osmolality is a measure of the number of milliosmoles per kilogram (mOsm/kg) of water, or
the concentration of molecules per weight of water. Osmolarity is a measure of the number of
milliosmoles per liter (mOsm/L) of solution, or the concentration of molecules per volume of
solution. Osmolality is a measure of the number of milliosmoles per kilogram (mOsm/kg) of
water, or the concentration of molecules per weight of water. Osmolarity is a measure of the
number of milliosmoles per liter (mOsm/L) of solution, or the concentration of molecules per
volume of solution. In plasma, less of the plasma weight is water; therefore the overall
concentration of particles is greater. The osmolality will be greater than the osmolarity
because of the smaller proportion of water. Osmolality is thus the preferred measure of
osmotic activity in clinical assessment of individuals.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

24. A patient who has diarrhea receives a 3% saline solution intravenously to replace the sodium
and chloride lost in the stool. What effect will this fluid replacement have on cells?
a. Become hydrated
b. Swell or burst
c. Shrink
d. Divide
ANS: C
 A hypertonic solution has a concentration of greater than 285 to 294 mOsm/kg. An example
of a hypertonic solution is 3% saline solution. Water can be pulled out of the cells by a
hypertonic solution; therefore the cells shrink. An isotonic solution will cause the cells to
become more hydrated without disrupting the osmolality of either intracellular or extracellular
fluid. Hypotonic solutions can cause cells to swell or burst. No solutions lead to cell division.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

25. The transport of glucose from the blood to the cell is accomplished by which process?
a. Hydrostatic pressure
b. Active diffusion
c. Passive osmosis
d. Mediated transport
ANS: D
Mediated transport is the means by which glucose is transported from the blood to the cells.
This process uses transport proteins. Hydrostatic pressure is the force of water pushing against
a cell membrane. Diffusion is a passive process, not active. Osmosis is the movement of water
“down” a concentration gradient, that is, across a semipermeable membrane from a region of
higher water concentration to a region of lower water concentration and is a passive process.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

26. What transports potassium and sodium across plasma membranes?

a. Passive electrolyte channels
b. Coupled channels
c. Adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) enzyme
d. Diffusion
ANS: C
The exact mechanism for the transport of Na+ and K+ across the membrane is uncertain. One
proposal is that ATPase enzyme induces the transporter protein to undergo several
conformational changes, causing Na+ and K+ to move short distances (see Figure 1-29). The
remaining options do not correctly describe the means by which K+ and Na+ are transported.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

27. What occurs during exocytosis?

a. Macromolecules can be secreted across eukaryotic cell membranes.
b. All substances are secreted into the cellular matrix.
c. No repairs in the plasma membrane can take place.
d. Solute molecules flow freely into and out of the cell.
ANS: A
In eukaryotic cells, secretion of macromolecules almost always occurs by exocytosis. The
remaining options do not correctly describe exocytosis.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

28. The cellular uptake of the nutrient cholesterol depends on which process?
a. Receptor-mediated exocytosis
b. Antiport system
 c. Receptor-mediated endocytosis
d. Passive transport
ANS: C
The cellular uptake of nutrients, such as cholesterol, for example, depends on receptor-
mediated endocytosis. Nutrients are not transported via the other options.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

29. What causes the rapid change in the resting membrane potential to initiate an action potential?
a. Potassium gates open, and potassium rushes into the cell, changing the membrane
potential from negative to positive.
b. Sodium gates open, and sodium rushes into the cell, changing the membrane
potential from negative to positive.
c. Sodium gates close, allowing potassium into the cell to change the membrane
potential from positive to negative.
d. Potassium gates close, allowing sodium into the cell to change the membrane
potential from positive to negative.
ANS: B
When a resting cell is stimulated through voltage-regulated channels, the cell membranes
become more permeable to Na+. As Na+ moves into the cell the membrane potential
decreases, or moves forward, from a negative value (in millivolts) to zero. The Na+ gates
open, and Na+ rushes into the cell, causing the membrane potential to reduce to zero and then
become positive (depolarization). The remaining options do not correctly describe the change
that initiates an action potential.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

30. The action of platelet-derived growth factor is to stimulate the production of which cells?
a. Platelets
b. Epidermal cells
c. Connective tissue cells
d. Fibroblast cells
ANS: C
Different types of cells require different factors to stimulate proliferation; for example,
platelet-derived growth factor stimulates the production of connective tissue cells. Platelet-
derived growth factor does not stimulate production of platelets, epidermal cells, or
fibroblasts.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

