Juliana Smith

2023-2024
Annotated Source List

Africa Center for Strategic Studies. (2022, November 8). Rising sea levels besieging Africa's booming
coastal cities.
https://africacenter.org/spotlight/rising-sea-levels-besieging-africas-booming-coastal-cities-lagos-d
akar-alexandria-maputo-nile/
This research report includes key information on how several coastal areas in Africa are
facing a variety of dangerous effects from the increase in climate related changes, ranging from
sea level rises to cyclones. First, the source starts off with highlighting how much the irregular
weather patterns are already impacting areas in these regions. Rising sea levels are happening
because of the buildup of greenhouse gas emissions, resulting in the melting of polar ice caps,
thermal expansion, coastal flooding, erosion, and the loss of habitats. Along African coastlines,
sea levels are predicted to rise by 2030, affecting 117 million people. The source also notes how
the sea levels are contaminating aquifers, which provide water to crops, leading to increases in
saltwater intrusion. Next, the source talks about how marine heatwaves have been becoming more
and more extreme since 1980. From 1982 to 2016, marine heatwaves doubled in the North African
Mediterranean Sea and along Somalian and southern African coastlines. Marine ecosystems and a
danger of extinction amongst marine species are heavily impacted by these heatwaves.
Additionally, population levels within coastal cities are expected to experience massive changes
prior to these climate effects. North and West Africa, containing countries like Egypt and Nigeria,
are predicted to face the most effects and population disruptions because of their high density
areas near the coast. Sea level rises of more than 0.5 meters in these critical areas could result in 2
million people moving to other areas, a loss of 214,000 jobs, and over $35 billion lost in property
and tourism income by 2050. Lastly, the source states how the Global Center on Adaptation has
implemented climate risk assessments in 4 out of 5 coastal cities. These assessments have led to
investments in water/sanitation infrastructure, restored wetlands and ecosystems to reduce flood
risks, strengthened disaster evacuation planning, and continue looking to individuals in
communities with key information about the climate risks. Additionally, several African coastal
cities choose nature-based solutions instead of infrastructure solutions to defend against storm
surges. For instance, the mayor of Quelimane states that the mangroves of the community have
saved the area against cyclones and other climate related effects.
This source reflected on the effects climate change is leaving on areas, specifically coastal
ones, in Africa. It provided several infographics and visuals to display the descriptions,
displacement, and changes happening throughout. At the bottom, there is a list of embedded links
for additional resources. Additionally, it provides several statistical pieces of evidence based on
some of the visuals for readers to be persuaded into how concrete these effects are impacting
communities and areas. This source is important because it concludes with providing readers with
details into the plans proposed for coastal areas affected in Africa, emphasizing how necessary
these plans need to be to remain intact to avoid further climate based effects in these areas.
Bergeron, T. (2023, January 20). No refuge for 'climate refugees' in international law.
https://www.lclark.edu/live/blogs/200-no-refuge-for-climate-refugees-in-international#:~:text=Un
der%20current%20international%20refugee%20law,not%20qualify%20for%20refugee%20status.
This blog post provides readers with detailed information about the proposal of a treaty to
recognize climate refugees’s equality and rights because of the consistent climate change effects
impacting the Earth. The source starts off by introducing how climate displaced people do not fit
under traditional refugee status under the current international refugee law. This source identifies
 this as a major problem, especially since it is expected that around 25 million-1 billion
environmental migrants are predicted to migrate due to climate displacement by 2050. While
several international refugee laws have been proposed and established throughout the years dating
back to the 1950s, they do not support climate refugees specifically. In 1984, the Cartagena
Declaration did include climate refugees to some extent, but Latin American countries involved in
it cannot do anything except establish a general set of guidelines. According to the source, this
issue that has impacted several major conventions and laws is causing more problems with
displacement and social order amongst areas around the world in critical condition from climate
change.
This source emphasizes how there are no current legal global agreements to support
climate refugees. Readers are provided with how concerning this is, as climate refugees are facing
several problems that are continuing to persist and not receiving enough attention/support that they
need. The blog creates awareness around why climate refugees are facing these issues, due to the
lack of legal global agreements to support them and persistent climate change effects. Various
sources were listed towards the end of the blog, which were used for research and data that the
author used in the blog. Additionally, it was published earlier this year, which was helpful in
knowing how relevant the data in the source is. The blog itself includes references and predictions
concerning statistical information for the future, as well as notable events that have occurred in
previous years regarding the topic of climate refugees. This source is important because it provides
readers with an insight into the plan proposed for climate refugees, hinting into the hopefulness
that this will someday go into effect and bring some form of peace for the groups.
