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3) Which level of biological organization is composed of several tissues?
A) organism
B) organ system
C) organ
D) cell
E) molecules
Answer: C
Explanation: Organs are composed of tissues. Tissues are collections of cells, and cells are made
up of various molecules. Organs make up organ systems, which comprise the organism.
Section: 01.01
Topic: Levels of Biological Organization
Bloom's: 1. Remember
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Learning Outcome: 01.01.02 Distinguish between the levels of biological organization.
4) Which sequence correctly lists the different levels of biological organization, from the
smallest and simplest to the largest and most complex?
A) cells-organs-tissues-organ systems-organism
B) cells-tissues-organ systems-organs-organism
C) tissues-cells-organs-organ systems-organism
D) tissues-organs-organ systems-organism-cells
E) cells-tissues-organs-organ systems-organism
Answer: E
Explanation: The cell is the smallest unit of life. Cells are organized into tissues, which make up
organs. A group of organs working together comprises an organ system. An individual organism
contains multiple organ systems.
Section: 01.01
2
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written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
5) Organs are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells. This is an example of which
characteristic of life?
A) Living things grow and develop.
B) Living things respond to stimuli.
C) Living things maintain themselves by homeostasis.
D) Living things have levels of hierarchical organization.
E) Living things are adapted to the environment.
Answer: D
Explanation: Organs represent one level in the hierarchy of biological organization but they are
a higher level of organization than either tissues or cells. The other answer choices are also
characteristics of life; however, the example is concerned specifically with levels of
organization.
Section: 01.01
Bloom's: 2. Understand
Learning Outcome: 01.01.01 Identify the basic characteristics of life.
6) Which sequence of classification categories is in the proper order from least to most
inclusive?
A) genus, class, kingdom, domain, order, phylum, species, family
B) domain, class, genus, family, species, order, phylum, kingdom
C) species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, domain
D) genus, species, order, class, family, kingdom, domain, phylum
E) species, genus, family, class, order, phylum, kingdom, domain
Answer: C
Explanation: The correct sequence is species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom,
domain. Species is the least inclusive category in the taxonomic hierarchy; domain is the most
inclusive.
Section: 01.02
Learning Outcome: 01.02.01 Describe how living organisms are classified.
3
7) What is the correct format for the binomial name of a manatee?
A) Trichechus Manatus
B) trichechus manatus
C) TRICHECHUS manatus
D) Trichechus manatus
E) trichechus Manatus
Answer: D
Explanation: When using binomial naming, the genus name should come first, and its first letter
is always capitalized. The species name follows in all lowercase letters. Additionally, the name is
always italicized. Thus, the correct answer is Trichechus manatus.
Section: 01.02
Bloom's: 3. Apply
8) Corn belongs to the kingdom

A) Plantae.
B) Animalia.
C) Fungi.
D) Protista.
E) Archaea.
Answer: A
Explanation: Corn is an example of a multicellular, photosynthetic organism belonging to
kingdom Plantae.
Section: 01.02
4
9) The three major domains of life are
A) plantae, animalia, and archaea.
B) bacteria, fungi, and eukaryotes.
C) eukarya, prokarya, and animalia.
D) archaea, bacteria, and eukarya.
E) eukarya, prokarya, and fungi.
Answer: D
Explanation: The three major domains of life include bacteria, archaea, and eukarya. The rest of
the living organisms listed are not classified at the domain level.
Section: 01.02
Learning Outcome: 01.02.02 Distinguish between the three domains of life.
10) A multicellular, photosynthetic organism with complex, specialized cells and tissues would
most likely be assigned to
A) kingdom Animalia.
B) kingdom Fungi.
C) domain Archaea.
D) kingdom Protista.
E) kingdom Plantae.
Answer: E
Explanation: Members of kingdom Plantae are multicellular, with specialized cells and tissues,
and can form their own food by photosynthesis. Organisms in kingdom Animalia are also
multicellular with specialized cells and tissues, but unlike plants, they must ingest their food.
Kingdom Fungi is comprised of unicellular and multicellular organisms that consume food by
absorption. Kingdom Protista contains mostly unicellular organisms with a few multicellular
forms, some of which consume food while others are photosynthetic. They lack the high degree
of cellular and tissue specialization seen in plants. Domain Archaea contains only single-celled
prokaryotic organisms.
Section: 01.02
5
11) Regions of the earth inhabited by living organisms are known collectively as
A) the biosphere.
B) an ecosystem.
C) a population.
D) an organism.
E) a community.
Answer: A
Explanation: The biosphere is the zone of air, land, and water on the earth where living
organisms are found. An ecosystem is a single community of organisms plus the non-living
components of their environment. A community is a collection of populations of different
species living in the same area. A population is a collection of members of the same species
living in the same area. An organism is one living entity.
Section: 01.01
12) All of the populations of various species living within a given area constitute a(n)
A) biosphere.
B) ecosystem.
C) population.
D) domain.
E) community.
Answer: E
Explanation: A community is a collection of populations of different species living in the same
area. All the members of a particular species living within a given area are known as a
population. The biosphere consists of all of the regions on Earth where living organisms are
found. An ecosystem is a community of organisms plus the non-living components of their
environment. Domain is the highest, most inclusive category for the classification of organisms.
Section: 01.01
6
13) A community of organisms along with the surrounding physical environment constitutes a(n)
A) biosphere.
B) ecosystem.
C) population.
D) habitat.
E) community.
Answer: B
Explanation: An ecosystem includes not only all the living organisms in a given area, but also
the non-living physical environment. The biosphere is the zone of air, land, and water on the
earth where living organisms are found. A population is a collection of members of the same
species living in the same area. A habitat is where an organism lives. A community is a
collection of populations of different species living in the same area.
Section: 01.01
14) The most important factor that determines where major ecosystems are located on the globe
is
A) soil type.
B) available vegetation.
C) climate.
D) oxygen levels.
E) political boundaries.
Answer: C
Explanation: The main determinant of where the major ecosystems are located is climate.
Climate (temperature and precipitation) exerts the most important influence over what vegetation
is available, and vegetation contributes to soil formation in addition to determining which kinds
of animals can live in that ecosystem. Oxygen levels are a concern only at the highest altitudes,
and political boundaries have no inherent influence on ecosystem locations.
Section: 01.01
Topic: Characteristics of Life
7
15) The term "biodiversity" refers to
A) a study of the physical, non-living components of an ecosystem.
B) the similarities between species.
C) the rate of extinction of species due to human activities.
D) the total number of species, variation of species, and the ecosystems in which they live.
E) the study of food chains within an ecosystem.
Answer: D
Explanation: The term "biodiversity" is quite broad, encompassing the total number of species,
variation of species, and the ecosystems in which they live. All of the other answer choices are
too narrow to fit the definition of biodiversity.
Section: 01.04
Topic: Biodiversity
Learning Outcome: 01.04.02 Summarize some of the major challenges facing science.
16) An informed statement that can be tested in a manner suited to the processes of science is
known as a
A) hypothesis.
B) phenomenon.
C) control.
D) variable.
E) theory.
Answer: A
Explanation: A hypothesis is defined as an informed statement that can be tested in a manner
suited to the processes of science. When a hypothesis has withstood repeated testing over time, it
may be elevated to a theory. In a controlled experiment, the control is the subject or group not
subjected to the factor, or variable, being tested.
Section: 01.03
Topic: Scientific Method
Learning Outcome: 01.03.01 Identify the components of the scientific method.
8
17) Which answer choice lists the steps of the scientific method in the correct order?
A) hypothesis, observation, experiment, conclusion, data collection
B) conclusion, hypothesis, observation, experiment, data collection
C) observation, hypothesis, experiment, data collection, conclusion
D) observation, experiment, hypothesis, conclusion, data collection
E) data collection, conclusion, hypothesis, experiment, observation
Answer: C
Explanation: In a typical application of the scientific method, observations are used to formulate
a hypothesis. The hypothesis may then be tested, as in an experiment. Data is collected as part of
the experimental process. Based on the results of the hypothesis testing, a conclusion is made.
Section: 01.03
18) Which of the following is one of the domains of life?

