Atom and Radioactivity

Nuclear Physics
Atom
Matter is composed of tiny particles, called molecules,
which are continuously in motion. These molecules
themselves comprise of groups of atoms.
Most of the atom is empty space. At its Centre, it has

a small, dense and positively charged nucleus of
squashed protons and neutrons, surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons.
Atom is the smallest unit of matter that has the characteristic properties of a chemical element.
 As such, the atom is the basic building block of chemistry.

Rutherford Scattering
 Evidence for the structure of the atom was discovered by Ernest Rutherford in the
beginning of the 20th century from the study of α-particle scattering
 The experimental setup consists of alpha particles fired at thin gold foil and a detector on
the other side to detect how many particles deflected at different angles
α-particle scattering experiment set up
 α-particles are the nucleus of a helium atom and are positively charged
Sir Malik sirmalikphysics2020@gmail.com

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When α-particles are fired at thin gold foil, most of them go straight through but a small
number bounce straight back
 From this experiment, Rutherford results were:

 The majority of α-particles went straight through (A)
o This suggested the atom is mainly empty space
 Some α-particles deflected through small angles of < 10o
o This suggested there is a positive nucleus at the centre (since two positive charges
would repel)
 Only a small number of α-particles deflected straight back at angles of > 90o (C)
o This suggested the nucleus is extremely small and this is where the mass and
charge of the atom is concentrated
o It was therefore concluded that atoms consist of
small dense positively charged nuclei, surrounded
by negatively charged electrons
An atom: a small positive nucleus, surrounded by negative electrons

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 (Note: The atom is around 100,000 times larger than the nucleus!)
Example:
In an α-particle scattering experiment, a student set up the apparatus below to determine
the number n of α-particle incident per unit time on a detector held at various angles θ.
Which of the following graphs best represents the variation of n with θ from 0 to 90°?
ANSWER: A
 The Rutherford scattering experience directed parallel beams of α-particles at gold foil
 The observations were:
o Most of the α-particles went straight through the foil
o The largest value of n will therefore be at small angles
o Some of the α-particles were deflected through small angles
o n drops quickly with increasing angle of deflection θ
 These observations fit with graph A

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Nucleus
Each atom consists of a nucleus and electrons. A nucleus is the core of an atom. It consists of
particles called protons and neutrons. These particles are known as nucleons as they are found int
he nucleus and each has almost the same mass.
 Atoms are mostly empty space. The nucleus contains 99.95% of the atom’s mass but only
a tenth-billionth part of its volume. Practically all the mass of an atom is the mass of its
nucleus.
A proton, a constituent of every atomic nucleus, is a stable sub-atomic particle that has a unit-
positive electric charge (i.e. 1.60 x 10-19 C) and a rest mass of 1.67 x 10-27 kg.
A neutron, a constituent of every atomic nucleus except ordinary hydrogen, is a stable sub-
atomic particle that has no electric charge and a rest mass of 1.67 x 10-27 kg.
Protons and neutrons are in the nucleus and are called nucleons.
Do you know?
The proton and the neutrons are made of much smaller particles, called quarks. You might ask:
are they themselves made by even smaller particles? Physicists are proposing that everything in
the Universe might be made up of tiny, vibrating closed strings. For more you learn about the
string theory.(in next Level)
Electrons
The space surrounding the nucleus is occupied by the electrons, moving so rapidly that we can
think of them as being everywhere at once. (Note: This is not very accurate, but it will suffice for
now.)
An electron is not part of the atomic nucleus, but orbits the nucleus. It carries a unit-negative
electric charge (i.e. -1.60 x 10-19 C). An electron is nearly mass-less. It has a rest mass of 9.11 x
10-31 kg. The rest mass of a proton is 1836 times the rest mass of an electron.
In a neutral atom, the number of electrons is the same as the number of protons. Circulating
electrons are held in orbit by the influence of protons’ positive charge.

