HYBRIDIZATION

Atomic orbitals of same or nearly same energy intermix to give new

orbital of exactly same energy is called hybridization.
Salient feature of hybridization
I. The orbitals taking part in hybridization must have only a
slightly difference energy.
II. Both half-filled and completed filled orbitals can takes part in
hybridization
III. The hybrid orbitals have equivalent energy and identical
shape.
IV. The hybrid orbitals can form stronger bond as compared to the
pure atomic orbitals because they can overlap to grater extent
V. The hybrid orbital has electron density concentrated on one
side of the nucleus i.e. it has one lobe relatively larger than
other.
Types of hybridization
I. SP- hybridization
II. SP2-hybridization
III. SP3-hybridization
1. SP-Hybridization:
• The process in which one S-atomic orbital goes on intermixing
with one P-atomic orbital to produce two equivalent hybrid
orbital is known as sp-hybridization.
• The newly formed orbitals are known as sp hybridized orbitals.
• It produces linear molecules at a 180° angle.
• It entails combining one ‘s’ orbital and one ‘p’ orbital of equal
energy to produce a new hybrid orbital known as sp hybridized
orbital.
• Each sp hybridized orbital contains the same amount of s and p
characters.
• All beryllium compounds, such as BeF2, BeH2, and BeCl2, are
examples.
2. SP2-hydridization:
• The process of intermixing of one S-atomic orbital with two P-
atomic orbital of nearly equal energy to produce equivalent
hybrid orbital is known as sp2-hybridization.
• All three hybrid orbitals remain in the same plane and form a
120° angle with one another.
• Each hybrid orbital formed has a 33.33 % and a 66.66 % ‘p’
character
• BF3 and ethene are two examples.

3. SP3-hybridization
• When one ‘s’ orbital and three ‘p’ orbitals from the same shell
of an atom combine to form four new equivalent orbitals, the
hybridization is known as tetrahedral hybridization or sp3. The
newly formed orbitals are known as sp3 hybrid orbitals.
• The sp3 hybrid orbitals form a 109.28-degree angle.
• Each hybrid orbital has a 25% s character and a 75% p
character.
• Ethane and methane are two examples.

BOND CHARACTER
1. Bond length: bond length is the equilibrium distance between
the two nuclei of two atoms that are bonded to each other.
Factors affecting bond length
• As Size of atom: as the size of atom increases, the bond
length becomes longer. F-F < Cl-Cl < Br-Br < I-I. this is due
to increase in size of F < Cl < Br < I.
• Electronegativity difference: Grater the electronegativity
difference in the bonding atoms, grater the polarity of the
bond. This causes the bonding atoms closer to each other
and hence bond length decreases. H-F < H-Cl < H-Br < H-I,
This is due to the decrease in electronegativity difference
from HF to HI
• Bond multiplicity: the increase in bond multiplicity causes
bonding atoms to come closer and hence bond length
decreases.
C-C > C=C > C≡C
1.54A0 1.33A0 1.20A0
2. Dipole moment:
• In case of polar molecules, due to difference in
electronegativity between combining atoms, the shared pair
 of electrons will shifted towards the more electronegative
atom and acquires a partial negative charge on that end and
develops partial positive charge on the other end. Such
oppositely charged centres possess electric dipole and this
degree of polarity is expressed in terms of dipole moment.
• It is define as the product of magnitude of the charge
developed on any atom and distance separation between the
charges. It is represented by μ.
• Dipole moment = charge (q) x distance of separation (d)

• It is clear that when a bond is formed between atoms of

different elements, the partial charges are developed
between participating atoms. In such case q will be non-zero
and thus μ will be positive and bond is called polar.
Bond H-H C-O O-H Cl-Cl
μ 0D >0D >0D 0D
Type of bond Non-polar polar polar Non-polar
Unit of dipole moment
• The unit of dipole moment is Debye (D).
• 1D = 1.0x10-18 esu-cm

