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Full Download pdf of Solution Manual for Modern General Relativity Black Holes, Gravitational Waves, and Cosmology, 1st Edition, Mike Guidry all chapter
Full Download pdf of Solution Manual for Modern General Relativity Black Holes, Gravitational Waves, and Cosmology, 1st Edition, Mike Guidry all chapter
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1 Introduction
1.1 From Eq. (1.2), the value of γ is infinite if v = c, so there is no Lorentz transformation
to an inertial frame corresponding to a rest frame for light.
1.2 Since E = mγ, for a 7 TeV proton,
E 7 × 10 12 eV
γ= = = 7460.
m 938.3 × 106 eV
Then from the definition of γ,
s
v 1
= 1− = 0.999999991.
c γ2
This is a speed that is only about 3 meters per second less than that of light.
1.3 This question is ambiguous, since it does not specify whether the curvature is that of
the surface itself (which is called intrinsic curvature) or whether it is the apparent curvature
of the surface seen embedded in a higher-dimensional euclidean space (which is called
the extrinsic curvature). In general relativity the curvature of interest is usually intrinsic
curvature. Then the sheet of paper can be laid out flat and is not curved, the cylinder is
also flat, with no intrinsic curvature, because one can imagine cutting it longitudinally
and rolling it out into a flat surface, but the sphere has finite intrinsic curvature because it
cannot be cut and rolled out flat without distortion. The reason that the cylinder seems to
be curved is because the 2D surface is being viewed embedded in 3D space, which gives
a non-zero extrinsic curvature, but if attention is confined only to the 2D surface it has no
intrinsic curvature. This is a rather qualitative discussion but in later chapters methods will
be developed to quantify the amount of intrinsic curvature for a surface.
1
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justly enough that nobody, save Dante and Antonio da Tempo, was
before him, and that both of these had written in Latin.
Trissino does not, in his first instalment, busy himself with those
abstract discussions which were soon to furnish the staple of Italian
Division of his criticism. He adopts Aristotle’s “Imitation” briefly
Poetic. without cavil or qualification; and then passes, in his
First Part or “Division,” to the question of choosing your language, in
which he generally follows Dante, but with an adaptation to the time.
It is not with him a question of making an “Illustrious Vulgar Tongue,”
an “Italian,” but of calling by that name one already adopted. In his
further remarks on Diction he sometimes borrows, and often
expands or supplements, the very words of Dante at first, and then
passes to elaborate discussion, with examples, of the qualities of
speech—Clearness, Grandeur, Beauty, Swiftness. Next he deals
with what he calls the costume—character, ethos, suiting of style to
person—with truth, artifice, and what he calls the “fashions”—that is
to say, the alterations of quantity, &c., by dwelling, slurring, syncope,
and the like. The arrangement of this First Division is not very logical;
but, as we have seen, cross-division has been the curse of
rhetorical-formal discussion of the kind from a very early period to
the present day. The Second Division deals with pure prosody, the
division of feet, shortening (rimozione), as in ciel for cielo, elision,
cæsura, &c.; the Third with arrangement of verses and stanzas; the
Fourth with the complete forms of Sonnet, Ballata, and Canzone, the
sub-varieties of which were detailed with great care and plentiful
examples.
Here what might more properly be called the First Part, consisting
of these four divisions, ends; the long subsequent Second Part
(made up of the Fifth and Sixth Divisions) has a separate Preface-
dedication referring to the gap. These parts are not, like the others,
divided into sections with headings; and, doubtless on the pattern if
not of any one particular treatise, of the spirit of many which had
gone between, they deal with general questions. The Imitation theory
is handled at some length, and with citation of Plato as well as of
Aristotle; the kinds of poetry are treated on a more general standard,
and not with mere reference to the rules of constructing each. The
larger part of the Fifth Division is given entirely to Tragedy: the Sixth
begins with that Heroic Poem which was so much on the mind of the
country and the century. But it ends chiefly on Figures—the formal
heart of Trissino, long-travelled as it has been, fondly turning to its
old loves at the last.
