GRADE SEPERATED STRUCTURES

INTRODUCTION:
Intersection is an area shared by two or more roads. This area is designated for the vehicles to
turn to different directions to reach their desired destinations. Its main function is to guide vehicles to
their respective directions. Traffic intersections are complex locations on any highway.
This is because vehicles moving in different direction wan to occupy same space at the same
time. In addition, the pedestrians also seek same space for crossing. Drivers have to make split second
decision at an intersection by considering his route, intersection geometry, speed and direction of other
vehicles etc. A small error in judgment can cause severe accidents. It also causes delay and it depends on
type, geometry, and type of control. Overall traffic flow depends on the performance of the intersections.
It also affects the capacity of the road. Therefore, both from the accident perspective and the
capacity perspective, the study of intersections very important for the traffic engineers especially in the
case of urban scenario.
Traffic Studies:
Appropriate levels of traffic analysis are necessary for decision making and design on
interchanges. This is the case regardless of the type of work (new construction or upgrading/modifying
existing facilities). Traffic studies should be requested as early in the development of the design as
possible, and the appropriate level of analysis detail determined at that time. Typical requests for analysis
include peak hour volumes, turning movements, capacity (Volume/Capacity ratios), storage lengths and
levels of service. Analysis for weaving sections, storage lengths, and spacing should also be done as
needed. Analysis shall be considered on the basis of a 20-year design life after construction of the project.
Ramp Design
Well planned and designed ramps are essential to the proper functioning of interchanges, which
in turn are a key feature of well planned and designed access controlled highways. The principal thing to
keep in mind when designing ramps is the concept of functional transitions. Ramps are the transition
roadway between high speed, free flowing traffic and the local road system, and need to accommodate the
various things drivers are dealing with at that point. Designs that require drivers to deal with too much
information or maneuvering in a short time span will often have operational and safety problems.
Ramps consist of three discrete elements:
1. The Speed Change Area (including the gores).
2. The Main Transition Area (sometimes called the “Main Curve”, although it may be on tangent
alignment).
3. The Terminal Area – which is in some ways an extension of the intersection with the crossroad.

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 Each discrete piece of the ramp has design features intended to accommodate typical things
drivers are dealing with in that area. In cases where ramps connect two freeways in a System, the
Terminal Area is typically a second Speed Change Area. When the HDM makes reference to Design
Speed on ramps, it is referring to the Main Transition Area.

Discrete Areas of A Typical Ramp

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 Fig: Different Forms of RAMPS
Grade Separation
The separations of road, rail or other traffic so that crossing movements which would otherwise
conflict are effected at different elevations. (Also refer to “underpass” and “overpass”).
There are three types of roadway intersections:
 Intersections at-grade,
 Grade separations without ramps, and
 Interchanges.
Grade separation is a method developed to avoid the disruption of traffic flow at intersections.
Grade separation is adopted at junctions where two or more surface transport axes cross with each other.
Different types of grade separation structures, advantages and disadvantages of grade separation are
discussed below.
Types of Grade Separation
Grade separation is generally achieved by my means of a vertical level. For example, if two roads are
intersecting at one point on a ground level, then grade separation is achieved by raising or lowering the
profile of one of the roads with respect to ground level. So, the traffic from both roads will never meet
and safety aspect stays intact.
Grade separation can be achieved by two types of intersections and they are :
1. Overpass
2. Underpass

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1. Overpass
When the vertical profile of one highway is raised with the help of embankments and over-bridge
arrangement to eliminate intersection with another highway on ground level, then it is said to be overpass.

Fig: Highway Overpass

2. Underpass
Similarly, when the vertical profile of one highway is lowered with respect to ground level in the form
of tunnel to avoid intersection with another highway then it is said to be underpass.

Fig: Highway Underpass

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Interchanges
Interchanges require major investments and may have significant impact on the natural and built
environments. They are the key elements of well functioning access controlled facilities. The decision to
use an interchange as a transportation solution requires careful and complete study, including traffic
analysis, geometric design, and environmental impacts.
Interchanges are combinations of ramps and grade separations designed as a system of
interconnecting roadways to separate the turning and through movements at the junction of two or more
roads. They provide the greatest efficiency, safety and capacity for handling large volumes of traffic in
these situations.
To work properly, an interchange needs to fit into the context of the roadway system, the
surrounding area, and be supported by an adequate network of local facilities. Existing interchanges
typically have operational and safety issues to consider. Common problem area at interchanges include:
close spacing to adjacent interchanges, inadequate speed change areas, inadequate storage for queued
traffic, crossroads that have deficient capacity, tight geometry that restricts sight lines or operations, and
weaving areas on the mainline.
Grade separation eliminates intersection of traffic flow at junctions but it is incomplete without
provision for interchanges. An interchange facilitates the change of direction of traffic from one highway
to another highway at intersections.
The type of interchange will be influenced by a range of factors including:
 Road classification
 Volume, character and composition of traffic
 Operating speed of the roads in question
 Surrounding land use
 Physical constraints
 Environmental constraints and
 Available funding.