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Do you know?
The electron has an anti-matter counterpart called the positron. This anti-particle has precisely
the same mass, but it carries a positive charge. If it meets an electron, both are annihilated in a
burst of energy.
The hydrogen nucleus is unique in having no neutron, only a single proton.
Proton number and nucleon number

All naturally-occurring materials are made up from chemical elements. (hydrogen, helium, etc)
Atoms of different chemical element have a different numbers of protons in their nuclei, and
therefore different numbers of electrons in the orbit. Chemical elements are characterized and
identified by their atomic numbers and have unique chemical properties.
The proton (or atomic) number is the number of protons present in the nucleus of the
atom.
 The atom is electrically neutral. Hence, the atom has the same number of protons as its
number of electrons.
The nucleon (or mass) number is the number of nucleons (sum of protons and neutrons)
present in the nucleus of the atom.
 Since the mass of an atom is concentrated at its nucleus, the nucleon (or mass) number is
thus an approximate measure of the mass of the atom.
 The number of neutrons present in the nucleus of the atom (the neutron number, N) may
be deduced by subtracting the proton number (Z) from its nucleon number (A).
Nucleon number (A) = neutron number (N) + proton number (Z)
Relative Charge
 The different particles that make up atoms have different properties

 Relative mass is a way of comparing particles. It is measured in atomic mass
units (amu)
o A relative mass of 1 is equal to mass of 1.67 × 10-27 kg

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 Charge can be positive or negative
o Relative charge is, again, used to compare particles
 The fundamental charge is equal to the size of the charge on a proton and an electron,
however the electron's charge is negative
 If have a particle has 0 relative charge, this means it is neutral
Nuclear Charge
 Nuclear charge is normally stated as the relative charge of the nucleus

o The term 'relative' refers to the charge of the particle divided by the charge of the
proton
 The proton number is the number of protons in a nucleus
 Since nuclei are made up of only protons and neutrons, the proton number determines
the relative charge on a nucleus
Nuclide
Nuclide, also called nuclear species, species of atom as characterized by the number of protons,
the number of neutrons, and the energy state of the nucleus.
A nuclide is characterized by the mass number (A) and the atomic number (Z).
A
Z X, where
X = symbol of the element
A = nucleon number (AKA mass number)
Z = proton number (AKA atomic number)
Each species of atom has its own name and chemical symbol. Most symbols are based on either
English or Latin names. The symbol will have a capital letter and may be followed by a small
cap letter.
Recall: Number of nucleons = number of protons + number of neutrons

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Isotopes
Isotopes are different atoms of an element which have the same number of protons, but a
different number of neutrons from each other.
 Mass of the isotopes of an element differs as the number of neutrons varies.

 The number or protons in the nucleus of an atom determines what chemical element it is.
 Chemical reactions only involve electrons. The protons and neutrons in the nucleus take
no part in chemical reactions.
 All atoms with the same electron arrangement, hence, same proton number, have nearly,
if not precisely, identical chemical properties, but with different nuclear and physical
properties.
 Every chemical element has one or more isotopes. An atom is first identified and labeled
according to the number of protons in the nucleus.
Radioactivity
Isotopes of an atom can be stable or unstable (radio-isotopes). A nucleus is unstable IF it
contains too many neutrons and/or protons. The unstable nuclei will try to become more stable
by ejecting particles. The process of ejecting the particles is called radioactivity.
Radioactive emission of particles from the nucleus of mass is in the form of alpha particles or
beta particles, sometimes accompanied by the emission of energy in the form of gamma rays.
Radioactive decay is a random and spontaneous process in which an unstable nucleus will
disintegrate into a more stable configuration by the emission of alpha-particles (helium nuclei),
beta-particles (electrons) and/or gamma radiation (short-wavelength electromagnetic waves).
Do you know?
Henri Becquerel (1896) accidentally discovered that a double salt of uranium and potassium give
off sub-atomic particles and/or radiation energies, when it is exposed to a photographic plate.
Soon thereafter it was found that all uranium compounds and the metal itself were similarly
radioactive.