A) Animalia
B) Eukarya
C) Plantae
D) Protista
E) Fungi
Answer: B
Explanation: Eukarya is a domain of life. Animalia, Protista, Plantae, and Fungi are all
kingdoms of life.
Section: 01.02
9
19) Technology is the
A) application of scientific knowledge to the interests of humans.
B) study of living organisms.
C) study of the interactions between living organisms and their environment.
D) application of common knowledge for a practical purpose.
E) application of laws to benefit society.
Answer: A
Explanation: Technology is the application of scientific knowledge to the interests of humans.
Section: 01.04
Topic: Challenges Facing Science
Learning Outcome: 01.04.01 Distinguish between science and technology.
20) Using technology in the field of agriculture which has enabled farmers to feed a growing
human population is an example of a beneficial use of technology.
Answer: TRUE
Explanation: Advances in technology have enabled farmers to grow more food in order to feed a
growing human population. This is definitely a benefit of technology.
Section: 01.04
21) A physician specializes in surgery involving the following group of organs: mouth,
esophagus, stomach, and intestines. Overall, what is the highest level of organization that this
physician is specialized in?
A) cell
B) tissue
C) organ
D) organ system
E) organism
Answer: D
Explanation: The mouth, esophagus, stomach, and intestines are all organs belonging to the
digestive system. An organism is made up of multiple organ systems. The individual organs are
made up of tissues, which are collections of cells.
Section: 01.01
Bloom's: 3. Apply
10
22) Which statement about living organisms is false?
A) Living organisms create energy.
B) Living organisms maintain homeostasis.
C) Living organisms reproduce.
D) Living organisms have adaptations.
E) Living organisms grow and develop.
Answer: A
Explanation: Living organisms cannot create energy. Instead, they convert it from one form to
another. It will then be used to maintain homeostasis, reproduce, and adapt, as well as grow and
develop.
Section: 01.01
23) When you are overheated, you perspire, and when you are too cold, you shiver to generate
heat. Which property of life is best represented by this example?
A) homeostasis
B) development
C) behavior
D) organization
E) adaptation
Answer: A
Explanation: Homeostasis is the body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment.
Section: 01.01
Bloom's: 3. Apply
11
24) The body temperature in humans is maintained around 37°C. Which characteristic of life
does this information represent?
A) Living organisms acquire materials and energy from the environment.
B) Living organisms maintain homeostasis.
C) Living organisms adapt.
D) Living organisms grow and develop.
E) Living organisms respond to stimuli.
Answer: B
Explanation: Keeping the internal body temperature within a constant range is an important part
of homeostasis. Living things acquire materials and energy from the environment and respond to
stimuli in order to maintain homeostasis. Adaptations that organisms have for surviving in their
environment enable them to maintain homeostasis. The maintenance of homeostasis allows
organisms to grow and develop.
Section: 01.01
Bloom's: 3. Apply
25) The bones in a bird are hollow, reducing its weight for flight. This is an example of which
characteristic of life?
A) Living organisms grow and develop.
B) Living organisms acquire materials and energy from the environment.
C) Living organisms reproduce.
D) Living organisms adapt to their environment.
E) Living organisms are homeostatic.
Answer: D
Explanation: Adaptations, such as the hollow bones of birds, are features that make organisms
better suited to their environment. All the other answer choices are also characteristics of living
things, but the example of the bird skeleton has to do specifically with adaptation.
Section: 01.01
Bloom's: 3. Apply
Learning Outcome: 01.01.03 Recognize the importance of adaptation and evolution to life.
12
26) Which classification category includes the most species?
A) family
B) genus
C) class
D) phylum
E) kingdom
Answer: E
Explanation: Placed in order from most inclusive (containing the greatest number of species) to
least inclusive (containing the smallest number of species), the categories would be listed:
kingdom, phylum, class, family, genus.
Section: 01.02
27) Which of these classification categories contains the most closely related group of
organisms?
A) domain
B) genus
C) family
D) phylum
E) kingdom
Answer: B
Explanation: Members of closely related species are grouped into the same genus. The
categories listed, from the greatest to least degree of relatedness of organisms, are: genus, family,
phylum, kingdom, and domain.
Section: 01.02
13
28) The common name for "cat" in Spanish is "gato" and in Chinese is "mao." Which of the
following statements pertaining to the use of scientific names instead of common names is false?
A) Common names may refer to more than one kind of organism.
B) Scientific names can be known and recognized by all scientists throughout the world.
C) The scientific name is related to the classification of that organism.
D) The common name more clearly identifies an organism as unique than does the scientific
name.
Answer: D
Explanation: The only false statement about the use of scientific names is that common names
more clearly identify organisms as unique than does the scientific name. In fact, different
organisms are often called by the same common name.
Section: 01.02
29) All the banded sunfish (Enneacanthus obesus) in a pond would comprise a(n)
A) population.
B) ecosystem.
C) community.
D) biosphere.
E) species.
Answer: A
Explanation: A species is a category of organisms within the same genus that share very similar
characteristics. Banded sunfish (Enneacanthus obesus) are a species. A population is all the
members of a given species within a particular area, as in the example of all the banded sunfish
in one pond. All the different populations in the same area make up a community. A community
together with its physical environment makes up an ecosystem. The biosphere is the zone of air,
land, and water on the earth where living organisms are found.
Section: 01.01
Bloom's: 3. Apply
14
30) When comparing energy and chemicals in an ecosystem
A) both chemicals and energy cycle over and over again.
B) chemicals cycle over and over again but energy does not cycle.
C) neither chemicals nor energy cycle.
D) energy cycles over and over again but chemicals do not cycle.
Answer: B
Explanation: Chemicals can be recycled in an ecosystem as they pass from one organism to the
next. The same is not true for energy, because every time energy changes form, some energy is
"lost" in the form of heat.
Section: 01.01
Topic: Energy and Chemical Cycling
31) When researchers test a new human cancer drug using mice, the mice constitute the
A) hypothesis.
B) data.
C) experimental design.
D) model.
E) control.
Answer: D
Explanation: An experimental model is a representation of an actual subject; in this case, the
mice represent humans. The manner in which a scientist intends to conduct an experiment is
called the experimental design. A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for a natural event. The
results of an experiment are referred to as the data. A control is a subject or group of subjects that
goes through all the steps of an experiment but lacks the factor, or is not exposed to the factor,
being tested.
Section: 01.03
Topic: Experimental Design
Learning Outcome: 01.03.03 Analyze a scientific experiment and identify the hypothesis,
experiment, control groups, and conclusions.
15
32) Which of the following domains contains organisms that are adapted to life in extreme
environments?
A) domain Archaea
B) domain Bacteria
C) domain Eukarya
D) domain Animalia
E) domain Plantae
Answer: A
Explanation: Domain Archaea contains organisms that can survive in the most extreme
environments. While domain Bacteria contains organisms that can be found almost everywhere,
they are generally absent from the most extreme environments. Domain Eukarya contains the
plants, animals, fungi, and protists which are not adapted to the most extreme environments.
Animalia and Plantae are not domains.
Section: 01.02
Topic: Biodiversity
33) Which domains contain organisms that lack a membrane-bound nucleus?