DIPOLE MOMENT OF SOME COVALENT MOLECULES

1. In completely symmetrical molecule (eg. BCl3, CO2, C6H6, CCl4,
CH4, etc.), same bonds are distributed in equal angles. Therefore,
the resultant dipole moment of bond is zero. i.e., μmolecule = 0. Such
molecule are non-polar molecules. Examples;
a) CO2: it has two effective bonded pairs across C. therefore,
its molecule is linear in shape. Both C=O bonds are polar.
However, resultant dipole moment in CO2 molecule is zero.
So, CO2 has two polar bonds but CO2 molecule is non-polar.
 b) BCl3: there are three effective electron pairs around central
B atom. Therefore, BCl3 molecule is trigonal plannar. Each
B-Cl bond is a polar. However, all these bonds are directed
in such a way that they are in equal bond angles, the
resultant dipole moment is zero. Therefore, each B-Cl bond
is polar but BCl3 molecule is non polar.

2. If a molecule is unsymmetrical, the resultant dipole moment of a

molecule can-not be zero. Such molecules are called polar
molecules. Some examples;
a) H2O: It has bent or angular geometry with a bond angle of
104.50 (which is less than predicted bond angle of 109.50).
since, two O-H bonds are not symmetrically oriented, and the
resultant dipole moment cannot be zero. Therefore, H2O
molecule is polar having two polar O-H bonds with
bent/angular geometry. Hence, molecule is polar.
APPLICATION OF DIPOLE MOMENT
1. Determination of polarity of bond
2. Calculation of percentage ionic character
For example: In HCl bond,
Observed dipole moment (μobs) = 1.07D
H-Cl bond length (d) = 1.275x10-10 m
Charge on an electron (q) = 1.602x10-19C
Now, μionic = q x d
= 1.275x10-10x1.602x10-19
=6.12D
!"#$
Percentage of ionic character = x100
!%"&%'
(.*+
= x100
,.(-
= 17%
3. Determination of shape of molecule: The symmetrical molecule
possesses zero dipole moment while unsymmetrical molecule
possesses dipole moment. For example, BF3, CH4, CCl4 is zero
while the dipole moment of H2O, H2S and NH3 is 1.84D, 0.95D
and 1.50D, respectively.

HYDROGEN BONDING AND ITS APPLICATION

• The attractive force between a hydrogen atom to a highly
electronegative atom N, O and F is called Hydrogen bond.
• The electrostatic force of attraction between positively charged
hydrogen atom of one molecule to the electronegatively
charged atom of same or different neighbouring molecule is
called hydrogen bond.
• It is represented by dotted lines (……).
• For example
1. In HF molecules,
 2. In NH3 molecules,

TYPES OF HYDROGEN BOND

There are two types of hydrogen bonds
1. Intermolecular hydrogen bond
• The hydrogen bond formed between two molecule of same or
different compounds is called intermolecular hydrogen bond.
• It usually increases the melting point, boiling point, solubility
and viscosity.
• Example, intermolecular hydrogen bonding between different
molecule

• intermolecular hydrogen bonding between same molecule

2. Intramolecular hydrogen bond

• The hydrogen bond formed between the hydrogen of one
functional group with adjacent functional group within the
same molecule is called intramolecular hydrogen bond.
• It results in the decrease in size of molecules.
• Example, intramolecular hydrogen bonding,
 Hydrogen bonding in water and ice
• The phenomenon of hydrogen bonding is responsible for the
peculiar behaviour of water. The behaviour of water is
explained as,
i. Ice is lighter than water:
• X-ray studies have shown that in ice each oxygen atom is linked
to four H-atoms, two by covalent bonds and two by H- bonds.
The oxygen atoms of water molecules are located at the corners
of tetrahedron. In the solid state, the structure of ice extends in
three dimensions.
• The hydrogen bond between hydrogen and oxygen is longer
than its covalent bond and the molecules of H2O, are not closely
packed. There are vacant spaces present in the ice crystal that
gives rise to open cage like structure. Thus, it possess larger
volume for the given mass of water so density decreases. Hence
ice floats in water.

ii. Water has maximum density at 4°C:

• At 0°C, there is sufficient Hydrogen bonding present in water
molecule of ice. On increasing temperature to 4°C, the
hydrogen bond gets collapsed and the volume of water
molecule decreases and hence water has maximum density at
4°C. Beyond this temperature, the kinetic energy of molecule
increases so expansion takes place. This again increases the
volume, so density decreases above 4°C.