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Background Radiation
 It is important to remember that radiation is a natural phenomenon

 Radioactive elements have always existed on Earth and in outer space
 However, human activity has added to the amount of radiation that humans are exposed
to on Earth
 Background radiation is defined as:
The radiation that exists around us all the time
 There are two types of background radiation:

o Natural sources
o Man-made sources
Background radiation is the radiation that is present all around in the environment. Radon
gas is given off from some types of rock
 Every second of the day there is some radiation emanating from natural sources such as:
o Rocks
o Cosmic rays from space
o Foods
 Although most background radiation is natural, a small amount of it comes from artificial
sources, such as medical procedures (including X-rays)
 Levels of background radiation can vary significantly from place to place

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Sources of Background Radiation
 Background radiation can come from natural sources on Earth or space and man-made
sources
Natural Sources
 Radon gas (in the air)

o Airborne radon comes from the ground
o This is from the natural decay of uranium in rocks and soil
o The gas is tasteless, colourless and oderless but it not generally a health issue
 Rocks and Buildings

o Heavy radioactive elements, such as uranium and thorium, occur naturally in
rocks in the ground
o Uranium decays into radon gas, which is an alpha emitter
o This is particularly dangerous if inhaled into the lungs in large quantities
o Natural radioactivity can be found in building materials, including decorative
rocks, stone and brick
 Cosmic rays from space
o The sun emits an enormous number of protons every second
o Some of these enter the Earth’s atmosphere at high speeds
o When they collide with molecules in the air, this leads to the production of
gamma radiation
o Other sources of cosmic rays are supernovae and other high energy cosmic events
 Carbon-14 in biological material

o All organic matter contains a tiny amount of carbon-14
o Living plants and animals constantly replace the supply of carbon in their systems
hence the amount of carbon-14 in the system stays almost constant
 Radioactive material in food and drink
o Naturally occurring radioactive elements can get into food and water since they
are in contact with rocks and soil containing these elements
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o Some foods contain higher amounts such as potassium-40 in bananas
o However, the amount of radioactive material is minuscule and is not a cause for
concern
Man-Made Sources
 Medical sources
o In medicine, radiation is utilised all the time
o Uses include X-rays, CT scans, radioactive tracers, and radiation therapy
 Nuclear waste
o While nuclear waste itself does not contribute much to background radiation, it
can be dangerous for the people handling it
 Nuclear fallout from nuclear weapons
o Fallout is the residue radioactive material that is thrown into the air after a nuclear
explosion, such as the bomb that exploded at Hiroshima
o While the amount of fallout in the environment is presently very low, it would
increase significantly in areas where nuclear weapons are tested
 Nuclear accidents
o Accidents such as that in Chernobyl contributed a large dose of radiation into the
environment
o While these accidents are now extremely rare, they can be catastrophic and render
areas devastated for centuries
Radiation Detectors
 It is important to regulate the exposure of humans to radiation

o The amount of radiation received by a person is called the dose
 Ionising nuclear radiation is measured using a detector connected to a counter

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Count Rate
 Count rate is the number of decays per second recorded by a detector and recorded by
the counter
o It is measured in counts/s or counts/min
 The count rate decreases the further the detector is from the source
o This is because the radiation becomes more spread out the further away it is from
the source
Radioactive emissions can be detected using the following common detectors:
Photographic detectors
When a radioactive substance is placed near a photographic film coated with silver halide, the
latter will produce a similar effect as seen with exposure to visible light. After the exposure is
completed, this latent record of the accumulated exposure can be made visible through a
chemical development process.
Geiger-Muller Tube (GM-tube)
A GM-tube is the most useful radiation detector

used for determining the intensity of a beam of
radiation or for counting individual charge
particles.
When ionizing radiation enters the tube through

the thin mica window, it collides with the large
argon atoms and ionized them.
These free electrons will then accelerate towards the fine wire anode placed along the axis of the
cylindrical cathode. These accelerated electrons will cause further ionization of the argon atoms