CBS News. (2017, August 21). The world's first climate change refugees [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=46yvAKge3qQ
This video gives an illustrated and vivid overview on how sea levels rising is one of the
largest climate change related impacts on the citizens of several island nations in the South Pacific.
As of 2017, 145 million people are living less than three feet above sea level. Predictions from
scientists determine that oceans sea levels will rise 5-6 feet by the year 2100. In Kiribati, an island
in the South Pacific, sea walls and houses are becoming destroyed from these climate change
related impacts. Reporters from CBS News interviewed one woman in the area who said that she
cannot blame Americans for climate change, but is upset that America does not experience as
much of the effects compared to her country. Another man interviewed said that he was worried
about moving to another country because it is too expensive for him to move there, as Kiribati is
the only country more affordable for him at the moment.
This source highlights the dangerous and rapidly growing effects of climate change
impacting countries along regions along the South Pacific coast. Several different climate refugees
expressed their growing concern over the matter, emphasizing how much havoc this is causing the
region. Throughout the video, the analysis of the topic was unbiased, as it examined more than one
perspective on the issue. This allows the audience to gravitate towards a reliable overview of the
problems Kiribati, as well as other countries in the area, are having. The speaker of the video, Seth
Doane, is a national correspondent for CBS News and covers issues regarding climate change and
the migration happening because of it. He identifies the predictions of how much sea levels will
rise in the future in areas impacted by climate change, including the island of Kiribati.
Dahir, I., & Willima, D. (2023, June 20). Rising tides threaten low-lying coastal west africa. Institute for
Security Studies.
https://issafrica.org/iss-today/rising-tides-threaten-low-lying-coastal-west-africa#:~:text=Almost%
20all%20African%20countries%20now,effects%20of%20rising%20sea%20levels.
This website article emphasizes how Africa faces several issues due to the effects of
climate change, mainly sea level rise, but several solutions are offered to address these concerns
 effectively. First, the authors present how Africa’s larger and more densely populated cities located
along the coast, like Lagos, Abidjan, Accra are more vulnerable to climate change effects. These
cities generate about 56% of the overall economy’s gross domestic product. Overall, the effects of
climate change cost Africa around US $4 billion in annual economic losses. According to the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s Sixth Assessment Report, 116 million Africans
could live in populated and coastal areas by 2030. By 2100, Africa could face US $10 billion in
annual damage costs from flooding. Next, the authors mention how there is a fear of losing coastal
infrastructure, as ports are critical for the country’s economy (tours, fisheries, trade, etc.) For
example, several ports in Côte d’Ivoire lost 5% of the country’s GDP in damages from sea level
rise just in 2019. However, the authors mention how almost all African countries have current
adaptation plans, despite the lack of inclusion for all sectors and levels of government. Sustainable
green infrastructure, such as seawalls and mangrove restoration, are suggested because they are
natural barriers against the issues. There have been several opportunities for community
engagement to conquer the problem, such as the Green Ghana project, Reversing Ecosystem and
Water Degradation in the Volta (REWarD-Volta) River Basin initiative, and the Economic
Community of West African States. The Economic Community of West African States created the
ECOWAS 2050 climate strategy and an initial 2022-2030 action plan, providing and suggesting
more solutions to the climate crisis currently in effect.
This source accounts for the various issues sea level rises are leaving on Africa’s continent,
but offer suggestions and solutions to it as well. The website article is written by Illhan Dahir, a
senior researcher in climate risk and human security, as well as David Willima who is a research
officer, maritime, and ISS pretoria. Throughout the website article, there are several embedded
links linking to other reports and articles the ISS has provided and established for audiences to
view, read, and learn more about relating to the topics Africa has dealt and deals with today.