The contents of the treatise or treatises, especially if we take them
with Trissino’s attempts to introduce the Greek Omega and the
Greek Epsilon into Italian spelling, his grammatical “Doubts,” and his
later “Introduction to Grammar,” his dialogue Il Castellano, and so
forth,[51] will show his standpoint with sufficient clearness. It is almost
His critical purely formal in the minor, not to say the minim,
value. kinds of form. He is indeed credited by some with a
position of importance, in the history of the Unities. He is, they say,
the first to refer to the observance of the Unity of Time as a
distinction from “ignorant poets,”[52] giving therewith a disparaging
glance at mediæval drama.[53] But this overlooks the fact that he is
simply repeating what Aristotle says, with an addition much more
likely[54] to refer to non-Humanist contemporaries than to the almost
forgotten “mystery.” His theory of the Heroic Poem, like his practice
in the Italia Liberata, is slavishly Aristotelian. The chief evidence of
real development that I can find is in his treatment of Comedy, where
the extremely rapid and contemptuous dismissal of the Master called
imperatively for some supplement, considering the popularity of the
kind in the writer’s own time and country. Possibly reinforcing
Aristotle here with Cicero, and certainly using the famous Suave
mari magno of Lucretius, he succeeds in putting together a theory of
the ludicrous to which, or to some subsequent developments of it in
Italy, Hobbes’s “passion of sudden glory” has been[55] not unjustly
traced. The “sudden” seems indeed to be directly due to Maggi, a
critic who will be presently mentioned with other commentators on
the Poetics. And Maggi had published long before Trissino’s later
Divisions appeared, though, it may be, not before they were written.
[56]
The growth during the interval had been of three kinds, sometimes
Editors, &c., blended, sometimes kept apart. The first kind
of the Poetics. consisted of translations, editions, and
commentaries of and on the Poetics; the second, of abstract
discussions of Poetry; the third, of more or less formal “Arts” not very
different from Trissino’s own. The first class produced later, in the
work of Castelvetro, a contribution of almost the first importance to
the History and to the Art of Criticism; and it could not but exercise a
powerful influence. It belongs, however, in all but its most prominent
examples (such as that just referred to, which will be fully discussed
in the next chapter), rather to monographers on Aristotle than to
general historians of Criticism, inasmuch as it is mainly parasitic.
Pazzi. Before any book of original critical importance later
than Trissino’s had been issued, in 1536,[57]
Alessandro de’ Pazzi published a Latin translation of the Poetics,
which for some time held the position of standard, and a dozen years
later came three important works on the book—Robortello’s edition
of 1548, Segni’s Italian translation of 1549, and Maggi’s edition of
1550—all showing the attention and interest which the subject was
exciting, while, still before the later “Divisions” of Trissino appeared,
Vettori in 1560 added his edition, of greater importance than any
earlier one. Long before this the book had become a regular subject
of lectures. Of these writers Robortello, and still more Vettori
(“Victorius”), were of the greatest service to the text; Maggi, who was
assisted by Lombardi, to the discussion of the matter.[58]
In the critical handling of these editors and commentators we find,
as we should expect, much of the old rhetorical trifling. For all their
Robortello, Segni, Maggi, scorn, expressed or implied, of the Middle
Vettori. Ages, they repeat the distinctions of
poetica, poesis, poeta, and poema[59] as docilely as Martianus, or a
student of Martianus, could have done a thousand or five hundred
years before, and they hand it on too as a sort of charmed catchword
to Scaliger[60] and Jonson.[61] But brought face to face as they are
with the always weighty, though by no means always transparently
clear, doctrines of Aristotle, and self-charged with the duty of
explaining and commenting them, they cannot, if they would, escape
the necessity of grappling with the more abstract and less merely
technological questions. Robortello,[62] like Maggi, though less
elaborately, has a theory of the ludicrous. Both, and others,
necessarily grapple with that crux of the katharsis which has not yet
ceased to be crucial. Both, with Segni, discuss the Unity of Time and
differ about it; though none of the three has yet discovered (as
indeed it is not discoverable in Aristotle or Aristotle’s literary
documents) the yet more malignant Unity of Place. Vettori would
extend the cramp in time (not of course with the twenty-four hours’
limit) from tragedy to epic. Most of them have arrived at that
besotment as to “verisimilitude” which is responsible for the worst
parts of the Neo-Classic theory, and which, in the pleasant irony
common to all entanglements with Duessas of the kind, makes the
unfortunate lovers guilty of the wildest excesses of artificial
improbability. And in all, whether they project their reflections on their
text into more general forms or not, we can see the gradual
crystallising of a theory of poetry, heroic, or dramatic, or general.