31. What role do cytokines play in cell reproduction?

a. Provide growth factor for tissue growth and development
b. Block progress of cell reproduction through the cell cycle
c. Restrain cell growth and development
d. Provide nutrients for cell growth and development
ANS: A
 Growth factors, also called cytokines, stimulate an increase in cell mass or cell growth by
promoting the synthesis of proteins and other macromolecules and inhibiting their
degradation.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

32. What is the process of cellular reproduction?

a. The process often takes months or years to complete.
b. Cellular reproduction typically has a short interphase.
c. Two diploid cells, called daughter cells, have been formed.
d. The process involves the interaction of male and female cells.
ANS: C
During telophase, the final stage of cellular reproduction, two identical diploid cells, called
daughter cells, has been formed from the original cell. The process occurs hundreds of times a
second. Interphase is the longest phase of the cell cycle. Male and female cells do not interact
in cellular reproduction; each cell is responsible for reproducing itself.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

33. Which statement is true about eukaryotic cells?

a. They lack distinct nucleus.
b. They contain compartments called organelles.
c. They lack an encasing nuclear membrane.
d. They are smaller than the typical prokaryote cell.
ANS: B
Eukaryotic cells have a characteristic set of membrane-bound intracellular compartments
called organelles that include a well-defined nucleus encased in a nuclear membrane.
Eukaryotic cells are also larger than prokaryotes.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

34. Which statement is true about phagocytosis?

a. Phagocytosis is an example of exocytosis.
b. Phagocytosis is dependent on small vesicles.
c. Phagocytosis involves the ingestion of bacteria.
d. Phagocytosis focuses on solute molecules.
ANS: C
Phagocytosis is the engulfment of large particles in phagocytic cells. Phagocytosis is an
example of endocytosis, not exocytosis and does not focus on solutes.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

35. A muscle cell possesses which specialized function?

a. Movement
b. Conductivity
c. Secretion
d. Respiration
ANS: A
 A cell has the potential to differentiation and to gain the ability to perform one of eight
specialized functions. Muscle cells can generate forces that produce motion. Nerves cells are
capable of conductivity. Cells of the adrenal gland, testis, and ovary can secrete. Respiration
is a function that all cells possess.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

36. When a mucous gland cell creates a new substance from previously absorbed material, this
process is known as which specialized cellular function?
a. Excretion
b. Metabolic absorption
c. Reproduction
d. Secretion
ANS: D
Certain cells, such as mucous gland cells, can synthesize new substances from substances they
absorb and then secrete the new substances to serve elsewhere as needed. Excretion occurs
when cells rid themselves of waste products. Reproduction is the process of forming new
cells.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

37. All cells are capable of what process?

a. Excretion
b. Movement
c. Conductivity
d. Continuous division
ANS: A
All cells have the capacity to excrete, thus allowing them to rid themselves of waste products
resulting from the metabolic breakdown of nutrients. Muscle cells have the property of
movement. Conductivity is a property of nerve cells. Many, but not all, cells are capable of
reproduction.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

38. What is the best description of cell cycle arrest?

a. The cell cycle is stopped due to damaged DNA.
b. Programmed cell death is suppressed.
c. Macromolecule degradation is inhibited.
d. Production of growth factors is halted.
ANS: A
The DNA damage response occurs when DNA is damaged and several protein kinases are
recruited to the site of damage and start a signaling pathway that stops the progression of the
cell cycle, or cell cycle arrest. Cell cycle arrest does not involve suppressing programmed cell
death, macromolecule degradation, or growth factor production.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

MULTIPLE RESPONSE
1. What are the major chemical components of the cell membranes? (Select all that apply.)
a. Lipids
b. Sodium ions
c. Carbohydrates
d. DNA
e. Proteins
ANS: A, E
The major chemical components of all cell membranes are lipids and proteins. Sodium ions,
carbohydrates, and DNA are not major chemical components of cell membranes.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

2. Which statements are true concerning the process of mediated transport? (Select all that
apply.)
a. Can be active or passive
b. Only moves one molecule at a time
c. Involves transport proteins
d. Expends tremendous energy
e. Occurs only with hormones
ANS: A, C
Mediated transport uses membrane transport proteins and can be either active or passive.
Mediated transport systems can move molecules singly or two at a time and may or may not
use energy. Many substances can be moved through mediated transport.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