Foote, W. (2016, July 20). Climate refugees are leaving the farm behind. Forbes.
https://www.forbes.com/sites/willyfoote/2016/07/20/climate-refugees-are-leaving-the-farm-behind
/?sh=5d1de8941a8e
This magazine article emphasizes the various obstacles that farmers are facing due to the
effects of climate change, ranging from inability to harvest crops to a loss of jobs worldwide. The
author begins with mentioning how the dust bowl initially caused the largest migration in
American history. For instance, 2.5 million people moved off of the Great Plains by 1940. After
visiting several areas where displacement occurs, the author emphasizes how agriculture is a
prominent background feature of many rural economies. After visiting Senegal, Africa, he inferred
that farmers see migration as an “economic necessity” because they can no longer cultivate the dry
soil. In Ndiamaguene, a part of Northwest Senegal, farmlands can no longer feed the village’s
population. The source proceeds to focus on how areas in Central America are struggling with
coffee leaf rust, a crop disease that has spread due to warmer temperatures and unpredictable
rainfall patterns. Across the region, it has led to 1.7 million coffee producers and farmworkers
losing their jobs, which has caused more displacement in areas nearby. Furthermore, the author
notes on how agriculture is the main source of income and employment for 70% of people in rural
communities. He brings up the Dust Bowl again, mentioning how farmers adopted sustainable
farming practices under soil conservation and land management programs created under President
Roosevelt’s New Deal. To conclude, the source suggests that if farmers receive more equipment
for opportunities for crops to thrive, then farming should be a dependable source of income and
offer potential careers for people in the future.
This source highlighted the way climate change is affecting agriculture, creating
difficulties for several farmers worldwide. The author of the source is the founder and CEO of
Root Capital, which is a nonprofit organization that helps farmers with employment and income in
 Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Additionally, he has experience in the challenges rural farmers
face after beginning his career in Wall Street and later spending time as a financial journalist in
Mexico. The author’s expanded background on the topic of how climate refugees are being
affected in other ways, such as agricultural issues, brings more awareness and knowledge
surrounding the importance of helping displaced people.
Males, J. (2023, April 3). Climate migration: The value of refugee perspectives.
https://latitude.plos.org/2023/04/climate-migration-the-value-of-refugee-perspectives/#:~:text=The
%20majority%20of%20interviewees%2C%2093,from%20their%20country%20in%20general.
This source included a case study including information from a variety of interviews being
conducted on refugee and asylum seekers from different countries asking how the climate has
changed throughout their lifetimes and how migration has been linked by this change. The source
begins with highlighting how current methods being made to learn more about climate migration
are becoming harder and more difficult to use, leading to uncertainty about several aspects of
trends/models displayed. The source notes how perceptions and interviews for data are not always
the most dependent, as they may not align accurately within one another. For example, broader
scale climate data has limitations on providing climate migration decisions. Data showed that 93%
of refugee/asylum seekers didn’t believe climate change was affecting migration, while 59% of
people believed climate change was affecting migration. Following this, more research showed
that migration is causing agricultural problems and conflict within areas in the Middle East,
Greece, parts of Africa, etc. For instance, a study in Somalia showed that perceptions on negative
climate change impacts around young individuals increased their likelihood of using sustainable
farming practices. Interviews from parts of Africa show that flooding and deforestation are the
main problems relating to migration, while interviews from areas in Greece show that war and
persecution are the main causes of migration. Research shows that more people accept
perspectives from climate refugees regarding the problems they are facing. Future implications are
presented as hopes for improving capacities in countries to build barriers against climate change
related impacts.
This source demonstrates some of the main key points regarding research into the reasons
for migration in several areas around the world. It gives readers a glimpse of the agricultural
difficulties, war, and conflict that is rising between countries because of climate change. It offers
potential improvements for the future that countries can implement, such as inclusive planning to
equalize cities. The blog explains why some of this data may not be the most dependent because of
the large variety of perspectives surrounding the topic. The source provides additional references
at the bottom of the blog, as well as giving a fresh narrative by stating direct quotes from
interviewees in different areas around the world.