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by colliding with them, thus producing an ‘avalanche’ of electrons which are collected almost at
once by the anode.
The positively charged ions will be attracted towards the cathode. The collection of the electrons
and the argon ions at the electrodes produces a current pulse. This current pulse is then amplified
and fed to a ratemeter.
If asked to name a device for detecting radiation, the Geiger-Müller tube is a good example
to give. You can also refer to it as a GM tube, a GM detector, GM counter, Geiger counter
etc. (The examiners will allow some level of misspelling, providing it is readable). Don’t,
however, refer to it as a ‘radiation detector’ as this is too vague and may simply restate
what was asked for in the question.
Accounting for Background Radiation
 background radiation must be accounted for when taking readings in a laboratory

 This can be done by taking readings with no radioactive source present and then
subtracting this from readings with the source present
o This is known as the corrected count rate
Diffusion Cloud Chamber
When emissions from the radioactive substance are allowed

to come into contact with air molecules, it will tend to knock
out the electrons of the molecules along its paths, causing
ionization (i.e., the air molecules are electrically imbalanced
and become ions).
The diffusion cloud chamber is the device for making visible the paths of ionizing emissions.

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It consists of a container containing air. At the top of the chamber, a row of felt strips is soaked
in ethanol (alcohol). The lower part of the chamber is cooled by solid carbon dioxide or liquid
helium. The alcohol evaporates into vapour and continuously diffuses downwards. It then
becomes supersaturated at the centre of the chamber (i.e., the air holds more vapour than it
normally could).
When emissions from the radioactive substances are placed in the chamber, the emissions will
cause ionization along its paths. The ionized air molecules will attract the vapour molecules and
become too heavy to stay in suspension and thus, condense into tiny liquid droplets along the
paths of the emissions.
Randomness of radioactive emissions

Radioactivity is not affected by chemical reactions or any change in physical conditions, such as
temperature, pressure, electric fields or magnetic fields and etc.
ALL the nuclei of a radioactive substance have the same probability of undergoing radioactive
decay (by emitting alpha, beta or gamma particles). It is IMPOSSIBLE to tell which nuclei will
be the next in line to decay or how long it will take to decay.
Since it is independent of external conditions and the breakdown within the nucleus is
completely random, i.e., occurrence of radioactive emission is random over space and time.
But, it is noticed that with many repeated observations of the random process, the average of its
radioactive emissions does follow some statistical laws. You can calculate approximately how
much of a “basket” of radioactive materials will decay in X time.

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Radioactive Decay
 Some atomic nuclei are unstable

 This is because of an imbalance in the forces within the nucleus
o Forces exist between the particles in the nucleus
o This is commonly due to the nucleus have too many protons or neutrons
 Carbon-14 is an isotope of carbon which is unstable
o It has two extra neutrons compared to stable carbon-12
Carbon-12 is stable, whereas carbon-14 is unstable. This is because carbon-14 has two
extra neutrons
 Some isotopes are unstable because of their large size or because they have too many or
too few neutrons
 Unstable nuclei can emit radiation to become more stable

o Radiation can be in the form of a high energy particle or wave
Unstable nuclei decay by emitting high energy particles or waves
 As the radiation moves away from the nucleus, it takes some energy with it
o This reduces the overall energy of the nucleus
o This makes the nucleus more stable
 The process of emitting radiation is called radioactive decay
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 Radioactive decay is a random process
o This means it is not possible to know exactly when a particular nucleus will decay
 It cannot be predicted when a particular unstable nucleus will decay
 This is because radioactive decay is a random process, this means that:

o There is an equal probability of any nucleus decaying
o It cannot be known which particular nucleus will decay next
o It cannot be known at what time a particular nucleus will decay
o The rate of decay is unaffected by the surrounding conditions
o It is only possible to estimate the probability of a nuclei decaying in a given time
period
 Therefore, the emission of radiation is:

o Spontaneous
o Random in direction
The terms unstable, random and decay have very particular meanings in this topic.
Remember to use them correctly when answering questions!