A) Archaea and Bacteria
B) Archaea and Eukarya
C) Bacteria and Eukarya
D) Eukarya and Animalia
E) Archaea and Animalia
Answer: A
Explanation: The domains Archaea and Bacteria both contain prokaryotic organisms that by
definition lack a membrane-bound nucleus. Domain Eukarya contains organisms that have a
membrane-bound nucleus. Animalia is not a domain.
Section: 01.02
16
34) It is estimated that as much as 10% of all species may be in danger of extinction before the
end of the century.
Answer: FALSE
Explanation: It is estimated that as much as 38% of all species may be in danger of extinction
before the end of the century.
Section: 01.04
35) Wood becomes petrified when its tissues are replaced by minerals. Although petrified wood
is no longer part of a living organism, which property of life will still be present in the wood?
A) organization
B) homeostasis
C) growth and reproduction
D) response to stimuli
E) metabolism
Answer: A
Explanation: A piece of petrified wood is a fossil, a preserved remnant of a once-living
organism. Although it lacks metabolism, can no longer maintain homeostasis, and does not grow,
reproduce, or respond to stimuli, the original pattern of organization is still evident.
Section: 01.01
Bloom's: 3. Apply
36) An unmanned spacecraft has been sent to another planet to detect new life forms. If the probe
could only send back one image, which property or properties of life would be observable in the
picture?
A) organization
B) homeostasis and metabolism
C) growth
D) response to stimuli
E) evolution
Answer: A
Explanation: A still image would not be likely to show dynamic processes such as homeostasis,
metabolism, evolution, growth, or reproduction. However, organization would be evident.
Section: 01.01
Bloom's: 3. Apply
17
37) Ever since the antibiotic drug penicillin was discovered in 1928, the incidence of resistant
bacteria has steadily increased as a direct result of
A) biodiversity.
B) natural selection.
C) homeostasis.
D) development.
E) reproduction.
Answer: B
Explanation: In natural selection, members of a species that are best adapted to survive and
reproduce in their environment have more offspring than those that are not. Thus, more members
of the population will come to have the successful adaptation. In this example, when people
started using penicillin to fight bacterial infections, only susceptible bacteria were killed;
resistant ones were able to survive and reproduce. Now there are many more resistant bacteria.
Biodiversity is the total number of species, the variability of their genes, and the ecosystems they
inhabit. Although genetic variability is the raw material for natural selection, it is not equivalent.
Homeostasis is an organism's ability to maintain a stable internal environment. Development is
the series of changes that occur throughout the lifespan of an organism. Reproduction is the
ability of an organism to make more like itself; it is related to natural selection in that more
successful organisms can pass their adaptations on to their offspring, but the terms are not
equivalent.
Section: 01.01
Bloom's: 3. Apply
Learning Outcome: 01.01.03 Recognize the importance of adaptation and evolution to life.
38) Nutrient molecules obtained from the food we eat are used to build cellular structures or for
energy. This best represents which characteristic of life?
A) Living things acquire materials and energy from the environment.
B) Living things are homeostatic.
C) Living things are adapted.
D) Living things grow and develop.
E) Living things respond to stimuli.
Answer: A
Explanation: The ability to acquire materials and energy from the environment is crucial to all
the other activities of living organisms, including homeostasis, adaptation, growth and
development, and responses to stimuli.
Section: 01.01
18
39) You have discovered a previously unknown organism. It is multicellular with a filamentous
form, and it absorbs food from its environment. Upon microscopic examination, you see that the
cells have nuclei. How would you classify this organism?
A) domain Bacteria
B) kingdom Animalia
C) kingdom Protista
D) kingdom Fungi
E) kingdom Plantae
Answer: D
Explanation: Kingdom Fungi is comprised of unicellular and multicellular organisms, all
heterotrophic by absorption. The multicellular forms are generally filamentous. Members of
kingdom Plantae are multicellular, with specialized cells and tissues, and can form their own
"food" by photosynthesis. Organisms in kingdom Animalia are also multicellular with
specialized cells and tissues, but they are heterotrophs that ingest their food. Kingdom Protista
contains mostly unicellular organisms with a few multicellular forms, some of which are
heterotrophic by ingestion while others are photosynthetic. Domain Bacteria contains only
unicellular, prokaryotic organisms. All four of the kingdoms listed as answer choices belong to
domain Eukarya.
Section: 01.02
Bloom's: 3. Apply
40) Which of these is an example of inductive reasoning used to form a hypothesis?

A) Every fungus that has ever been studied absorbs its food; therefore, food absorption is
characteristic of fungi.
B) All fungi absorb their food; if mushrooms are fungi, then the mushroom absorbs its food.
C) A mushroom is classified in the kingdom Fungi of the domain Eukarya.
D) The cell from a mushroom has a nucleus.
E) Fungi are not capable of photosynthesis.
Answer: A
Explanation: In order to formulate a hypothesis, a scientist generally uses inductive reasoning, in
which a collection of facts or observations are woven together to support a statement. Inductive
reasoning is exemplified by, "Every fungus that has ever been studied absorbs its food; therefore,
food absorption is characteristic of fungi." To test a hypothesis, a scientist could use deductive
reasoning, which is based on "if, then" statements such as, "If a mushroom is a fungus, then the
mushroom absorbs its food." The other answer choices are accurate observations or statements,
but not representative of either type of reasoning.
Section: 01.03
Bloom's: 3. Apply
19
41) You are conducting an experiment to determine which brand of fertilizer results in the
greatest amount of fruit production by tomato plants. In this example, the response variable
would be the
A) brand of fertilizer.
B) unfertilized tomato plants.
C) fertilized tomato plants.
D) amount of fruit produced by the tomato plants.
E) variety of tomato plants.
Answer: D
Explanation: The response (dependent) variable would be the amount of fruit produced, because
this is the response to the different fertilizer varieties used. The fertilizer varieties would
constitute the experimental (independent) variable, because this is the factor that the researcher is
manipulating. It would be a good experimental design to have two groups of plants: a test group
(fertilized plants) and a control group (unfertilized plants). To minimize the number of variables
in the experiment, only one variety of plant should be used.
Section: 01.03
Topic: Experimental Design
Bloom's: 3. Apply
42) Which of the following might plausibly be said by a scientist?

A) Although no one else gets the same results as I do, since I get the results in my experiments, it
is still science.
B) Since all the accumulated body of data support it, my hypothesis is undoubtedly "true."
C) Test methods are unimportant since anyone can run another test; it is the results that make the
substance of science.
D) The test's results and conclusion finish the scientist's job; it is enough that a scientist alone
knows the results.
E) There is always a possibility that a more advanced experiment might falsify my hypothesis.
Answer: E
Explanation: Hypotheses are always subject to additional testing; they are only conditionally
accepted or rejected. If two individuals performing the same experiment obtain different results,
this would fail to support the hypothesis. Test methods are important because they may influence
the results obtained. Scientific endeavors do not end with obtaining results and a conclusion;
researchers share their results via publications and meetings.
Section: 01.03
Bloom's: 4. Analyze
20
43) Which of the following is a potential consequence if the agricultural industry produced food
without the use of technology?
A) There could be a significant decrease in the amount of food produced.
B) There would be a collapse of many of the terrestrial ecosystems on Earth.
C) The extinction of the top level species that reside in the communities around the agricultural
land.
D) The amount of food produced would increase.
E) None of these consequences will occur if people stop using technology in the agriculture
industry.
Answer: A
Explanation: If the agriculture industry stops using technology the most likely consequence will
be a significant decrease in the amount of food produced. Ecosystems will flourish with a
decrease in technology which will then make it easier for the top level species to survive.
Unfortunately, the amount of food produced would decrease.
Section: 01.04
Bloom's: 5. Evaluate
44) Which of the following represents a potential threat to biodiversity?