Nor was such theory left without direct and independent exposition
Theorists: during the period which we are considering. The first
Daniello. author of one is generally taken to be Daniello,
whose Poetica appeared in 1536; and I have not discovered any
earlier claimant. I do not quite understand how Mr Spingarn has
arrived at the conclusion that “in Daniello’s theory of tragedy there is
no single Aristotelian element,” especially as he himself elsewhere
acknowledges the close—almost verbal—adherence of this early
writer to the Stagirite. But it is probably true that Daniello was
thinking more of the Platonic objections and of following out the
Boccaccian defence, than of merely treading in the footprints of
Aristotle. He is the first, since Boccaccio himself, to undertake that
generous, if rather wide and vague as well as superfluous, “defence
of poesy” which many Italians repeated after him, and which was
repeated after them by our Elizabethans, notably by Sir Philip
Sidney.
As his little book is somewhat rare, and as it has such good claims
to be among the very earliest vernacular disputations of a general
character on poetry in Italy, if not also in Europe, it may be well to
give some account of it. My copy has no title-page, but dates itself by
a colophon on the recto of the errata-leaf at the end, with a veto-
privilege, by concession of the Pope, the seignory of Venice, and all
the other princes and lords of Italy, advertised by Giovan Antonio di
Nicolini da Sabio, Venice, 1536. It fills 136 small pages of italic type,
and is in dialogue form, rather rhetorically but not inelegantly written,
and dedicated by Bernardo Daniello of Lucca to Andrea Cornelio,
Bishop-Elect of Brescia. Daniello does refer to Aristotle, and borrows
(not perhaps quite intelligently) from him; but his chief sources are
the Latins, and he sets or resets, with no small interest for us, that
note of apology for the Poets against Plato which was to dominate
Italian criticism, and after exercising some, but less, effect on
French, to be strenuously echoed in England. There are some rather
striking things in Daniello. He is sound enough on the mission of the
poet as being to delight (though he is to teach too) and also to
persuade—the ancient union of Poetics and limited Rhetoric
evidently working in him. On the relations of poetry and philosophy
he might be echoing Maximus Tyrius and Boccaccio, and very likely
is thinking of the latter. But he strikes a certain cold into us by
remarking that Dante (whom he nevertheless admires very much)
was perhaps greater and more perfect as a philosopher than as a
poet; and it does not seem likely that he was aware of the far-
reaching import of his own words when he lays it down (p. 26) that
Invention, Disposition, and Elocution being the three important
things, the poet is not, as some think, limited to any special matter. If
he had meant this, of course he would have come to one of those
arcana of criticism which are even yet revealed, as matter of serene
conviction, to very few critics. But he pretty certainly did not fully
understand his own assertion; and indeed slurs it off immediately
afterwards. After taking some examples from Dante and more from
Petrarch, Daniello adopts (again prophetically) the doctrine that the
Poet must practically know all arts and sciences, in order that he
may properly deal with his universal subject. He is specially to study
what is called in Latin Decorum and in Italian Convenevolezza.
Tragedy and Comedy are to be rigidly distinguished. And so this
curious First Blast of the Trumpet of sixteenth-century vernacular
criticism is emphatic against the confusion which was to bring about
the mightiest glories of sixteenth-century literature. A large part of
the small treatise is taken up with examples, in the old rhetorical
manner of qualities, “colours,” figures, &c. The whole of the latter
part of the First Book consists of these, as does almost the whole of
the Second, with an extension into verbal criticism of the passages
cited as illustrating kinds, technical terms, and the like. Indeed the
general considerations are chiefly to be found in the first forty or fifty
pages; and it is really remarkable how much there is in this short
space which practically anticipates in summary the ideas of most of
the much more voluminous writers who follow.[63]
Fracastoro, physician, logician, and not ungraceful poet of the
graceless subject of Syphilis, deals with both Plato and Aristotle in
his dialogue Naugerius, and discourses deeply on the doctrine of
Imitation, the Theory of Beauty, the Aristotelian conception of the
poet as more universal and philosophical than the historian, and the
Platonic objection to the intervals between poetry and truth. This
Fracastoro. dialogue,[64] however (the full title is Naugerius sive
de Poetica, its chief interlocutor being Andrea
Navagero, the best follower of Catullus in Renaissance Latin[65]), tells
a certain tale by its coupling with another, Turrius sive de
Intellectione. It is wholly philosophical in intent and drift: it is perhaps
the very “farthest”—comparatively early (1555) as is its date—of
those Italian excursions, in the direction of making Criticism an
almost wholly abstract and a priori subject, which balance the
unblushing “Convey—do nothing but convey,” of Vida and his
followers. One of its very earliest axioms (p. 324 ed. cit. infra) is that
“qui recte dicere de hac re velit, prius sciat necesse est, quænam
poetæ natura est, quidque ipsa poetica, tum et quis philosophi
genius,” &c. It must be admitted that Fracastoro is among the very
ablest and most thoroughgoing explorers of these altitudes. No one
has more clearly grasped, or put more forcibly, than he has that
compromise between Plato and Aristotle which has been and will be
mentioned so often as characteristic of the Italian thinkers in this
kind. Indeed, the fifty pages of his Dialogue are almost a locus
classicus for the first drawing up of the creed which converted
Sidney, and to which Milton, indocile to creeds as he was, gave
scarcely grudging allegiance. It is full, too, of interest in deliverances
on minor points—the difference between the orator and the rhetor (p.