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Types of Radioactive Decay
 When an unstable nucleus decays, it emits radiation called nuclear radiation

 There are different types of radiation that can be emitted:
o Alpha (α) particles
o Beta (β-) particles
o Gamma (γ) radiation
 These changes are spontaneous and random
Alpha Particles
 The symbol for alpha is α

 An alpha particle is the same as a helium nucleus
o This is because they consist of two neutrons and two protons
 Alpha particles have a charge of +2
o This means they can be affected by an electric field
Beta Particles
 The symbol for beta is β-

 Beta particles are fast-moving electrons
 They are produced in nuclei when a neutron changes into a proton and an electron
 Beta particles have a charge of -1
o This means they can be affected by an electric field
Gamma Rays
 The symbol for gamma is γ

 Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves
 They have the highest energy of the different types of electromagnetic waves
 Gamma rays have no charge

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Alpha particles, beta particles and gamma waves can be emitted from unstable nuclei
Alpha, Beta & Gamma Emission
 α, β and γ radiation can be identified by the emission from a nucleus by recalling their:
o Nature (what type of particle or radiation they are)
o Their relative ionising effects (how easily they ionise other atoms)
o Their relative penetrating abilities (how far can they travel before they are stopped
completely)
 The properties of Alpha, Beta and Gamma are given in this table, and then described in
more detail below
Different Properties of Nuclear Radiation
 The trend down the table shows:

o The range increases
o Penetrating power increases
o Ionisation decreases

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Penetrating power
 α-particles are the least penetrating of the nuclear radiations and can be stopped by a
sheet of paper. They can only pass through a few cm of air.
 β-particles are more penetrating and are stopped by a thin (1 mm) sheet of aluminium.
The fastest β-particles have a range of a meter or so in air.
 γ-rays are the most penetrating nuclear radiation. Intensity of gamma radiation can be
reduced to half by 1 or 2 cm thick lead.
Ionisation
Ion is a charged atom, formed by losing or gaining electrons. All three kinds of emissions are
capable of creating ions.
 α-particles knock electrons out of nearby atoms, thus ionizing the atoms. The α-particles
are much heavier than the electrons and can simply dislodge them from the atoms, thus
they have the most powerful ionization ability.
 β-particles are less strongly ionising than α-particles, but more than γ-rays. It is less likely
for a lighter β-particles to dislodge an electron.
 γ-rays are the least ionising of the nuclear radiation as it is uncharged.
 Alpha is by far the most ionising form of radiation
 Alpha particles leave a dense trail of ions behind them, affecting virtually every
atom they meet
 Because of this they quickly lose their energy and so have a short range
 Their short range makes them relatively harmless if handled carefully, but they
have the potential to be extremely dangerous if the alpha emitter enters the body
 Beta particles are moderately ionising
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 The particles create a less dense trail of ions than alpha, and consequently have a
longer range
 They tend to be more dangerous than alpha because they are able to travel further
and penetrate the skin, and yet are still ionising enough to cause significant
damage
 Gamma is the least ionising form of radiation (although it is still dangerous)
 Because Gamma rays don’t produce as many ions as alpha or beta, they are more
penetrating and have a greater range
 This can make them hazardous in large amounts
 The ionising effects depend on the kinetic energy and charge of the type of radiation
 The greater the charge of the radiation, the more ionising it is

o This means alpha radiation is the most ionising as it has a charge of +2
o A beta particle has a charge of –1 so is moderately ionising
o This means gamma radiation is the least ionising as it has a charge of 0 (no
charge)
 The higher the kinetic energy of the radiation, the more ionising it is
o This means alpha particle is still the most ionising because it has the greatest mass
o However, a beta particle is very light (it is an electron) but travels at high speeds,
therefore, it has a lot of kinetic energy and is still moderately ionising
o Gamma radiation has virtually no mass so is weakly ionising
Deflection in Electric & Magnetic F
 A particle is deflected in an electric field if it has charge

 A particle is deflected in a magnetic field if it has charge and is moving perpendicular to
it
o Therefore, since gamma (γ) particles have no charge, they are not deflected by
either electric or magnetic fields
o Only alpha (α) and beta (β) particles are

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Electric Fields
 Alpha particles have a charge of +2 (charge of a helium nucleus)