A) People construct artificial reefs to support marine life.
B) Humans clear land for agriculture and housing.
C) Energy flows through an ecosystem, with much lost as heat.
D) Tropical rain forests and coral reefs are found where solar energy is the most abundant.
E) In a food chain, one organism feeds on another.
Answer: B
Explanation: When humans clear land, biodiversity is lost because we replace the former
inhabitants with a much smaller number of species. The construction of artificial reefs can
actually help maintain or restore biodiversity as species that have been forced to move from
destroyed coral reefs find new homes. The feeding order of a food chain is an integral part of a
community and does not generally have a negative impact on biodiversity. Tropical rain forests
and coral reefs are the most diverse ecosystems on our planet. Energy flow is a normal aspect of
ecosystems, and does not adversely affect biodiversity.
Section: 01.04
Topic: Biodiversity; Challenges Facing Science
21
45) Which statement regarding science and technology is true?
A) Science, without the assistance of technology, has brought about life-improving discoveries,
such as antibiotics.
B) Technology, without the assistance of science, helps us to understand the causes of cancer.
C) Science is defined as the application of technological knowledge.
D) Combining both science and technology may ease the feeding of the world population by
producing new plant strains.
Answer: D
Explanation: Technology is the application of scientific knowledge to the interests of humans.
Scientific investigations are the basis for the majority of our technological advances. When
science is combined with technology, advancements can be made to improve the quality of life
for people in many ways including the production of new plant strains that produce greater
quantities of food and/or are resistance to pests.
Section: 01.04
46) If a new anti-cancer drug is found to be effective in initial tests with mice, what might
researchers conclude?
A) If the drug was effective in a large number of mice, it will therefore be effective in humans.
B) If the drug was effective in a small proportion of mice, it will be effective in a small
proportion of humans.
C) The mice have provided a positive control in this experiment that proves the drug is effective
in humans.
D) The drug is effective in the mouse model; it must still be tested in humans.
E) The effect of the drug on mice has no bearing on the effect of the drug on humans.
Answer: D
Explanation: Results obtained using models are considered a hypothesis until the experiment
can be performed using the actual subject. In this case, the mice are the experimental model, and
humans would be the actual subjects. The mice cannot be described as a control; a control would
be a group of mice that go through all the steps of the experiment but are not exposed to the drug
being tested.
Section: 01.03
Topic: Scientific Method; Experimental Design
Bloom's: 4. Analyze
22
47) Some students consume large amounts of coffee and so-called energy drinks to help them
stay alert when studying. You notice that many who engage in this practice seem to do poorly on
exams. Suppose you want to investigate the relationship between caffeine consumption and
exam performance. Which of the following statements would be an appropriate hypothesis?
A) Students who consume large amounts of caffeine while studying will have lower exam scores
than those who consume less caffeine.
B) One should avoid consuming too much caffeine while studying.
C) Too much caffeine is harmful to your health.
D) Many students consume large amounts of caffeine while studying.
E) Caffeine increases alertness but also increases anxiety.
Answer: A
Explanation: A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for a phenomenon that can be tested and
then supported or falsified based upon the results. To test the hypothesis, you would compare the
exam scores of students who drink large amounts of caffeine to those who do not. If the students
who consume more caffeine have significantly lower scores, then your hypothesis is supported.
Otherwise, the hypothesis is falsified. The statement that one should avoid consuming too much
caffeine while studying is a recommendation, not a hypothesis. The statements that caffeine
increases alertness and many students consume large amounts of caffeine are observations,
which may be used in formulating a hypothesis. Too much caffeine is harmful to your health is a
conclusion that has been reached by some scientific studies; it is not, however, a hypothesis that
is appropriate to this experimental design.
Section: 01.03
23
48) You are conducting an experiment to determine what concentration of disinfectant is most
effective in killing bacteria. In this example, the concentration of disinfectant would represent
the
A) control.
B) experimental variable.
C) response variable.
D) data.
E) hypothesis.
Answer: B
Explanation: The experimental (independent) variable is the factor being tested—in this case,
the concentration of disinfectant. The response (dependent) variable is the result or change seen
in response to the experimental variable—in this case, the quantity of bacteria killed. A control is
not subjected to the experimental variable; an example would be an object or surface
contaminated with bacteria that is not treated with disinfectant. Data are experimental results. A
hypothesis is a tentative, testable explanation for a natural phenomenon.
Section: 01.03
24
49) In the late 1800s, Louis Pasteur was searching for a vaccine for anthrax in livestock. One
French veterinarian had a local reputation for being able to cure anthrax by applying oils and
wrapping the animal in cloth to induce a fever. Pasteur also knew that some animals recovered
well on their own when left untreated. Pasteur tested the effectiveness of the local veterinarian's
methods by injecting four cattle with anthrax bacteria. He then directed the veterinarian to
perform his procedures on two cattle. The other two cattle were left alone. What is the rationale
for Pasteur's experimental design?
A) Two cattle represent a test of the veterinarian's hypothesis; two represent a test of Pasteur's
hypothesis.
B) Two cattle represent a test of the treatment; two serve as a control to determine the likelihood
of survival without treatment.
C) Two cattle represent a test based on inductive reasoning; two serve to test deductive
reasoning.
D) The two cattle that are treated are the only test being conducted; the other two cattle serve no
purpose beyond representing all the untreated cattle in France.
E) The two cattle not being treated were just a whim on Pasteur's part.
Answer: B
Explanation: The two cattle left alone constitute a control group, since they were injected with
anthrax but not subjected to the veterinarian's treatment; they are not intended to represent all the
cattle in France. The other two cattle represent the test group, since they received both the
anthrax injection and the veterinarian's treatment. The entire experimental design is based on
deductive reasoning: If the veterinarian's treatment is more effective than lack of treatment, then
the treated cattle should recover and the untreated ones should not.
Section: 01.03
50) As the human population size increases

A) ecosystems remain unaffected.
B) fewer fossil fuels are burned and carbon dioxide levels remain constant.
C) it becomes evident that preserving the biosphere has no benefit to humans.
D) fewer ecosystems are destroyed, resulting in an abundance of biodiversity.
E) biodiversity is adversely affected as humans have destructive effects on ecosystems.
Answer: E
Explanation: Human activities continue to disrupt and destroy ecosystems, reducing
biodiversity. The more our population increases, the more fossil fuels are burned, causing a rise
in carbon dioxide levels which can lead to a decrease in biodiversity.
Section: 01.04
Topic: Ecosystem Ecology; Challenges Facing Science
25
51) Which statement about ecosystems is true?
A) Chemicals flow through ecosystems in a one-way direction and are not recycled.
B) Energy continually cycles through an ecosystem.
C) Some organisms can produce their own food and these organisms form the base of the food
chain.
D) Within an ecosystem there is a community of organisms, but non-living components are
absent.
E) The location of ecosystems around the world appears to be random. There is no relationship
between ecosystem location and factors like climate.
Answer: C
Explanation: Some organisms are capable of producing their own food through photosynthesis.
The food these organisms produce becomes the basis for the rest of the food chain within an
ecosystem. All the other statements are incorrect. Energy flows through an ecosystem in a one-
way direction, while chemicals cycle continuously. An ecosystem is comprised of both living
organisms and non-living components like water and sunlight.
Section: 01.04
Topic: Ecosystem Ecology; Challenges Facing Science
26
52) In the late 1800s, Louis Pasteur was searching for a vaccine for anthrax in livestock. One
French veterinarian had a local reputation for being able to cure anthrax by applying oils and
wrapping the animal in cloth to induce a fever. Pasteur also knew that some animals got well on
their own when left untreated. Pasteur tested the effectiveness of the local veterinarian's methods
by injecting four cattle with anthrax bacteria. He then directed the veterinarian to perform his
procedures on two cattle. The other two cattle were left alone. One cow from each group died
and the other one in each group survived. Pasteur dismissed the veterinarian's procedure as
ineffective, but he also considered this to be a poor test. Why would he consider this to be a poor
test?
A) The difference in survival between the two groups was not dependent on the treatment.
B) In a small group with 50% survival, the treated cows would have survived anyway.
C) The number of cows that survived was the same as the number of cows that died.
D) With such a small group you cannot determine if survival was dependent on the treatment or
random chance.
E) The production of a fever in the treated cattle interfered with the outcome.
Answer: D
Explanation: This was a poor test because of the small sample size. The larger the sample size
(in this case, the number of cattle studied), the less likely that the result is due to chance alone.
There was no difference in survival between the two groups—one of each survived and one
died—but due to the small number of subjects it was not possible to determine if the
veterinarian's treatment (inducing a fever) had any real effect.
Section: 01.03
53) Give examples of the costs and benefits of using technology.
Answer: Answers will vary. Some of the potential costs will include: an increase in pollution,
the accidental destruction of ecosystems or species that were not supposed to be destroyed. Some
potential benefits include: an increase in the amount of food that can be produced, the ability to
eliminate a pest species.
Section: 01.04
Bloom's: 6. Create
27
54) Which of the following statements regarding the scientific method are true? Check all that
apply.
A) Deductive reasoning is used to form a hypothesis.
B) Observations are used to form a hypothesis.
C) Experiments need to be repeatable.
D) The control and experimental groups are identical except for one variable.
E) The response variable is also known as the independent variable.
Answer: B, C, D
Explanation: When forming a hypothesis, scientists use inductive reasoning and the response
variable is also known as the dependent variable. All the other choices are true statements.
When forming a hypothesis, scientists use inductive reasoning and the response variable is also
known as the dependent variable. All the other choices are true statements.
When forming a hypothesis, scientists use inductive reasoning and the response variable is also
known as the dependent variable. All the other choices are true statements.
Section: 01.03
55) Which of the following statements regarding the scientific method are true? Check all that
apply.
A) Scientific studies are reported in scientific journals.
B) At the end of an experiment, a hypothesis is determined to be absolutely true or absolutely
false.
C) The control is not subjected to the experimental variable.
D) Data is analyzed using statistical tests.
E) When analyzing data, a higher the p value means results are not likely due to chance.
Answer: A, C, D
Explanation: Hypotheses are never considered to be absolutely true or false. When analyzing
data, the lower the p value, the more confidence the researcher has that the results are not due
chance. All the other statements are true.
Hypotheses are never considered to be absolutely true or false. When analyzing data, the lower
the p value, the more confidence the researcher has that the results are not due chance. All the
other statements are true.
Hypotheses are never considered to be absolutely true or false. When analyzing data, the lower
the p value, the more confidence the researcher has that the results are not due chance. All the
other statements are true.
Section: 01.03
28
56) The statement "plants grown from cross-pollinated seeds will grow taller and produce more
fruit than plants grown from self-pollinated seeds" is an example of a scientific theory.
Answer: FALSE
Explanation: The statement "plants grown from cross-pollinated seeds will grow taller and
produce more fruit than plants grown from self-pollinated seeds" is a hypothesis. It is an
informed statement that can be tested in a manner suited to the processes of science.
Section: 01.03
Learning Outcome: 01.03.02 Distinguish between a theory and a hypothesis.
57) Historically, the protists were classified in "kingdom Protista." Recently, however, the
protists were reclassified into "supergroups." What was the reason for this reclassification?
A) There were too many protist species to fit into a single kingdom.
B) Scientists decided to reclassify protists based on their nutritional mode. For example, all the
photosynthesizers were placed together into one supergroup.
C) Scientists reclassified protists based on how many cells the organism contains. For example,
there is a supergroup for one-celled organisms, a supergroup for two-celled organisms, etc.
D) New DNA evidence suggests that not all protists share a common ancestor and therefore their
classification needed to be reorganized.
Answer: D
Explanation: DNA analyses of protists have revealed that not all protists share a common
evolutionary lineage. Protists have been reclassified into supergroups to reflect the unique
evolutionary heritage of each group.
Section: 01.02
Learning Outcome: 01.02.03 Explain the role of supergroups in the classification of life.
29
58) While exploring a river deep in the Amazon, you discover a new protists. The protist is green
and photosynthesizes. In which supergroup will your new protist be classified?
A) SAR
B) Archaeplastida
C) Excavata
D) Amoebozoa
E) Opisthokonta
Answer: B
Explanation: A green photosynthetic protist would also be called a green algae. Green algae are
the distant relatives of plants and would be classified in supergroup Archaeplastida.
Section: 01.02
Topic: Biodiversity
Bloom's: 3. Apply
Learning Outcome: 01.02.03 Explain the role of supergroups in the classification of life.
30
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arms at right angle to the shaft device which accomplishes the same
result.
FIG. 75.—ILLUSTRATING THE SMITH TYPE OF DRYER.