Oppenheimer, M., Glavovic, J., Hinkel, R., van de Wal, A.K., Magnan, A., Abd-Elgawad, R., Cai, M.,
Cifuentes-Jara, R.M., DeConto, T., Ghosh, J., Hay, F., Isla, B., Marzeion, B., Meyssignac, B., &
Sebesvari, Z. (2022). Sea level rise and implications for low-lying islands, coasts and
communities. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157964.006
In section 4.4 of this research report, both authors and editors highlight the past and present
predicament on the present stages of sea level rise, ranging from main responses to the challenges
governments face because of it. First, they mention the different feedback on sea level rise;
protection, accommodation, advance, retreat, and ecosystem-based adaptation. Protection blocks
inland propagation and other effects of sea level rise, using hard protection (dikes, seawalls, etc.),
sediment based protection (beach nourishment and dunes), and ecosystem-based adaptation in
doing so. Hard and sediment based protection includes upgrades in defenses, typically after coastal
disasters have occured. For example, the federal government provided New York with $16 billion
after Superstorm Sandy in 2012. According to the report, hard coastal protection has high
 confidence of continuing to be effective for responses to sea level rise in populated and urban
areas. Furthermore, sediment-based protection preserves beaches, other associated environments,
and tourism. However, it prohibits natural migration of ecosystems, leading to loss of habitats and
conflicts over resources in areas. Accommodation reduces the vulnerability of environments, such
as raising house elevation and changes in land use. Advance is defined as creating new land by
building seaward, filling land with fillable materials, and planting vegetation. There is limited
evidence on the economic efficiency of this response, but is most known for its land reclamation
advancements. Retreat is moving exposed people to other areas outside of coastal hazard zones
(ex. migration, displacement, and relocation). Low-lying zones are more exposed and prone to the
impacts of coastal hazards, as well as there being increased amounts of competition for resources
and labor markets due to the vast amounts of displacement occurring. However, there has been
more attention over the last decade in the international policy community in relation to this type of
response. Lastly, ecosystem-based adaptation refers to benefits based on the restoration of
ecosystems. This type of adaptation provides a range of benefits, like flood protection, enhancing
coastal fishing productivity, and improving water quality, but can only go into effect when
environmental conditions are appropriate for the specific ecosystem. According to the report,
studies show that marshes and mangroves can reduce surge-related flood damages by less than
15% annually. This specific type of measure requires more land than other responses, which is an
issue for some areas with land no longer being available in affected areas along coasts.
Concluding, the source references the governance challenges, planning, and community-based
experiences involved in responding to sea level rise. Challenges include little attention on
specifically sea level rising governance, uncertainty about the timeliness of sea level rise for the
future, and coordination, equity, social vulnerability, and complexity issues. There are also various
aspects of planning involved, such as land-use planning, public participation, and conflict
resolution. Despite the large amounts of complexity involved in responding to sea level rises,
initiatives have been taken in both Canadian Arctic coasts and Hawkes Bay in New Zealand. For
example, there was a hazard strategy in New Zealand in resilience to Nature’s Challenges National
Science Challenge (“The Living Edge” research project).
This source includes detailed information in regards to what type of factors, methods, and
solutions are involved to address the rising sea levels across nation to nation. There is vast
amounts of supplementary information, as well as a list of references used prior to writing the
report. Additionally, there are several statistical pieces of information with included citations from
several authors throughout the source. Several graphs and visuals are provided, illustrating the
physical effects of sea level rise based on the different responses and methods towards preventing
it.
Pannett, R. (2023, February 15). Rising seas risk climate migration on 'biblical scale,' says U.N. chief. The
Washington Post.
https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/2023/02/15/un-sea-levels-rising-climate-m
igration/
This newspaper article brings awareness as to how climate displacement has significantly
increased throughout recent years due to worsening climate conditions, such as sea level rise and
melting ice, and lack of recognition surrounding the issue. First, the author mentions how Antonio
Guterres, a UN Secretary General, stated that 900 million people live in low-lying coastal areas.
The article notes how the number of people struggling with current climate conditions will
increase in the future, leading to chaos and disputes over both land and maritime technology in
larger cities around the world. According to the World Meteorological Organization, global sea
levels have risen faster on average since 1900 compared to any other century in the past 3,000
years. Following this, the author ties sea levels rising with how climate in the Arctic is suffering as
 well. Since 1970, the Arctic has been losing 20,000 square miles of ice per year, shown in a new
report. Oceans with rising temperatures are cutting into West Antarctic’s Thwaites Glacier and
melting glaciers in the Himalayas, which is stated to be making flooding worse in Pakistan. The
author concludes the article by stating how recent issues, such as the COVID pandemic and the
Russia-Ukraine situation, has lessened the attention of climate issues and displacement among
climate refugees.