Other factors
A grade separation or interchange may be required where:
 Local roads and streets cannot feasibly be terminated outside the limits of a Motorway
 Access to areas not served by frontage roads or other means has to be provided
 A motorway crosses a railway
 There are large concentrations of pedestrians and/or cyclists; major roads are crossed by
bikeways and pedestrian crossings;

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  Access to public transport stations within the confines of a major road is required;
 It is desirable to separate conflict points between movements having high relative speeds;
and
 Future land development will generate a sufficiently high level of traffic needing to
access the major road.
Access control
Control of access in the vicinity of interchanges may be required to ensure operational efficiency
of the interchange and the ramp terminals with the local road system. Factors to be considered include:
 Existing and future development in the vicinity of the interchange;
 What alternative access arrangements are available/possible;
 Costs involved in prohibiting abutting access;
 Intersection design at the ramp terminals;
 Provision for pedestrians/cyclists; and
 Status of the road involved (declared or otherwise).
 Complete control
Table 1: Freeway and Non-Freeway Interchange Spacing

Interchange ramps at grade separations can be provided in three different types and they are:
 Direct interchange
 Semi-direct interchange
 Indirect interchange
In the case of direct interchange, the vehicle is diverged into the right side and merged from the right
while in case of semi-direct interchange, the vehicle is diverged to its left side and merged from right. In
case of indirect interchange, vehicle is diverged to its left and merged from left. All these three are shown
in image below.

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 .
Fig 3: Types of Interchange Ramps
Different types of interchanges at grade separated intersections are as follows:
1) Diamond Interchange
2) Trumpet Interchange
3) Rotary Interchange
4) Partial Cloverleaf Interchange
5) Cloverleaf Interchange
Diamond Interchange
Diamond interchanges are used where two highways cross with each other. It contains 4 legs of direct
interchange ramps in 4 quadrants of the junctions as shown in the image below.

Fig: Diamond Interchange

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Trumpet Interchange
Trumpet interchanges are constructed where one highway terminates at another highway as
shown in the figure. It contains three legs at the end, two of them are direct interchange ramps and
another one is loop ramp which is a combination of semi-direct and indirect interchange ramps. This is
also called as a three-leg interchange.

Fig 5: Trumpet Interchange

Cloverleaf Interchange
Cloverleaf interchanges contain 4–legs and eight ramps. In each quadrant, one direct interchange
ramp and one indirect interchange ramp is provided as shown in the figure. This type of
interchange fulfills all the requirements for complete separation of traffic. Cloverleaf interchanges are
used at intersections where two major highways cross each other.

Fig 6: Cloverleaf Interchange

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Partial Cloverleaf Interchange
Partial cloverleaf interchange is the modification of cloverleaf interchange. It also contains 4 legs but with
fewer loop ramps than cloverleaf interchange as shown below.

Fig 7: Partial Cloverleaf Interchange

Rotary Interchange
Rotary interchange is provided at circular junctions where traffic is permitted to flow in one direction
around Central Island and one road axis is raised above the rotary intersection to allow grade separation.

Fig 8: Rotary Interchange

Stack Interchange
Stack interchange also called as directional or free flow interchange, which contains multiple levels of
grade separations as shown in the figure.

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 Fig 9: Stack Interchange
Advantages of Grade Separation
o Grade separation eliminates the stopping of vehicles while crossing the roads.
o It provides safety and reduces the risk of accidents.
o Speed-limits for grade-separated roads are generally higher hence, high speeds can be maintained at
intersections which results in saving of travel time.
o Grade separation can be provide for all likely angles of any two intersecting roads.
Disadvantages of Grade Separation
o Grade separation and interchange construction require a lot of money and land.
o Construction and design of grade separations and interchanges is complicated and requires skilled
professionals.
Cloverleaf, stack interchange types may tender confusion for road users while interchanging roads.
Hence, the driver should know the direction of each interchange ramp.
The road intersections where all the roads join or cross at different level by providing a bridge
(over bridge or under pass), is called grade separated intersection.
The various grade separated intersection are classified into the following two categories.
1. Over passes
2. Under passes
Over Passes
when the major Highway is taken above by rising its profile above the general ground level by
embankment and an over bridge across another highway, it is called and over-pass.Clover leaf pattern fly-
over ,trumpet type fly-over are the example of over-passes.