FIG. 76.—SHOWING THE ORD TYPE OF DRYER.
Expense for Drying.—In a charge type of machine where

batches are placed in the machine and unit lots dried, the expense
for drying seems to be per short ton, about as follows: Labor, $1.25
to $2.00; Dryer repairs, $0.75 to $1.25; Steam, variable. The item of
steam is quite a large factor. In a well handled equipment, properly
insulated, about ³⁄₄ of a pound of moisture can be extracted per
pound of steam condensed in the jacket, when drying tankage, and
⁶⁄₁₀ of a pound when drying blood. The latter requires about twice as
long to dry as tankage; in other words, the output per hour of dryer
operation is about one-half.
Commercial Fertilizer.—Commercial Fertilizer is the name
generally applied to prepared or diluted
mixtures thought to be best adapted for use on ground or for some
special crop. The standard tankage as produced contains an
ammonia content of from eight to twelve per cent and may be short
in other ingredients such as potash and acid phosphate, which are
mineral substances, usually converted to a form readily soluble, or in
condition to be assimilated. Also the ammonia content is reduced to
a moderation, the dilution being accomplished by the use of a filler,
such as pulverized dried peaty soil, which has the advantage of
carrying a certain quantity of humus or selected sand which serves a
drill nicely.
State Regulations.—Most states have found it desirable to
protect the purchaser by insisting that an analysis of the fertilizer be
supplied with each shipment, indicating the content, the state then
making sporadic analyses to see that it generally qualifies to the
stated contents.
Mixing Materials.—The mixing materials used are:
Dried Tankage.
Dried Blood.
Bone Meal.
Steam Bone.
Acid phosphates, which is phosphate rock treated with sulphuric
acid—a more or less complicated process—and which product is
usually purchased by small works.
Muriate of potash, a substance known as kainit usually produced
from mines in Germany, although some potash is being produced
from sea weed in America.
Conversion Factors.—The following table will be found handy for
changing the bone quantity into another term, as for example,
wishing to know the per cent of nitrogen if ammonia be expressed:
CONVERSION FACTORS
Multiply by
A B A to B B to A
Nitrogen Ammonia 1.2158 .8225
Nitrogen Nitrate of Soda 6.0678 .1648
Nitrogen Nitrate of Potash 7.2170 .1386
Nitrogen Protein 6.2500 .1600
Ammonia Nitrate of Soda 4.9906 .2004
Ammonia Nitrate of Potash 5.9358 .1685
Ammonia Protein 5.1404 .1945
Ammonia Sulphate of Ammonia 3.8791 .2578
Nitrate of Soda Nitrate of Potash 1.1894 .8408
Actual Potash Muriate of Potash 1.5830 .6317
Actual Potash Sulfate of Potash 1.8500 .5405
Actual Potash Nitrate of Potash 2.1467 .4658
Actual Potash Carbonate of Potash 1.4671 .6816
Muriate of Potash Sulphate of Potash 1.1687 .8557
Muriate of Potash Carbonate of Potash .9268 1.0790
Phosphoric Acid Bone Phos. of Lime 2.1850 .4577
Carbonic Acid Carbonate of Lime 2.2748 .4396
CHAPTER XVII.
CASINGS.
Description of Beef Casings — Round Casings, How Made — Selection of
Round Casings — Export Casings — Domestic Rounds — Beef Middles
— Turning and Sliming — Inspection and Measuring — Beef Bungs —
Bung Gut Skins — Beef Bladders — Beef Weasands — Packages — Salt
— Cleanliness — Water Temperature — Machines for Casings — Hog
Casings — Small Casings.
Description of Beef Casings.—Casing is a product made from

the intestines of cattle, sheep and hogs. They are saved when
animals are slaughtered in quantities sufficiently large to warrant the
care and attention required. This was one of the products which was
wasted where animals were slaughtered on a small scale. It is a
product worthy of careful attention to its production in order that it be
in a good, marketable condition.
Casings consist of round or small guts, middle or large intestines,
bungs, weasands and bladders, these being the names of casings
obtained from cattle. In the preparation of casings there are five
essential points to be considered:
First.—Clear water and plenty of it.
Second.—That they be handled promptly, otherwise they become
discolored and color in casings has much to do with their value.
Third.—That too hot water is not used so as to injure them.
Fourth.—That the pieces are long and the casings are put up free
from tearing or holes.
Fifth.—Cleanliness and good workmanship.
Round Casings.—These are the small intestines and are taken
from the edge of the ruffle by cutting with a knife. The running, as
this work is termed, is skillful work and care has to be exercised to
avoid cutting. They should if possible be removed in two lengths.
They are then stripped free from contents, and the clinging fat
removed either by hand scraping or passing through a machine. It is
essential that all the fat from the casing should be removed, as it is
detrimental if left on. After they have been “fatted” they are put into a
vat of water and “turned,” which process turns them wrong side out,
exposing the internal part of the intestine. They are then put through
a scraping-machine, which removes all the membrane. This
operation is sometimes done by hand. When this work is completed
it is only the muscular portion of the intestine that remains. After they
are thus finished they are inspected either by examination in passing
through the fingers or by air blowing, preferably the latter. The
casings are measured into sets of 108 to 110 feet, green length. A
standard set of rounds is supposed to measure 100 feet, but the
larger measure is allowed as in the salting and curing they shrink so
that when measured, cured, they will not exceed 100 feet. A set of
rounds should not have to exceed five holes, or consist of more than
five pieces, the less the number of either holes or pieces the more
desirable.
After they are thus measured they are put in a salting box, where
they are shaken up by hand so as to make all the salt possible
adhere to them. They are then piled on an open truck or rack, so that
all the water possible will drain off. Remaining in this condition for a
day they are resalted and packed into tierces. It is necessary, in
order to get the quantity of casings in a tierce to use pressure and
press them tightly.
Selection of Round Casings.—Round casings are classified
under several headings, namely, export, wide, narrow and domestic.
Export Casings.—The export rounds are reasonably narrow and
absolutely free of knots. The knots referred to are those on the
intestines chiefly found in the entrails of native cattle, or cattle that
have been highly fed, and are objectionable to the foreign trade.
They are packed 200 sets per tierce.
FIG. 77.—FATTING MACHINE FOR CASINGS.
Domestic Rounds.—These are for domestic trade. They are