 Beta particles have a charge of +1 (charge of an electron)
 Therefore, between an electric field created between a negatively charged and positively
charged plate
o Alpha particles are deflected towards the negative plate
o Beta particles are deflected towards the positive plate
o Gamma radiation is not deflected and travels straight through between the plates
Alpha and Beta particles can be deflected by electric fields
 Alpha particles are heavier than beta particles

o Therefore, beta particles are deflected more in the electric field and alpha is
deflected less

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Magnetic Fields
 Similarly, alpha and beta particles are deflected by magnetic fields whilst they are
moving
 They are deflected in opposite directions due to their opposite charges
Alpha and Beta particles can also be deflected by magnetic fields
Remembering the properties of alpha, beta and gamma radiation really helps with
deducing how much ionising power they have. E.g. An alpha particle is a helium nucleus
which contains two protons and two neutrons. It therefore has a charge of +2 since each
proton has a charge of +1 and a neutron has no charge.
Kinetic energy is defined by the equation mv2 therefore it depends on the mass m of the
particle and its velocity v.
It is important to note that because of their opposite charges, alpha and beta particles will
deflect in opposite directions. You do not need to know which direction alpha and beta
particles are deflected in a magnetic field (this is covered at A-level) but you should know
that they are deflected, whilst gamma is not because they are charged and they deflect in
opposite directions.

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Effect of Nuclear Size on Decay
 The most stable nuclei have roughly the same number of protons to neutrons
o If there were too many protons, then the repulsive force caused by them all having
the same positive charge which cause the nucleus to repel when it becomes very
large
 Therefore, if a nucleus has an imbalance of protons or neutrons, it is more likely to decay
into small nuclei until it gets to a stable nucleus with roughly the same number of each
 Therefore, Isotopes of an element may be radioactive due to:
o An excess of neutrons in the nucleus
o The nucleus being too heavy
 An example of these are the isotope of hydrogen–1
Hydrogen Isotopes
 H-1 is the stable nucleus of hydrogen

o H-2 (deuterium) adds on one more neutron
o H-3 (tritium) adds on another neutron, making 2 neutrons to 1 proton. This is
much more unstable than H-1 or H-2
 If an nucleus is too heavy, this means it has too many protons and neutrons
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o The forces in the nucleus will be weaker in keeping the protons and neutrons
together
o This can also cause the nucleus to decay
 An example of this is Uranium–238 which is used in nuclear fission
o This nucleus has 238 protons and neutrons
 The decay of Uranium–238 gradually reduces the mass number of the element which it
decays into
o This is done through alpha (α) or beta (β) decay
Uranium–238 Decay Chain
Change to a New Element
 During α-decay or β-decay, the nucleus changes to a different element

 The initial nucleus is often called the parent nucleus
 The nucleus of the new element is often called the daughter nucleus
Alpha decay creating change a parent

nucleus to a daughter nucleus of a
new element

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 The daughter nucleus is a new element because it has a different proton and/or nucleon
number to the original parent nucleus
 This can be seen on a graph of N (neutron number) against Z (proton number)
Graph of N against Z for the decay of Pu–239
 When Pu-239 decays by alpha to U-235, it loses 2 protons and 2 neutrons
o U (Uranium) is a completely different element to Pu (Plutonium)
Reducing Neutron Number
 A nucleus decays to increase its stability by reducing the number of excess neutrons
o This is done by alpha or beta decay

 If the nucleus has too much energy, this is given off in the form of radiation
o This is often gamma radiation
Alpha Decay
 During alpha decay an alpha particle is emitted from an unstable nucleus

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 A completely new element is formed in the process
Alpha decay usually happens in large unstable nuclei, causing the overall mass and charge
of the nucleus to decrease
 An alpha particle is a helium nucleus

o It is made of 2 protons and 2 neutrons
 When the alpha particle is emitted from the unstable nucleus, the mass number and
atomic number of the nucleus changes
o The mass number decreases by 4
o The atomic number decreases by 2
 The charge on the nucleus also decreases by 2
o This is because protons have a charge of +1 each