3. What is passive transport dependent on? (Select all that apply.)

a. Semipermeable barrier membrane
b. The process of osmosis
c. Diffusion as a driving force
d. A living host
e. Hydrostatic pressure
ANS: A, B, C, E
Passive transport naturally occurs through any semipermeable barrier. It is driven by osmosis,
hydrostatic pressure, and diffusion, all of which depend on the laws of physics and do not
require life.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

4. What is the primary function of proteins? (Select all that apply.)

a. Proteins are binding units.
b. Proteins are transport channels.
c. Proteins are ribonucleoproteins.
d. Proteins provide cell surface markers.
e. Proteins are chemical reaction catalysts.
ANS: A, B, D, E
Protein functions include (a) recognition and binding units (receptors) for substances moving
in and out of the cell; (b) pores or transport channels; (c) enzymes that drive active pumps; (d)
cell surface markers, such as glycoproteins; (e) cell adhesion molecules; and (f) catalysts of
chemical reactions.

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Remembering

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Letter-Forms.
INTRODUCTION.
In writing letters, or in preparing anything for the press, care
should be taken to write a plain, readable hand. Many a valuable
position has been lost because of poor penmanship, and many
worthy productions have been thrown into the waste-basket,
because they have been poorly written. Men of distinction can afford
to write a poor hand, to the inconvenience of friends, and the trouble
of printers, but, as a general rule, a poor writer labors under a great
disadvantage.
The following facts should be remembered in writing letters:—
1. A letter should not be written on half a sheet of paper, unless it
is a business letter.
 2. Business letters should be as brief as clearness will permit.
3. It is never allowable to write across a written page.
4. All unnecessary flourishes should be avoided.
5. Black ink is preferable, and it is more durable than any other.

THE ADDRESS.
INTRODUCTORY REMARK.

The most important part of letter-writing is to properly direct a

letter. During the past year, nearly 4,000,000 letters found their way
to the Dead Letter Office, 67,000 of which were misdirected. When
we consider the loss to business firms in not promptly receiving
important letters, the anxiety to friends and relatives in the delay of
expected letters, the expense to the government in sending them to
the Dead Letter Office, and in handling and returning them to the
writers, the proper direction of a letter becomes a matter of very
serious importance.

Definition.—The address consists of the title and name of the

person to whom the letter is written, the city and the state in which
he lives; as,—
Mr. William K. Bixby,
Houston,
Texas.

remarks.
1. Care should be taken to write the address in a clear, bold hand.
2. The usual titles are Mr., Mrs., Miss, and Master. The last title is used in
addressing a boy.
3. Esq. is sometimes placed after the name, instead of placing Mr. before. It is
used more especially with the names of lawyers, artists, and men of social
position. When Esq. is used, never use Mr.
 Position.—The title and name should be written about the middle
of the envelope, beginning on the left. Below the title and name, and
farther to the right, should be written the city; below the city, the
state.

remarks.
1. It is customary to abbreviate the name of the state. Great care, however,
should be taken to properly abbreviate the word. Some abbreviations are so
similar to each other that mistakes frequently arise:
2. The address should never be written diagonally.

Punctuation.—A comma should be placed after the name of the

person, and after the name of the city. A period should be placed at
the end.

remarks.
1. Mr., Mrs., Esq., Rev., Dr., Prof., Pres., Capt., &c., are all abbreviations, and
consequently the abbreviations should be indicated by a period. Miss is not an
abbreviation, and thus requires no mark after it. Messrs. is also an abbreviation. It
is used in addressing a firm, but it is frequently omitted.
2. If any part of a person’s name is abbreviated, a period should always be used
to indicate the abbreviation; as, John S. C. Abbott. The S. and C. without a period
really mean nothing.
3. Some place a comma between the parts of a person’s name. This, of course,
is incorrect. See p. 16 d.
4. All the words in the address should be capitalized, except prepositions and
articles.