This source observed recent studies and statistics reflecting on how climate migration has
significantly increased in recent years. Throughout the article, several links are embedded to
detailed descriptions of labs/studies on the issue. This gives readers a broader viewpoint of the
problem, as it includes more than one piece of statistical evidence relating to the effects of global
warming. Additionally, the author of the article, Rachel Pannett, is a journalist who has covered
the journeys of Myanmar Rohingya refugees and Afghan migrants struggling through
displacement. Having a larger background on the topic of climate refugees emphasizes the
importance of helping displaced people and the situation our world, especially theirs, has been
facing for decades.
Pons, D. (2021, February 18). Climate extremes, food insecurity, and migration in Central America: A
complicated nexus. Migration Policy Institute.
https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/climate-food-insecurity-migration-central-america-guatem
ala
This research report emphasized the problems countries in Central America are facing
relating to migration, such as food insecurity and poverty. These issues are stated to be happening
because of climate change, changing US immigration policies, violence, and insecurity. The author
starts out with stating how droughts that have occured in the Central American dry corridor, which
extends from Panama to southern Mexico, have created losses of US $10 billion. Financial aid has
been limited, leading to increasing food insecurity throughout the region. According to the
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) and the Climate Policy Institute, only
1.7% of climate finance reached smallholder agriculturalists in developing countries in 2017 and
2018. Next, the author goes on to mention how the droughts and flooding after Hurricanes Eta and
Iota from 2014-2016 impacted food security and encouraged migration in El Salvador, Guatemala,
and Honduras. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and World Food
Program (WFP), more than 70% of these countries adopted emergency methods (like selling their
land) and 8% of families in the dry corridor planned to migrate due to the severe conditions in
2019. Following this, the author goes on to highlight the problems farmers are facing in
correlation to poverty and food insecurity. According to the source, Guatemalan farmers in
poverty are living on less than US $1.90 each day. Most farmers are producing their own food,
which they are paying for through unskilled labor on coffee farms, and collect additional food
from natural sources in the area. However, low coffee prices and increasing production costs have
caused reduction in unskilled labor, which is what several farmers are relying on for money and
food. Additionally, cropland is being affected by droughts and excessive rainfall patterns, as well
as several natural resources obtained by fishing and forests are diminishing quickly. Lastly, the
author states how climate services, which are strategies developed that use climate information to
help with decision making in communities, could help these countries by helping farmers adapt to
changing conditions, planning which seeds to plant when preparing for weather patterns, and
upgrading agricultural systems. For example, NextGen is a forecasting system that creates regional
climate forecasts, which helps with decision making processes in Guatemala. However, he
highlights how both climate services and financial aid need to be paired together to help smaller
countries benefit from the proposed solutions in order for them to be effective.
 This source includes a narrative on how migration is steadily increasing due to a variety of
problems, but mainly climate change related effects. This source provided several visuals, such as
an image of the Dry Corridor in Central America and a diagram of pathways that farmers are
following as a result of issues of food insecurity. At the bottom of the report, there is a list of
sources the author used to construct and write the report. Additionally, the author, Diego Pons, is
stated to be an applied climatologist who researches environmental actions between humans and
nature, as well as suggestions for policy and development strategies.
Sky News. (2022, February 10). President of Palau warns that small island nations are at real risk of
vanishing [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bJYrrAhzRT8
This video provides viewers with a perspective on how climate change is impacting the
country of Palau, expressed by the president. The overall concern shown is the rising sea levels
and the impacts this is hammering onto the region. Surangel Whipps Jr, the president, first talks
about the effects that the problem is having on the nation. The country was not originally in the
typhoon belt, which is an area where typhoons typically pass through, but now is because of
climate change disruption. There have been greater frequencies of storms and rising sea levels
because of this, which have destroyed roads/homes, high tides, and destruction to taro swamps.