wider and heavier than those exported. They are handled in the
same manner, packed from 150 to 170 sets to the tierce, the
difference in the number of the sets indicating that they are wider
casings and not as carefully selected.
Beef Middles.—After the ruffle has been pulled off the intestines,
the middles are pulled apart, leaving all the fat that will adhere to
them. The contents are washed by inserting a hose at the larger end,
partially filling the casing and pouring the contents into a separate
pipe leading to the catch basin. The workmen press the casing
rather than strip it, as the latter method strips the fat and causes a
considerable loss on account of fat carried to catch basin. The
contents of the intestine washed out, the gut then goes to the fatter,
who cuts off all the fat with a knife. It is very important to see that no
fat is left on the casing. Any fat which may be left on the casing will
detract from the appearance. It is usual after fatting, to scrape the
casing with a wood scraper so as to remove any clinging tissue and
fat.
Turning and Sliming.—The casing is now turned, fatted side in,
and when turned exposes the inner surface. This is hand or machine
scraped and must be perfectly clean, inspection being made to
ascertain this condition exists.
Inspecting and Measuring.—It is best to inspect middle casings
by air, at which time they are selected for wide and narrow
standards, especially in the larger works. They are measured 62 feet
to the set, allowance being made for shrinkage in salting, so that
after they have been salted they will measure 57 feet, this being the
standard commercial length per set. These are handled on the
salting benches, etc., the same as rounds. They are selected as
follows: They must be of prime quality, properly cleaned, slimed and
salted, closely fatted, free from holes, good color and smell, no piece
to be less than three feet in length, not more than one such piece in
a set, and the thin end of the gut must be cut off. They should be
assorted in accordance with requirements into—
Narrows Packed 140 sets to the tierce
Wides Packed 95 sets to the tierce
Regulars (which means the medium casings) Packed 110 sets to the tierce
The salting and packing process is the same as described for

round casings.
Beef Bungs.—These are the larger intestines and have one blind
or closed end. They have an average length of four feet, but vary
with the cattle size. The opening, where the small intestine connects
with the large, should be in the center. The cleaning process is
similar to other casings, except the scraping is done by hand work,
or using a revolving washing machine.
Bungs, handled practically the same as the previously described
casings, to be of good quality, full length, properly cleaned, slimed,
salted and fatted, free from holes, reasonably free from scores and
cuts and of good color. The regular run of these casings should be
packed 400 pieces to the tierce, tied in bundles of five each.
Bung Gut Skins.
—From the bung gut is often removed the membrane, known as
“bung gut skins.” These are used by gold beaters. They are handled
as follows: The bung gut skins should be started at the cap end,
being careful to remove the skin for about four to six inches from the
end of the cap, then remove same around the bung end, back of the
cap end first, and next take off toward the open end, after the bung is
skinned back as far as possible beyond the small intestine. The
skins are thin and difficult to remove; there is no difficulty
experienced, however, in getting them thirty inches or over in length.
After the skin is removed it is placed in ice water, and, when well
chilled, is salted thoroughly in the cap and outside. The object of
putting the skin in ice water is to facilitate handling.
After they are thoroughly salted they are hung over a bar covered
with a piece of burlap and allowed to hang for one or two days, until
they are thoroughly drained, or dried. When dry each skin is
separately handled, the loose salt shaken off, and examined for
holes and fat and ragged ends. Holes near the edge of the skins can
be cut out without materially injuring them. All fat on the edge and
ragged ends should be cut off. After the skins have passed this
inspection they should be spread full length and width on a table,
one over the other, gathered in bunches of fifty, tied in the center and
packed in a tierce. Care should be taken in handling the skins not to
let them come in contact with any iron as that will discolor them.
Many casing men object to removing the bung gut skins, believing
that it injures the casing. If they are handled carefully, however, the
injury will not be more than five per cent.
Beef Bladders.—Bladders should be cut with a long neck and
after they have been fatted should be blown up as large as possible
and hung in a dry room to dry. After they are blown and dried, the
necks are cut off and they are flattened out and packed in bundles of
twelve each. The first grade consists of bladders fourteen inches in
length, with or without necks. The second grade consists of bladders
from eleven to thirteen inches in length with the neck. The third
grade consists of bladders with or without necks, not under nine
inches in length.
Beef Weasands.—After the meat has been removed from the
outside the weasand is turned wrong side out, washed, both ends
tied, and blown full of air. After they are blown with compressed air
they are hung in a dry room, which should have a temperature of
110° to 120° F., and left there until thoroughly dried. They are then
taken out, the ends cut off, the weasands put in bundles of twenty-
five each, twenty bundles tied together into a large bundle, five or ten
of these large bundles constituting a case. Regular weasands must
be of prime quality, properly dried, entirely free from worms, and at
least twenty-four inches long, allowing not over four pieces of shorter
(same to be at least eighteen inches long) to the bundle of twenty-
five. Two of such short ones will be counted as one full weasand.
Narrow weasands are those which, while being dried, have a
weight of about three pounds hung on the end, drawing them out as
long as possible, which has the tendency to make them narrow.
These should not be blown as full of air as those not drawn. After
they are dried they must be at least twenty-six inches long and from
two to two and one-half inches in width when flattened out. Other
conditions same as the regular weasands, except that they must be
entirely free from skin worms and skin-worm marks.
Packages.—The packages used for beef casings are usually soft
wood tierces, free from any stain such as occurs in an oak stave. A
second-hand glucose tierce is preferable. They should be cleaned
thoroughly before filling, by scraping free from any char, and then
well washed.
Salt.—The salt usually used is the “No. 1 Fine” grade of
evaporated salt. In first and second saltings the casings must be
carefully covered, particularly at the points where the bunch is tied.
Cleanliness.—It is difficult to properly describe the care
necessary in every stage to insure clean casings. Water from inland
or murky rivers should be settled of filtered to make clean, bright
casings. Every particle of fat or fibre to which any sediment or stain
can adhere makes a black spot upon the finished salted casings.
There is perhaps no department where such scrupulous care is
needed.
Water Temperature.—Water used in cleaning casings should be
about 90° F., in temperature, and kept uniformly so, until the casing
has been turned and slimed, when it should be submerged and kept
in cool water at a temperature of about 40° F., until passed to the
salting boxes.
Machines for Casings.—Beef casing machines equipped with
rice-root brushes are termed “fatting machines,” while those fitted
with bristle brushes are termed “sliming machines.”
To process middle guts by machine, they are passed twice through
a fatting machine, turned and passed three times through the sliming
machine.
To process round guts they are passed through the fatting and
sliming machines twice. To obtain the best results the brushes
should run 1550 r. p. m. About three horse-power is required to
operate a machine. Salt in the sliming water is an advantage.
Hog Casings.—It is more difficult to describe the saving of hog
casings. The first item is the removing of the bung which should be
pulled carefully, and be as long as possible. The removal of the bung
without scoring, breaking or cutting is a part of the slaughtering work
and requires skillful knife work to accomplish it properly. As soon as
the bung gut is pulled it is stripped and trimmed carefully so as to not
destroy the crown. The clinging fat is removed and the bung is then
turned, after which they are classified and salted over night in a
pickle for the purpose of curing. The following day they are bundled
and packed in second-hand hardwood tierces. The grading is difficult
to describe since the standards vary slightly. They are usually
classified as No. 1, medium primes, and No. 2 quality.
The grading of hog bungs for export and medium primes require
that they shall be full crown, free from cuts and scores, pulled full
length, and when wind tested and blown to about the distention
when stuffed, are measured eighteen inches from the crown:
Exports 1¹⁵⁄₁₆ inches diameter and over
Medium Prime 1³⁄₄ inches diameter and over
No. 2 Less than 1³⁄₄ inches diameter
Small Casings.—The small casings are pulled from the set