Honorary Titles.—It is customary to give the professional title or

titles of the person to whom a letter is directed, and if he occupies
some responsible position, this also should be indicated in the
address; as,—
Rev. E. O. Haven, D.D., LL.D.,
Chancellor of Syracuse University,
 Syracuse,
N. Y.

remarks.
1. Honorary titles should be given for two reasons:—
(a) As a mark of respect.
(b) The address will be more readily recognized by postmasters, and the
letter will be more likely to reach its destination without delay.
2. When titles are written after a person’s name, a comma should be placed
after each title, for the reason that a comma would be necessary, if the title was
written out in full; as, A. M., D.D., LL.D.
3. Some writers make the mistake of placing a period after the first L in LL.D.
This title stands for Doctor of Laws, the LL. indicating the plural of Law. As the two
letters stand for one word, the period must necessarily be placed after the second
L.
4. Hon. applies to judges, senators, representatives, heads of government
departments, mayors, and others of similar rank; as, Hon. Thomas M. Cooley.
5. His Excellency applies to the President of the United States, an Ambassador
of the United States, or the Governor of a State. This title should be written on a
line by itself; as,—
His Excellency,
Gov. C. M. Croswell,
Adrian,
Mich.
6. In addressing a married lady, the professional title of her husband is
sometimes used; as, Mrs. Dr. Haven.
7. Two professional titles meaning the same thing should never be used; as, Dr.
A. D. Smith, M. D.

Large Cities.—When the person to whom the letter is addressed,

lives in a large city where letters are delivered at places of business
or private residences, the title and name, number of house and
street, the city, and state should be given; as,—
A. S. Barnes & Co.,
34 and 36 Madison St.,
 Chicago.
Ill.

remarks.
1. The title and name should be written first, the number and street to the right
and a little below, the city below the name of the street, and the state under the
city.
2. The name of the state might be omitted in the address above given. It is not
really necessary to give the state, when the city is so widely known that no mistake
can arise, if the name of the state is omitted; as, New York, Philadelphia, Boston.

Small Towns and Villages.—The name of the county in which a

small town or village is located, should always be given in the
address. If the person to whom the letter is written, lives in the
country, the nearest post-office must be given, together with the
county and state. The name of the place in which a person lives, and
his post-office address, may be two very different things.
Mr. George Harvey,
Palmyra,
Lenawee Co.,
Mich.

remarks.
1. The title and name should be written first; the town, village, or post-office,
second; the county, third; the state last.
2. Sometimes letters are detained at post-offices, by reason of the directions not
being sufficiently complete.

Addressed Envelopes.—It is the custom with business firms, when

an answer to a letter is asked as a favor, to send, within the letter, a
stamped envelope properly addressed. The address is usually
printed, so that no mistake can be made. In all cases, even when an
addressed envelope is not required, when a favor is asked from an
acquaintance or a friend, and an answer is desired, a postage stamp
should always be inclosed. It is certainly an unpardonable
presumption to ask even a friend to write a letter for a particular
purpose, and expect him to pay for its proper delivery.

Letters with Special Request.—Sometimes directions are written

or printed on envelopes as to the disposal of letters, if not called for
within a certain time. This should always be done when addressing
business letters. These directions are written or printed on the left of
the envelope, near the top. See form on p. 81.

The Stamp.—The stamp should be placed in the right-hand corner

of the envelope, near the top. It seems hardly necessary to say that
every letter should be properly stamped, and yet between three and
four hundred thousand letters are annually sent to the Dead Letter
Office, because the writers had forgotten to properly stamp them.

FORMS OF ADDRESS.
A letter of Introduction should be left unsealed.
 When a letter is intrusted to an acquaintance or to a friend for
delivery, it should not be sealed.

LETTER-FORMS.
I. Adrian, Mich., Nov. 6, 1877.
II. Mr. William K. Bixby,
Houston, Texas.
III. Dear Sir,—
IV. Your favor * * * * * *
* * * *
V. Very truly,
Joseph M. Blain.
In the letter-form above given, there are five parts to be
considered:—

I. The Heading.
II. The Address.
III. Introductory Words.
IV. The Body of the Letter.
 V. The Conclusion.

I. THE HEADING.

Definition.—The heading consists of the name of the city in which

the writer lives, the state, the month, the day of the month, and the
year; as,—
Adrian, Mich., Nov. 6, 1877.

remarks.
1. Great care should always be taken to give in the heading, not only the city,
but also the state. If the letter should be sent to the Dead Letter Office, the heading
will properly indicate the place to which the letter is to be returned.
2. The heading indicates to the person who receives the letter where an answer
is to be sent.
3. Sometimes the day of the week is given; as, Adrian, Monday, Nov. 5, 1877.

Punctuation.—A comma should be placed after the city, state, and

date. A period should be placed at the end. If a word is abbreviated,
a period should be used to indicate the abbreviation, and a comma
should also be used, if the word written out in full would require a
comma; as,—

Adrian, Michigan, November 6, 1877.