Taro swamps are crops that are major food sources for the country, which is decreasing the amount
of food available. Warming seas have caused reef habitats to be affected by core bleaching,
leading to reductions in fish stock as well. He further explains how communities have been
coming together to try and prevent more destruction to their homes. They have formed the
Protected Area Network, which are reserved areas protecting the biodiversity and coral reefs, as
well as developing aquaculture to protect biodiversity and healthy food sources. However, he also
mentions how there needs to be more encouragement to wealthier and larger countries to take
bigger steps into combating the climate crisis. Increased work in marine pollution, protecting seas,
and managing oceans through future conferences about climate change is suggested, like COP26
(26th United Nations Climate Change conference). Surangel Whipps Jr has joined the commission
of small island nations on climate change and international law because he believes that smaller
nations are not being taken care of fast enough to keep up with larger nations. He ends the
interview by stating how he has hope for his country and other countries like his for changes to be
made against the effects of climate change.
This source consisted of an interview between a reporter from Sky News and the president
of Palau, Surangel Whipps Jr, which made viewers informed on actions that have already been
taken to fight against climate change, like COP26, and a perspective on future intentions for
several countries, specifically smaller ones like Palau. The president emphasized how smaller
nations need to be seen and recognized more in meetings and conferences that they attend, as
those events are some of the only times they can make strong awareness about their country’s
struggles to other countries.
Smith, D. (2007). Climate change in the arctic: An inuit reality. Green Our World!, XLIV(2).
https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/climate-change-arctic-inuit-reality
This journal article provides an overview of challenges Inuit communities, like those in the
Arctic, are experiencing from the increasing effects of climate change. The source notes on how
160,000 Inuit have already been experiencing the effects of climate change in their countries for
around 20 years. After offering statistics, the author mentions how several parts of the Arctic are
being used for industrial production for areas in the South. For instance, Northern Canada is the
world’s largest producer of gem diamonds. The journal article also talks about a video shown at
the 2000 Conference of the Parties shown to the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change, which included a documentation of environmental changes in the Beaufort Sea
region. Reported changes were melting permafrost, beach slumping, lake erosions, new species of
 birds, increased snowfalls, decline in the lemming population, etc. These changes were reported in
several countries, such as Greenland, Alaska, Northern Russia, and more. Following this, eight
Arctic states launched the Arctic Climate Impact Assessment in 2000, which involved more than
300 scientists from 15 countries and Arctic indigenous people. They concluded that sea ice in the
Arctic is predicted to disappear in the summer by the mid-end of the century and a correlation
between the Arctic and some of North America’s Great Lakes. At the end of the journal article, the
author mentions how other writers predict that mass population movements will be a future result
of climate change in tropical regions, but not in the Arctic. However, Inuit and Arctic indigenous
people are continuing to try and spread awareness for reducing the effects of climate change that
are seen in their homelands.
This source emphasizes the growing dangers of climate change that are impacting Inuit
areas, giving a new perspective on the matter. The concern that Inuits have over this issue is very
strong due to how many problems they have already been facing for several years prior. Duane
Smith, the author of the source, is stated to be the president and vice president of an Inuit council
and organization. Advocating for indigenous rights, the author also provides a unique perspective
on the matter when stating how the changes happening to his region in the Arctic are also
happening in other Inuit areas around the world.
Tower, A. (2023, April 5). Amali tower: What climate justice takes (Interview by E. Hardy). Guernica.
https://www.guernicamag.com/amali-tower-what-climate-justice-takes/
This magazine interview was conducted between Amali Tower and Emily Hardy, where
Towers provides her background knowledge and opinion on the topic of climate refugees
regarding how existing refugee laws lack the legal framework needed to protect these millions of
people. She starts out by stating how there is no legal term or definition for “climate refugee” or
“migrant,” showing that this is a forced movement that the migrants are being forced to do, not
choosing. However, more collaborative agreements are being made between states and continents
through the human rights community surrounding the issue. In a case in New Zealand, the United
Nations Human Rights Commision discovered that people returning to face dangerous climate
change effects to their own country would be a human rights violation. In addition, the
International Court of Justice was sought out by the United Nations to advise on their own opinion
concerning if people have a right to be protected from climate change. This court advisement
brought more significance and awareness to the situation because the International Court of Justice
is the world’s highest court. Further into the interview, Tower notes on what she observed when
visiting areas where the effects of climate change are very profound. The Central American Dry
Corridor has experienced 6-8 years of drought, where the region has a high rural population of
indigenous groups and have faced abuse surrounding gross human rights. Towers states how she
visited Tijuana, where she met a woman trying to leave Guatemala to go to the United States, but
the woman was unable to get in. The woman previously lost her entire family due to an extreme
drought and two major hurricanes, leaving her alone and under threat of gangs in gender-based
violence. Towers also said how she talked to people from the shrinking Lake Chad Basin, who are
seeking displacement as solutions because of the recent conflict with warfare and little water
accessibility. People in this area had already been dealing with food shortages and displacement
for up to 30 years. Furthermore, Towers talks about how different policies throughout the world
concerning migration tend to divide the Global North and Global South. Countries have already
accepted that even with enough money to adapt to the effects of climate change, there is still loss
and damages that are irreversible due to pressures from developing countries. There is major fear
from several communities that wealthy nations will avoid responsibility and just “throw money at
the problem”. There are limited options for climate refugees to turn to, which Towers states
inflicts more of the issue.