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Gamma Emission
The emission of gamma rays has no effect on nucleon number or proton number of the nucleus.
γ-rays are usually emitted at the same time as α-particles and β-particles. With some nuclides, the
emission of α-particles and β-particles from a nucleus leaves the electrons and neutrons in an
excited arrangement with more energy than normal.
These protons and neutrons rearrange themselves to become more stable and release the excess
energy as a photon of gamma radiation.
Half-Life Basics
The number of radioactive atoms in a substance decreases exponentially over time. Therefore
every radioactive element has a characteristic time called half-life. After that time, the number of
radioactive nuclei in the sample would have decreased to half the number originally present.
The half-life of a sample of a radioactive isotope is defined as the time taken for half the original
unstable radioactive nuclei to decay.
 Different radioactive elements decay at different rates and hence different half-life.
Uranium-238 has a half-life of over 400 million years. Strontium-90 has a half-life of 28
years and the half-life of oxygen-18 is less than 0.01 s.

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 The radioactive decay of Na-24 can be studied using a GM-tube and a counter to find the
number of counts per second at various time intervals.The half-life of Na-24 is 15 hours.
Initially, there are 20 million undecayed Na-24 nuclei. After 15 hours (1 half-life), there
will be 10 million undecayed Na-24 nuclei left.
 The half-life of a radioactive element gives an indication of its stability. Radioactive
elements with longer half-life are more stable.
where
Nfinal is the number of remaining radioactive element

Ninitial is the number of initial radioactive element
n is the number of half-life
Note: You can apply logarithm to the above equation if you need to find the number of half-life
(when you are given both final and initial number of elements)
 It is impossible to know when a particular unstable nucleus will decay

 But the rate at which the activity of a sample decreases can be known
o This is known as the half-life
 Half-life is defined as:
The time taken for half the nuclei of that isotope in any sample to decay
 In other words, the time it takes for the activity of a sample to fall to half its original level

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 Different isotopes have different half-lives and half-lives can vary from a fraction of a
second to billions of years in length
 Half-life can be determined from an activity–time graph
The graph shows how the activity of a radioactive sample changes over time. Each time the
original activity halves, another half-life has passed
 The time it takes for the activity of the sample to decrease from 100 % to 50 % is the
half-life
o It is the same length of time as it would take to decrease from 50 % activity to 25
% activity
o The half-life is constant for a particular isotope
 Half-life can also be represented on a table

o As the number of half life increases, the proportion of the isotope
remaining halves
Uses of Radiation
 Radiation is used in a number of different ways:

1. Medical procedures including diagnosis and treatment of cancer
2. Sterilising food (irradiating food to kill bacteria)
3. Sterilising medical equipment (using gamma rays)
4. Determining the age of ancient artefacts

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5. Checking the thickness of materials
6. Smoke detectors (alarms)
 The properties of the different types of radiation determine which one is used in a
particular application
Smoke Detectors
 Alpha particles are used in smoke detectors

 The alpha radiation will normally ionise the air within the detector, creating a current
 The alpha emitter is blocked when smoke enters the detector
 The alarm is triggered by a microchip when the sensor no longer detects alpha
In the diagram on the right, alpha particles are stopped by the smoke, preventing the flow
of current and triggering the alarm

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Measuring the Thickness of Materials
 Radiation can be used for tracing and gauging thickness

o Mostly commonly this is beta particles
 As a material moves above a beta source, the particles that are able to penetrate it can be
monitored using a detector
 If the material gets thicker, more particles will be absorbed, meaning that less will get
through
o If the material gets thinner the opposite happens
 This allows the machine to make adjustments to keep the thickness of the
material constant
 Beta radiation is used because it will be partially absorbed by the material
o If alpha particles were used all of them would be absorbed and none would get
through
o If gamma were used almost all of it would get through and the detector would
not be able to sense any difference if the thickness were to change
Diagnosis and Treatment of Cancer
 Radiotherapy is the name given to the treatment of cancer using radiation
(Chemotherapy is treatment using chemicals)
 Although radiation can cause cancer, it is also highly effective at treating it