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Under Passes
when the highway is taken by it depressing it below the ground level to cross another road by means of
another bridge, it is called an under pass.
Advantage of Grade Separator
 Grade separator provides maximum facility to the crossing traffic and avoids accident while
crossing.
 They provide increased safety for turning traffic. By introducing indirect interchange ramp ,even
right turn movements can be made quite easy and safe.
 Grade separation is an essential part of controlled access highway like expressway.
 It is possible to adopt grade separation for all likely angles and layout of intersecting roads.
 Stage construction of additional ramps is possible after the grade separation structure between
main roads is construction.
 The traffic capacity is increased.
Disadvantage of Grade Separator
 The construction cost is very high.
 Construction of grade separator is costly, difficult and undesirable where there is limited right of
way or where the topography is not favorable.
 In flat or plain terrains, grade separation may introduce undesirable crests and sags in the vertical

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Conflicts at an intersection
Conflicts at an intersection are different for different types of intersection. Consider a typical
four-legged intersection as shown in figure. The numbers of conflicts for competing through movements
are 4, while competing right turn and through movements are 8. The conflicts between right turn traffics
are 4, and between left turn and merging traffic is 4. The conflicts created by pedestrians will be 8 taking
into account all the four approaches. Diverging traffic also produces about 4 conflicts. Therefore, a typical
four legged intersection has about 32 different types of conflicts. This is shown in figure 1

Figure 1: Conflicts at intersection

The essence of the intersection control is to resolve these conflicts at the intersection for the safe
and efficient movement of both vehicular traffic and pedestrians. Two methods of intersection controls
are there: time sharing and space sharing. The type of intersection control that has to be adopted depends
on the traffic volume, road geometry, cost involved, importance of the road etc..
Levels of intersection control
The control of an intersection can be exercised at different levels. They can be either passive
control, semi control, or active control. In passive control, there is no explicit control on the driver . In
semi control, some amount of control on the driver is there from the traffic agency. Active control means
the movement of the traffic is fully controlled by the traffic agency and the drivers cannot simply
maneuver the intersection according to his choice.
1) Passive control
When the volume of traffic is less, no explicit control is required. Here the road users are required
to obey the basic rules of the road. Passive control like traffic signs, road markings etc. are used to

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complement the intersection control. Some of the intersection control that are classified under passive
control are as follows:
 No control:
If the traffic coming to an intersection is low, then by applying the basic rules of the road
like driver on the left side of the road must yield and that through movements will have priority
than turning movements. The driver is expected to obey these basic rules of the road.
 Traffic signs:
With the help of warning signs, guide signs etc. it is able to provide some level of control
at an intersection. Give way control, two-way stop control, and all-way stop control are some
examples. The GIVE WAY control requires the driver in the minor road to slow down to a
minimum speed and allow the vehicle on the major road to proceed. Two way stop control
requires the vehicle drivers on the minor streets should see that the conflicts are avoided. Finally
an all-way stop control is usually used when it is difficult to differentiate between the major and
minor roads in an intersection. In such a case, STOP sign is placed on all the approaches to the
intersection and the driver on all the approaches are required to stop the vehicle. The vehicle at
the right side will get priority over the left approach. The traffic control at 'at-grade' intersection
may be uncontrolled in cases of low traffic. Here the road users are required to obey the basic
rules of the road. Passive control like traffic signs, road markings etc. are used to complement the
intersection control.
 Traffic signs plus marking:
In addition to the traffic signs, road markings also complement the traffic control at
intersections. Some of the examples include stop line marking, yield lines, arrow marking etc.
2) Semi Control
In semi control or partial control, the drivers are gently guided to avoid conflicts. Channelization
and traffic rotaries are two examples of this.
 Channelization:
The traffic is separated to flow through definite paths by raising a portion of the road in the
middle usually called as islands distinguished by road markings. The conflicts in traffic
movements are reduced to a great extent in such a case. In channelized intersections, as the name
suggests, the traffic is directed to flow through different channels and this physical separation is
made possible with the help of some barriers in the road like traffic islands, road markings etc.