 This source highlights the current issues surrounding the perspectives on climate refugees,
as recent advancements for climate refugees are generally seen as problematic. This is making it
extremely difficult for things to advance and people to quickly help the affected areas, despite the
amount of money provided. At the bottom of the source, it notes that the person interviewed,
Amali Tower, is noted for working globally for several refugee programs, as well as being the
founder and executive director of Climate Refugees. Climate Refugees is an independent nonprofit
organization dedicated to securing rights and bringing awareness to people being displaced by the
effects left by climate change.
Trent, J. (2023, July 20). How will climate change affect Arctic animals? – survival challenges. Before the
flood. https://www.beforetheflood.com/climate-change-affecting-arctic-animals/
This blog brings attention to recent rapid warming in the Arctic, which is causing rising
temperatures, shrinking sea ice, melting glaciers, and thawing permafrost. Many animals native to
the Arctic are being affected, which the author talks about throughout. First, the author points out
how polar bears depend on sea ice for matters such as hunting, breeding, and migrating. However,
melting permafrost is making it hard for them to find food due to less availability of hunting
grounds. Their breeding habits are also being affected, as melting ice is making dens collapse,
which is where most mother bears give birth and nurse their young. Next, the author talks about
how several species of arctic birds travel to the Arctic to find more resources for food and the lack
of predators in the area. But, migration schedules and routes for the birds are changing, due to
irregular wind patterns, sea ice conditions, and food availability. Following this, the author
emphasizes the problems walruses and seals are facing. Both animals depend on the Arctic ice for
resting, breeding, and escaping from predators. They are having a harder time finding food
because of the melting ice causing changes in distribution and abundance factors. For example,
walruses rely on benthic invertebrates to eat, which are becoming increasingly scarce and limited.
Following this, the author highlights how foxes are having to change their hunting and adaptation
strategies due to the decreased availability of their prey. Additionally, they are becoming more
visible to predators and prey because of the snow melting, as they use camouflage with their white
fur to blend in with the environment around them. Lemmings are also mentioned, as the insulating
snowpack, which they use to make tunnels and nests for protection, is being disrupted due to
warmer temperatures and changes in snowfall patterns. The author emphasizes how a decrease in
lemmings can change the Arctic food web significantly, as they are a primary source of food for
many predators in the environment. Lastly, the author focuses on marine wildlife, such as fish and
whales, being affected by ocean acidification and changing migration patterns due to the rising
temperatures in the waters. The source ends with mentioning how a significant problem of the
climate change effects in the Arctic are due to human activities, as well as stating conservation
initiatives hoped to be implemented in the future.
This source emphasizes how a majority of animal populations are facing problems in the
Arctic, such as migration shifts in the Arctic life cycle and melting of the ice. This is placing
extreme difficulties in the environment, as increasing worry over extinction and lessened
populations is happening throughout Inuit communities. The source has a short FAQ section at the
bottom of it, which answers frequent questions asked about the current situation in the Arctic.
Additionally, the blog has an embedded video for audiences to watch that offer a similar
perspective of the dangers happening due the Arctic communities, affecting both humans and
animals.