 Radiation can kill living cells. Some cells, such as bacteria and cancer cells, are more
susceptible to radiation than others
 Beams of gamma rays are directed at the cancerous tumour
o Gamma rays are used because they are able to penetrate the body, reaching the
tumour
o The beams are moved around to minimise harm to healthy tissue whilst still being
aimed at the tumour
 A tracer is a radioactive isotope that can be used to track the movement of substances,
like blood, around the body
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o A PET scan can detect the emissions from a tracer to diagnose cancer and
determine the location of a tumour
Sterilising Food and Medical Equipment
 Gamma radiation is widely used to sterilise medical equipment

 Gamma is most suited to this because:
o It is the most penetrating out of all the types of radiation
o It is penetrating enough to irradiate all sides of the instruments
o Instruments can be sterilised without removing the packaging
 Food can be irradiated in order to kill any microorganisms that are present on it
 This makes the food last longer, and reduces the risk of food-borne infections
Archaeological dating
 The atmosphere contains a small proportion of radioactive carbon-14 which is absorbed
by living plants and trees as a result of photosynthesis.
 The half-life of carbon-14 is 5568 years so there is negligible disintegration over the life
time of most plants.
 However, once the plant has died, no further carbon-14 is taken in so the proportion of
carbon-14 in the plant starts to decrease as the radioactive carbon decays.
 After one half-life of 5568 years, the proportion of carbon-14 remaining is down to 50%
of its initial value.
 Since activity is proportional to the number of carbon-14 atoms remaining, measuring the
activity enables the age (time since death) of the dead sample to be calculated.
 To do this, the measured activity is compared with the activity of the same mass of living
wood. Then using the value of half-life of carbon-14, the age can be determined.

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Atom and Radioactivity

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Atom and Radioactivity

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Nuclear Physics

Most of the atom is empty space. At its Centre, it has

 As such, the atom is the basic building block of chemistry.

α-particle scattering experiment set up

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 From this experiment, Rutherford results were:

An atom: a small positive nucleus, surrounded by negative electrons

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The hydrogen nucleus is unique in having no neutron, only a single proton.

Proton number and nucleon number

 The different particles that make up atoms have different properties

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 Nuclear charge is normally stated as the relative charge of the nucleus

Recall: Number of nucleons = number of protons + number of neutrons

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 Mass of the isotopes of an element differs as the number of neutrons varies.

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 It is important to remember that radiation is a natural phenomenon

 Background radiation is defined as:

The radiation that exists around us all the time

 There are two types of background radiation:

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 Radon gas (in the air)

 Rocks and Buildings

 Carbon-14 in biological material

 It is important to regulate the exposure of humans to radiation

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Radioactive emissions can be detected using the following common detectors:

Geiger-Muller Tube (GM-tube)

A GM-tube is the most useful radiation detector

When ionizing radiation enters the tube through

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Accounting for Background Radiation

 background radiation must be accounted for when taking readings in a laboratory

Diffusion Cloud Chamber

When emissions from the radioactive substance are allowed

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Randomness of radioactive emissions

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 Some atomic nuclei are unstable

 Unstable nuclei can emit radiation to become more stable

Unstable nuclei decay by emitting high energy particles or waves

 This is because radioactive decay is a random process, this means that:

 Therefore, the emission of radiation is:

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 When an unstable nucleus decays, it emits radiation called nuclear radiation

 The symbol for alpha is α

 The symbol for beta is β-

 The symbol for gamma is γ

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Alpha, Beta & Gamma Emission

Different Properties of Nuclear Radiation

 The trend down the table shows:

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 The greater the charge of the radiation, the more ionising it is

Deflection in Electric & Magnetic F

 A particle is deflected in an electric field if it has charge

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 Alpha particles have a charge of +2 (charge of a helium nucleus)

Alpha and Beta particles can be deflected by electric fields

 Alpha particles are heavier than beta particles

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Alpha and Beta particles can also be deflected by magnetic fields