343), the shaping of a particular kind of “orator” into a poet, his
universality and his usefulness, the limits of his permitted fiction and
the character of his charm. But Fracastoro is wholly in these
generals: it is much if he permits himself a rare illustration from an
actual poet.
And always in these writers we find the old deviations, the old red
herrings drawn across the scent. Fracastoro himself, reasonable as
he is in many ways, falls into the foolish old fallacy that a good poet
must be a good man, and the less obviously ridiculous but still
mischievous demand from him of the all-accomplished acquirements
once asked of the rhetorician.
Putting aside, for the moment, such rather later and much more
important works as the Discorsi of Giraldi Cinthio, the De Poetis
Nostrorum Temporum of his half-namesake Lilius Giraldus, and the
two capital treatises of Minturno, one of which appeared after
Trissino’s book, we may give a few words to two Italian tractates, the
Versi e Regole della Nuova Poesia Toscanaof Claudio Tolomei
(1539) and Muzio’s or Mutio’s Italian verse Arte Poetica, which was
Formalists: published with some other work in 1551.[66] The last
Mutio. is noteworthy as an early example of the vernacular
Tolomei and critical poem—a kind suggested by Horace, and
classical
illustrated later by Boileau and Pope, but certainly
metres.
more honoured by its practitioners than in itself. Yet
it would not be just to deny Mutio a high if rather vague conception of
poetry, and, in particular, a most salutary conviction that the poet
must disrealise his subjects. Tolomei’s book, on the other hand,
challenges attention as probably the beginning of that pestilent
heresy of “classical metres” which, arising in Italy, and tainting
France but slightly (as was natural considering the almost
unquantified character of the modern French language), fastened
with virulence upon England, affected some of our best wits, and
was within measurable distance of doing serious harm. The plague
was so much at its worst with us that the chapter on Elizabethan
Criticism will be the proper place for its discussion. But though
Ascham himself thought it no plague at all, it was certainly one of the
very worst of these “Italianations” to which he objected so violently;
and Tolomei was its first prophet in the country of its origin.
Not a few names, some famous in European literature for other
performances of their bearers, some almost unknown except to the
student of this subject, fall into one or other of these classes, or, as
very commonly happens, qualify in a undecided manner for two, or
for all. As early as 1545 Tomitano[67] had dwelt on the above-
Others: mentioned fallacy of the necessary learning of
Tomitano, poets: Lionardi,[68] nine years later, in a pair of
Lionardi, B. Dialogues expressly devoted to Poetic Invention,
Tasso,
extended this in the widest and wildest manner, so
Capriano.
that the poet becomes a perfect good-man-of-the-
Stoics—an all-round and impeccable Grandison-Aristotle. The same
idea and others were emitted by Bernardo Tasso, good father of a
great son, who not only practised poetry to the vast extent of the
Amadigi, but discussed it in a formal Ragionamento of the subject.[69]
Later, Capriano[70] gave the more elaborate exaltation of poetry as a
sort of Art of Arts, combining and subduing to its own purpose all
forms of Imitation, and following up Vida’s superfine objections to
Homer as trivial and undignified, and his rapturous exaltation of the
“decency” of Virgil. This book, very short, is also rather important—
more so than might be judged from some accounts of it. It is neither
paged, nor numbered in folio, but does not extend beyond signature
F ii. of a small quarto, with a brief appendix of Italian verse. There
are eight chapters—the first discussing what things are imitable and
what imitation is; the second vindicating for poetry the portion of
supreme imitative art; the third dividing it into “natural” and “moral”;
the fourth arguing that Epic or Heroic (not, as Aristotle thinks, drama)
is the highest kind of “moral” poetry; the fifth containing, among other
things, an interesting revolt against Greek; the sixth discoursing on
number and sound; the seventh exalting the good poem above
everything; and the eighth rapidly discussing the origin, rank,
necessity, parts, force, end, &c., of Poetry. Capriano does not give
himself much room, and fails, like most of these critics, in the all-
important connection of his theories with actual work; but he must
have been a man of no common independence and force of thought.
[71]