Adrian, Mich., Nov. 6, 1877.

remarks.
1. Some writers thoughtlessly place a comma between the name of the month
and the day of the month; as, November, 6, or Nov., 6. The 6 forms an essential
part of the month, and should not be separated from it by a punctuation mark.
2. It is better to omit st, th, or d after the number indicating the day of the month.
It certainly looks neater to write the date without the marks and dots that
sometimes disfigure the heading of letters.
3. Some prefer to place the number before the name of the month; as, Adrian,
Mich., 6 Nov., 1877. This, however, is not the usual practice.
 Large Cities.—In large cities where letters are delivered by letter-
carriers, it is necessary to give, in the heading of a letter, the number
of the house and the name of the street. The order should be
number, street, city, state, month, day of the month, year; as,—
215 Prospect St., Cleveland, Ohio,
March 5, 1877.

remarks.
1. Sometimes the size of the paper necessitates the use of three lines for the
heading. If this should be necessary, the number of the house and the name of the
street should be on the first line; the city and state, on the second; the month, the
day of the month, and year, on the third. Each line should commence farther to the
right than the preceding; as,—
215 Prospect St.,
Cleveland, Ohio,
March 5, 1877.
2. As few lines as possible should be used in the heading. In sending letters
from well known cities like New York, Philadelphia, &c., it is not necessary to give
the state. When the name of the state is omitted, the heading can usually be
written on two lines.
3. A period should be placed after St., because it is an abbreviation. A comma
should also follow the period, because the word written in full would require a
comma. 215 Prospect St., is one item; Cleveland, a second; Ohio, a third; March
5, a fourth; 1877, a fifth.

A Small Town or Village.—If the place in which the writer lives, is a

small town or village, the name of the place, county, and state should
be given; as,—
Palmyra, Lenawee Co., Mich.,
Sept. 13, 1877.

remarks.
1. The county should be given so that an answer to the letter may be properly
directed.
2. If the writer lives in the country, the post-office where his letters are received,
should be given, and not the place where he lives.
 Hotels.—When a letter is written at some prominent hotel, it is
customary to give the name of the hotel in the heading; as,—
Grand Central Hotel, New York,
Jan. 10, 1877.

Seminaries and Colleges.—In writing from a seminary, college, or

university, the name of the institution is sometimes given; as,—
Female Seminary, Cleveland, Ohio,
April 11, 1877.

Position.—The heading should be written on the first line, on the

right hand, commencing about the middle of the line. If more than
one line is required, the second line should commence farther to the
right than the first, and the third than the second.

remarks.
1. When a letter does not fill a full page, the heading should not be written on the
first line. The space at the head of the letter should be about the same as at the
bottom. In business letters, this is not necessary.
2. Some write the city, state, month, &c., at the close of a letter. This is not
however, the usual form.

II. THE ADDRESS.

Definition.—The address in the inside of a letter should be the

same as the address on the envelope. It consists of the title and
name of the person to whom the letter is written, and the place of his
residence; as,—
Mr. William K. Bixby,
Houston, Texas.

remarks.
There are several reasons why the address should be written within the letter:—
 1. Business men usually take an impression or make a copy of all letters written
by themselves or their agents. It is a great convenience to have the address within
the letter, so that it can be referred to, if necessary, at any time.
2. If the envelope is accidentally torn off, or is lost by not being properly sealed,
the letter can still be forwarded to its destination, if the address is written within.
3. It is frequently the habit, on receiving a letter, to destroy the envelope.
Sometimes, after the envelope is destroyed, the letter is lost. If there is an inside
address, the letter, if found, can be returned.

Punctuation.—A comma should be placed after the name of the

person and of the city. A period should be placed at the end.

remarks.
1. By placing to before the address, it will be seen that a period is required at its
close, just as a period is required at the end of the address on the envelope; as, To
William K. Bixby, Houston, Texas.
2. Some writers place a colon after the name of the state, but the practice is not
a correct one. A semicolon should never be used.

Large Cities. When the person to whom the letter is written, lives
in a large city, the number and name of the street should be given,
as on the outside address; as,—
A. S. Barnes & Co.,
34 and 36 Madison St., Chicago.

remark.
If three lines are necessary, the title and name should be on the first line, the
number and street on the second, the city and state on the third.

Small Towns and Villages.—When the letter is addressed to a

small town or village, the county in which the town or village is
situated, should be given; as,—
Mr. George Harvey,
Palmyra, Lenawee Co., Mich.
 remark.
The title and name should be on one line; the town or village, county, and state
should be on the second.