United Nations Environment Programme. (n.d.). About loss and damage.
https://www.unep.org/topics/climate-action/loss-and-damage/about-loss-and-damage#:~:text=A%
202023%20analysis%20found%20that,around%20%2416%20million%20per%20hour
 This webpage provides information to readers on what loss and damages mean in terms of
climate change, and what the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has and is
currently doing to support countries struggling with the effects of climate change. First, the source
defines loss and damages as profound effects that climate change has induced negatively, despite
migration and adaptation efforts. According to a 2023 analysis, the world suffered from at least
$2.8 trillion in losses in damages from climate change. The term was recognized at Cop19 (19th
Conference of the Parties) in 2013, where Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage
was established. Later in 2022 at Cop27, a loss and damage fund was established to provide
financial assistance to climate vulnerable countries, showing the rapid effectiveness and attention
growing around climate change. Additionally, the term focuses more on the unavoidable and
irreversible effects of climate change impacts. Scientific evidence shows that loss and damage is
not being fully comprehended by current migration patterns, especially in smaller, more
vulnerable countries. The source goes on to explain the difference between economic and
non-economic losses and damages. Economic loss and damages are referred to as negative impacts
where costs are accessible (damage to infrastructure or reduced crop yields). However,
non-economic losses and damages are negative impacts harder to measure financially (loss of
culture, displacement, and way of living). The source concludes with explaining what UNEP
intends to do in the future in terms of studying the topic of climate change. So far, UNEP has
grown a climate adaptation portfolio of over 75 projects in over 50 countries. Additionally, UNEP
helps countries take low-emissions strategies through the Six Sector Solutions, which are targeted
towards reducing greenhouse gas emissions to limit global warming to 1.5 degree above
pre-industrial temperatures. UNEP argues for greater funds for countries and aids countries in
accessing adaptation finance, as well as continuing to research solutions proposed to decrease the
amount of loss and damages.
This source highlights the issue of losses and damages and what UNEP is currently doing
to help advocate attention towards people affected by climate change around the world. UNEP
promotes learning and accountability through research taken on topics surrounding the climate
crisis. The organization has been established since 1972 and has continued to be a strong advocate
for addressing the environment through their mission to improve quality of life for future
generations to come. UNEP collaborates with the United Nations Board of Auditors, the Office of
Internal Oversight Services and other oversight mechanisms that provide expert advice and
recommendations for improved efficiency and effectiveness relating to regulations regarding the
issue.
World Weather Attribution. (n.d.). [Review Vulnerability and high temperatures exacerbate impacts of
ongoing drought in Central South America]. Vulnerability and High Temperatures Exacerbate
Impacts of Ongoing Drought in Central South America.
https://www.worldweatherattribution.org/vulnerability-and-high-temperatures-exacerbate-impacts-
of-ongoing-drought-in-central-south-america/
This review summarized how droughts have been a main concern in Central America and
how scientists from several different countries collaborated together to focus on the impacts and
effects of this issue through published peer-reviewed methods. Countries in this region have been
experiencing the lowest rainfall in 35 years, with record breaking heat waves as well. Researchers
focused on how much human-induced climate change has affected the increasing drought concerns
in countries impacted and analyzed how climate change has affected rainfall patterns in affected
areas. Additionally, they evaluated the effect of temperature and how climate change has
influenced evapotranspiration, which has increased the worsening of the droughts. The scientists
overall findings included how droughts have caused severe impacts on agriculture, which has
become a problem alongside already increasing inflation and weakening local currencies. More
than 75,000 people in Uruguay are struggling with lack of resources, such as both drinkable water
and water needed for crops/agriculture. They also inferred that rainfall deficiency is mainly due to
La Nina, which causes the jet stream to move northward and weaken areas in the eastern Pacific.
However, results showed that increases in temperature is partly responsible for the increase in
rainfall, but does not lead to a significant climate change signal in effective precipitation. The
analysis of the report concluded with emphasizing plans to reduce vulnerability to drought,
especially in Central America. Solutions such as improving water efficiency and management,
using seasonal forecasts to monitor incoming droughts, and insurance tools to help farmers get
through dry years are all suggested to take into action.
This source highlighted a study that was conducted over the problems droughts are causing
in impacted regions, mostly being in Central America. The study was conducted in early February
of 2023 and references statistical data that has been collected recently in relevant correlation to the
time period of these droughts. World Weather Attribution consists of studies, such as this one, that
use peer reviews and assessments that are proven to be scientifically reliable for readers to
understand and use. Studies that have been peer reviewed include a link to an academic paper that
is located on the sidebar of the webpage.