stripped and soaked over night to allow a fermentation or decay of
the slime and muscle on the tissue. The length of time for the
soaking and the fermentation are controlled by the workman.
Soaking too long or too much heat rots the casing. Too little makes it
difficult to properly clean. Water test each gut. This is an advantage
since it washes each piece and locates all holes. At the same time
the casings are selected for width. After selecting and cleaning in
this manner the casings are put in bundles of equal size measured
as to quantity. They are then well salted and placed upon draining
benches to cure. After a period of from three to five days they are
shaken free from salt, rubbed with new finely ground salt and packed
in hardwood barrels. These barrels should be cloth lined after
soaking several days, the water being changed every forty-eight
hours.
The salting process is the trick in the casing business. Casings are
usually sold on a free of salt basis, and are supposed to contain forty
per cent salt, this quantity being allowed. On shaking, at times, they
will show sixty per cent, therefore it behooves the buyer or seller to
be on guard.
Machines are used for passing the casing through for removal of
muscle and slime. In these, rapidly revolving knives or scrapers
fitting closely to a roller, perform the process. The casings after
passing through the machines are handled by hand, each piece
being scraped while on a board and any holes that may appear
being cut out, as well as ragged ends cut square.
The average yield in hog casings is usually one-quarter pound per
hog. It takes close attention to develop this quantity.
CHAPTER XVIII.
BEEF MISCELLANY
Beef Miscellaneous — Livers — Sweetbreads — Beef Hearts — Tails —
Weasand Meat — Beef Tongues — Washing — Hanging — Trimming —
Curing — Freezing — Surplus Rounds — Stripping Beef Hams —
Formulas for Curing — Smoking — Tests — Glass Jar Beef — Beef
Trimmings — Barrel Beef — Tripe — Cleaning Tripe — Pickling — Cost
of Production.
Beef Miscellaneous.—The rising value of all flesh foods makes it

imperative to carefully conserve all kinds of products and this
chapter is devoted to a description of the care and handling of these
products.
Livers.—There is no edible part of the animal which becomes
stale as quickly as the liver. The large proportion of water in its
makeup together with the presence of blood and the residual matter
from its function in the body all contribute to this rapid decay, and
only by the most careful attention will they keep a very great length
of time unless they are frozen. The vital point in handling livers
successfully is to promptly send them to a proper cooler.
As soon as they are taken from the animal they should be
trimmed, care being taken that in cutting the gall bag from the liver
they are not contaminated with gall, the trimming consisting of
cutting around the lower lobe so as to permit the blood contained
therein to drip out.
The cooler in which they are stored should be of the same
character as a beef cooler with an overhead loft and a positive and
good circulation. The livers should be separated so that warm ones
will not come in contact with cold ones. The temperature of the
cooler should be about 32° F. In hanging, the cooling racks are
preferably metal, frequently cleansed by scalding and should be
arranged so that livers do not drip on those below.
At certain times of the year it is profitable to freeze them for the
winter trade. Where this is done it will be found that if they are first
properly dried and chilled, they freeze in much better condition than
if put into the freezer when they are full of moisture. They should be
frozen at a temperature as near zero Fahr. as possible, for if frozen
quickly they retain their natural color, whereas, if they are put into a
higher temperature and the freezing is delayed, they will have a dark
appearance when thawed.
Sweetbreads.—This is a delicate piece of meat and practically the
only one in the packing house that improves by being kept in water.
The sweetbread should be cut out before the animal is stuck,
thereby avoiding their becoming bloody and discolored. After
washing and fat is trimmed off, they should be put in ice water in the
coolers and held over night; the next day they are ready for shipment
and should be packed in cracked ice.
If they are to be frozen they should be allowed to drain properly
before placing them in the freezers. A low temperature is very
essential for the preservation of sweetbreads, in order to obtain the
best possible appearance. When frozen quickly they retain a bright
appearance when thawed. If they are frozen slowly they turn slate
color when thawed and have an undesirable and unwholesome look,
which operates against their being disposed of to advantage.
Western or range cattle, yield a very small proportion of
sweetbreads, they being undeveloped by the animal when living in
their natural state. Cattle which have been fattened in feed lots,
however, yield much larger sweetbreads.
Beef Hearts.—This piece of meat is generally used in sausage
and canning, largely in the former. The hearts after being taken from
the animals are trimmed and washed and should be hung in a cooler
where there is a temperature of from 33° to 36° F. After they are
thoroughly chilled they are used for sausage purposes, either fresh
or cured.
Tails.—There is little to be said on the handling of tails, except that
they should be kept clean, for if handled carelessly and allowed to
become stained it is impossible ever to get them clean afterward,
and it is always preferable not to wash them, as this has a tendency
to discolor them when chilled. If they are to be frozen they should be
put into the freezer under a low temperature in order to have them
come out in desirable condition.
FIG. 78.—MECHANICAL WASHER.
Weasand Meat.—This is a meat taken off the weasands. It is a

low grade of meat and is at times “tanked” rather than saved. When
cured it should be packed in tierces, and to a tierce of 400 pounds
sprinkle through thoroughly a mixture of twenty pounds of salt and
one pound of saltpetre. The goods should be held in storage at from
36° to 38° F. during the process of curing.
Beef Tongues.—The tongue should receive careful attention from
the time it is taken out of the head, until it is cured.
In taking the tongue out of the head it should be left smooth on the
bottom, leaving on all fat. It should be cut close to the jaws, taking off
with it all fat possible, as it is worth much more on the tongue than if
left on the head.
Washing.—The tongue should be thoroughly washed in warm
water, say at 80° F., as soon as taken from the head. Mechanical
washers like that shown in the accompanying illustration, Fig. 78, are
frequently used to good advantage. Immediately upon washing they
should be chilled in clean, cold water, when they are hung to drip
and then sent to the cooler.
Hanging.—In hanging, the tongue should be suspended from a
hook at the point where the tongue was attached to the jaw bone
and the tip also fastened upon the same hook. This gives the tongue
a compact appearance, but if it is hung up by the point alone when
warm, its own weight stretches it out of shape, and it never looks as
well as when hung as described. Tongues should be hung in a
temperature of from 32° to 34° F. for forty-eight hours.
Trimming.—Tongues are selected for trimming into short and long
cuts. In trimming, the side bones should be cut equally and the side
meats cut with a long knife and a draw movement so as to make a
smooth appearing tongue. “Long cut tongue” means that the gullet
and about two joints of the windpipe are left on. In “short cut tongue”
the gullet is entirely cut away. Long cut tongue should average not
less than five pounds in weight. The trimmings are retrimmed, the
lean parts being suitable for sausage and the fat for tank.
Curing.—They should first be put into a plain pickle, eighty
degrees strong, at a temperature of 38° to 40° F. for twenty-four
hours. This is done to remove all the saliva from the tongue, which
has the effect of making the pickle “strong,” if the tongues are put
direct into the curing pickle.
After treatment with plain pickle they are put into a sweet pickle to
be cured, the sweet pickle consisting of 280 pounds of salt, English
salt being preferable, to which is added ten pounds of saltpetre and
twenty-four pounds of sugar to each 160 gallons of water. This
should be stirred well to insure thorough dissolving of the
ingredients. The tongues are then put into barrels, hogsheads or
vats, as the case may be, and sufficient pickle put on to submerge
them. At the end of five days they should be shifted from one
package to another, and at the end of fifteen days they should be
rehandled, this being done to bring the pickle into thorough contact
with the different pieces. Tongues should be fully cured at the end of
thirty days, ready to smoke, or for shipment. When tongues are
packed in barrels, after being fully cured, they should be packed, 202
pounds to the barrel, filling the package up with the same pickle in
which they were cured. They are then ready for shipment. Tongues
readily become excessively salty if allowed to remain in cure too
long. It is desirable to have them “off cure” about as wanted.
Freezing.—As there is an increased demand for tongues in the
warm months over any other part of the year, it is advantageous to
hold them frozen until the demand develops. In freezing it is
necessary that they should be put in a very low temperature and
frozen quickly, as if handled otherwise it has a tendency to give them
an undesirable color when cured. They can be thawed, cured, and
smoked as required.
Test on Freezing Beef Tongues.—The following is a test on
tongues thus handled, showing the percentage of shrinkage,
freezing, curing and smoking:
TEST ON FREEZING BEEF TONGUES.