Letters to Intimate Friends or Relatives.—In writing letters to

intimate friends or relatives, the address should be written at the
close of the letter, at the left, commencing on the line immediately
following the signature. It would be too formal to write the address at
the head of the letter, and it would not be in keeping with the
introductory words which immediately follow; as,—
Milburn Wagon Works, Toledo, Ohio,
Nov. 2, 1877.
Dear Mother,—
Your letter * * * * * *
* * * * * *
Very affectionately,
Edgar W. Curtis.
Mrs. James E. Curtis,
Adrian, Mich.

remark.
When the heading occupies only one line, it is better to leave a blank line
between the heading and the address.

Position.—The address should commence on the left, and should

be written on, at least, two lines. The title and name should be on
one line; the city and state, on the second, and farther to the right.
The address, if possible, should be written on two lines. If the
heading consists of two or three lines, the address should
commence on the line immediately following the heading. If the
heading consists of one line only, a blank line should be left between
the heading and the address.
 III. INTRODUCTORY WORDS.

Definition.—The introductory words consist of the greeting or

salutation; as,—
Dear Sir,—

remarks.
1. Sometimes only one word is used in the greeting; as, Sir, Gentlemen.
2. When Sir, Gentlemen, Friend, Father, &c., are used as introductory words,
they should always commence with a capital, as a mark of respect. In greeting
friends or relatives, do not belittle them with small letters.
3. When dear, respected, honored, and words of a like character, are not the first
words of the salutation, they should commence with a small letter; as, My dear Sir,
My respected Friend. If they commence the salutation, capitals should be used;
as, Dear Father, Respected Friend.

Punctuation.—A comma should be placed after the salutation, and

a dash may also be used. The use of the dash, however, is simply a
matter of taste.

remarks.
1. A colon should not be placed after the greeting, except in official or very
formal salutations. See p. 100.
2. A semicolon should never be used.

Position.—The introductory words may be written in three different

positions:—
1. When the address occupies two lines, the salutation should be
written on the line immediately following, commencing a little to the
right of the second line of the address; as,
Mr. Harry B. Hutchins,
Mt. Clemens, Mich.
Dear Sir,—
 2. If the address consists of three lines, the first word of the
salutation commences on a line with the number of the street; as,—
A. S. Barnes & Co.,
34 and 36 Madison St.,
Chicago.
Gentlemen,—
3. If the address is written at the close of the letter, the introductory
words should commence on a line with the body of the letter, that is,
with the marginal line; as,—
Dear Manning,—
Rest you merry in your own opinion. Opinion is a
species of property; and though I am always desirous to share with
my friend to a certain extent, I shall ever like to keep some tenets,
and some property, properly my own. * * * * *
Your well-wisher and friend,
C. Lamb.

Forms of Salutation.—Custom authorizes the use of several forms

of salutation. These may be arranged under four heads:—
1. To Strangers.
Sir, Madame, Miss ⸺.
2. To Acquaintances.
Dear Sir, Dear Madame, Dear Miss ⸺.
My dear Sir, My dear Madame, My dear Miss ⸺, imply a
better acquaintance than Dear Sir, &c.
3. To Friends or Relatives.
Dear Friend, My dear Father, Dear Henry, &c.
4. To Business Firms or Corporate Bodies.
Sirs, Gentlemen, Ladies.
 Salutations to Young Ladies.—Owing to the fact that we have no
word corresponding to Sir that can be used in addressing young
ladies, there is sometimes an uncertainty as to the proper salutation
to be used. Although Madame may refer to a married or an
unmarried lady, it is not an appropriate word with which to address a
young lady. There are three forms that may be used:—

1. To a Stranger.
Decatur, Ill., May 6, 1877.
Miss Delia L. Corbus,—
* * * * *
Respectfully,
William C. Johns.
Miss Delia L. Corbus,
Adrian, Mich.
The name is given as the salutation, and the full address is given
at the close of the letter.

2. To an Acquaintance.
Adrian, Mich., Sept. 3, 1877.
Dear Miss Dewey,—
* * * * * *
Very truly,
Thomas M. Hunter.
Miss Ella Dewey,
Hotel Madison, Toledo, Ohio.

3. To an Intimate Friend.—In writing to intimate friends, the

character of the letter, and the intimacy of the writers, will suggest
the proper forms.