Per
Lbs. cent.
Weight of twenty-five 5¹⁄₂-lb. beef tongues to freezer 140
In freezer one week—weight 138
Freezing shrinkage 2 = 1.43
Taken from freezer to leacher—weight 138
Leached twenty hours in city water—weight 144
After leaching, drained twelve hours—weight 142
Gain leaching from frozen to drained weight 4 = 2.90
Gain leaching from green to drained weight 2 = 1.43
After leaching—pickled—weight to pickle 142
Rubbed in salt and packed in bbls. with seventy-deg. pickle to 141
remain for forty-five days; overhauled in forty days, and five
days later dumped at forty-five days weight
Drained eight hours—weight 139
Shrinkage from green to cured—drained weight 1 = 0.71
Shrinkage from leached to cured—drained weight 3 = 2.11
Weight from cellar to smoke house 139
Smoked fifteen hours—average temperature, 116° F.—smoked
weight 117
Shrinkage to smoked from green weight 23 = 16.43
Shrinkage to smoked from leached weight 25 = 17.60
Shrinkage to smoked from cured weight 22 = 15.82
Surplus Beef Rounds.—Where cattle are cut in large quantities it

is almost impossible to sell the rounds fresh, there being
comparatively small demand for round steak. It is necessary to use
this particular part of the meat in some other product, which is done
by making what is known as “beef hams.” The very light rounds, or
rounds out of canning cattle, are generally used for canning
purposes, they being too light to suit the trade for “beef hams.”
Stripping Beef Hams.—In preparing “beef hams” the rounds are
cut by what is known as the “packing house cut,” which leaves a
piece of meat from the rump on the round, as compared to the
ordinary cut. This piece is what is known as the “knuckle” piece of
the set. Rounds cut this way are considered regular. When rounds,
cut for market purposes, are stripped, they are known as short
knuckled rounds and are not accepted as regular.
Before the round is stripped, the fell, or covering, is skinned off,
and the seam of the knuckle followed around by the knife, cutting
clear to the bone. The round is hung on a hook and an incision made
just above the stifle joint and the knuckle piece peeled from the
bone. The round is then turned on the hook and opened to the bone,
making what is known as the “inside-and-outside piece” of the round.
In opening the round, what is known as the “kernel fat” should be
equally divided. These three pieces are what is known as regular
beef hams when packed in sets. When separated they are known as
“insides,” “outsides” and “knuckles.” These hams are cured and
smoked and are sold at retail as dried beef, the largest sale for this
kind of meat being in warm weather. The piece that is left is the
shank.
Curing.—On the manner in which beef hams are cured depends,
to a great extent, their sale. The object in curing is to have them not
too salty, thoroughly cured through, and of a bright and attractive
color when smoked.
The hams when cut from the cattle should be either spread out or
hung up in a room held at a temperature of from 33° to 35° F., for
twenty-four hours, thereby insuring proper chilling. They are then
best cured in vats holding 1,000 pounds each; many, however, cure
them in tierces or barrels.
Formulas for Curing Beef Hams.—Two formulas for the pickle
follow:
First Formula.—To 1,500 gallons of 80-degree strength pickle, add
300 pounds granulated sugar, 105 pounds saltpetre. Where a
smaller amount of pickle is wanted make it proportionately. As the
meat is packed in vats, sprinkle in a little fine salt. The vat should
then be filled with above pickle, and a rack and weight put on to keep
the meat submerged. The hams should be overhauled three times,
first in ten days, again twenty-five days later and again forty days
after the second overhauling. Beef hams should be considered fully
cured in from seventy-five to eighty-five days. If cured in tierces or
barrels, they should be rolled at the same periods as in the case of
overhauling in the vats, giving the pickle a chance to thoroughly
reach all parts of the meat.
Second Formula.—Another formula used extensively, where beef
hams are packed and cured exclusively in barrels, is as follows:
Dissolve 150 pounds of saltpetre in hot, 88-degree pickle, made from
Ashton or dairy salt, a sufficient amount of pickle being used to make
fifty-two gallons when dissolved. It is necessary to heat the pickle in
order to dissolve this amount of salt. Add 450 pounds of granulated
sugar and sufficient cold 88-degree pickle to make 200 gallons of the
finished solution. This is then chilled to a temperature of 40° to 45° F.
One gallon of this solution is put into each barrel before commencing
to pack the meats.
When packing the meat in barrels, use twenty-three pounds of
Ashton, or dairy salt, sprinkling between the layers as they are put in.
When the barrel is needed, water at a temperature of 40° to 45° F.,
barrels to be rolled in ten, thirty and fifty days after being packed.
They should be stored in a temperature of from 38° to 40° F. if they
are to be used in ninety days. If they are to be held for five or six
months they should be kept at a temperature of 35° to 39° F. for the
first thirty days and thereafter at a temperature of from 28° to 29° F.
until used. Meats cured with this formula will be found to have a very
good color and flavor and at the same time will not be too salty. In
putting the meat in packages, pack 215 pounds green weight per
barrel.
Smoking.—The smoking of beef hams is treated in the chapter on
the Smoke House.
Tests.—The following are three smoking tests on regular beef
hams, given to illustrate yields in the finished product from a sample
lot of each cut:
REGULAR OUTSIDES FOR SHIPMENT.

Wt. Per
Packed lbs. cent.
Twenty-three tcs. dry packed 449 lbs. each, marked
weight 440 lbs. each 1,127 pcs. 10,327
Twenty-three tcs. dumped to smoke, actual
weights 1,127 pcs. 10,215
Pounds loss while in storage 112
Per cent loss while in storage .0128
Culls not smoked 44 pcs. 235
Actual weights to smoke 1,083 pcs. 9,980
Smoked weights 1,083 pcs. 7,099
Shrinkage in smoking 2,881
Per cent shrinkage in smoking .2887
Smoked 108 hours, temperature 112° to 128° F.
REGULAR INSIDES FOR SHIPMENT.

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Test Bank for Inquiry into Life, 16th

Edition, Sylvia Mader, Michael

Test Bank for Inquiry into Life, 16th Edition, Sylvia

Solution Manual for Inquiry into Life, 16th Edition,

Test Bank Inquiry Into Life Sylvia Mader 14th edition

Test Bank for Human Biology, 16th Edition, Sylvia

Solution Manual for Biology, 13th Edition, Sylvia

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Test Bank for Human Biology 15th Edition Sylvia Mader

Test Bank for Inquiry into Life 15th Edition

8) Corn belongs to the kingdom

18) Which of the following is one of the domains of life?

33) Which domains contain organisms that lack a membrane-bound nucleus?

40) Which of these is an example of inductive reasoning used to form a hypothesis?

42) Which of the following might plausibly be said by a scientist?

44) Which of the following represents a potential threat to biodiversity?

50) As the human population size increases

53) Give examples of the costs and benefits of using technology.

FIG. 75.—ILLUSTRATING THE SMITH TYPE OF DRYER.

Expense for Drying.—In a charge type of machine where

Description of Beef Casings.—Casing is a product made from

Domestic Rounds.—These are for domestic trade. They are

The salting and packing process is the same as described for

Small Casings.—The small casings are pulled from the set

Beef Miscellaneous.—The rising value of all flesh foods makes it

FIG. 78.—MECHANICAL WASHER.

Weasand Meat.—This is a meat taken off the weasands. It is a

TEST ON FREEZING BEEF TONGUES.

Surplus Beef Rounds.—Where cattle are cut in large quantities it

REGULAR OUTSIDES FOR SHIPMENT.

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