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  Traffic rotaries:
It is a form of intersection control in which the traffic is made to flow along one direction
around a traffic island. The essential principle of this control is to convert all the severe conflicts
like through and right turn conflicts into milder conflicts like merging, weaving and diverging.
It is a form of `at-grade' intersection laid out for the movement of traffic such that no through
conflicts are there. Free-left turn is permitted where as through traffic and right-turn traffic is
forced to move around the central island in a clock-wise direction in an orderly manner. Merging,
weaving and diverging operations reduces the conflicting movements at the rotary.
3) Active control
Active control implies that the road user will be forced to follow the path suggested by the traffic
control agencies. He cannot maneuver according to his wish. Traffic signals and grade separated
intersections come under this classification.
 Traffic signals:
Control using traffic signal is based on time sharing approach. At a given time, with the
help of appropriate signals, certain traffic movements are restricted where as certain other
movements are permitted to pass through the intersection. Two or more phases may be
provided depending upon the traffic conditions of the intersection. When the vehicles
traversing the intersection is very large, then the control is done with the help of signals. The
phases provided for the signal may be two or more. If more than two phases are provided,
then it is called multiphase signal.
The signals can operate in several modes. Most common are fixed time signals and
vehicle actuated signals. In fixed time signals, the cycle time, phases and interval of each
signal is fixed. Each cycle of the signal will be exactly like another. But they cannot cater to
the needs of the fluctuating traffic. On the other hand, vehicle actuated signals can respond to
dynamic traffic situations. Vehicle detectors will be placed on the streets approaching the
intersection and the detector will sense the presence of the vehicle and pass the information to
a controller. The controller then sets the cycle time and adjusts the phase lengths according to
the prevailing traffic conditions.
 Grade separated intersections:
The intersections are of two types. They are at-grade intersections and grade-separated
intersections. In at-grade intersections, all roadways join or cross at the same vertical level.
Grade separated intersections allows the traffic to cross at different vertical levels. Sometimes
the topography itself may be helpful in constructing such intersections. Otherwise, the initial
construction cost required will be very high. Therefore, they are usually constructed on high

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 speed facilities like expressways, freeways etc. These type of intersection increases the road
capacity because vehicles can flow with high speed and accident potential is also reduced due
to vertical separation of traffic.

Grade Separated Intersections:

As we discussed earlier, grade-separated intersections are provided to separate the traffic in the
vertical grade. But the traffic need not be those pertaining to road only. When a railway line crosses a
road, then also grade separators are used. Different types of grade-separators are flyovers and interchange.
Flyovers itself are subdivided into overpass and underpass. When two roads cross at a point, if the
road having major traffic is elevated to a higher grade for further movement of traffic, then such
structures are called overpass.
Otherwise, if the major road is depressed to a lower level to cross another by means of an under
bridge or tunnel, it is called under-pass. Interchange is a system where traffic between two or more
roadways flows at different levels in the grade separated junctions. Common types of interchange include
trumpet interchange, diamond interchange and cloverleaf interchange.
1. Trumpet interchange:
Trumpet interchange is a popular form of three leg interchange. If one of the legs of the
interchange meets a highway at some angle but does not cross it, then the interchange is
called trumpet interchange. A typical layout of trumpet interchange is shown in figure 1.

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2. Diamond interchange:
Diamond interchange is a popular form of four-leg interchange found in the
urban locations where major and minor roads crosses. The important feature of this
interchange is that it can be designed even if the major road is relatively narrow. A typical
layout of diamond interchange is shown in figure 2

.
Figure 2: Diamond interchange
3. Clover leaf interchange:
It is also a four leg interchange and is used when two highways of high volume
and speed intersect each other with considerable turning movements. The main advantage of
cloverleaf intersection is that it provides complete separation of traffic. In addition, high
speed at intersections can be achieved. However, the disadvantage is that large area of land is
required. Therefore, cloverleaf interchanges are provided mainly in rural areas. A typical
layout of this type of interchange is shown in figure 3.

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 Figure 3: Cloverleaf interchange

4. Channelized intersection
Vehicles approaching an intersection are directed to definite paths by islands,
marking etc. and this method of control is called channelization. Channelized intersection
provides more safety and efficiency. It reduces the number of possible conflicts by reducing
the area of conflicts available in the carriageway. If no channelizing is provided the driver
will have less tendency to reduce the speed while entering the intersection from the
carriageway. The presence of traffic islands, markings etc. forces the driver to reduce the
speed and becomes more cautious while maneuvering the intersection. A channelizing island
also serves as a refuge for pedestrians and makes pedestrian crossing safer. Channelization of
traffic through a three-legged intersection (refer figure: 4) and a four-legged intersection
(refer figure 5) is shown in the figure.

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 Figure 4: A three-legged intersection

Figure 5: A Four-legged intersection

Traffic intersections are problem spots on any highway, which contribute to a large share of
accidents. For safe operation, these locations should be kept under some level of control depending upon
the traffic quantity and behavior.
Safety
Separating the conflicting flows of traffic and eliminating crossing man oeuvres enhances safety. The
extent to which these separations are justified will determine the type of interchange adopted, the style of
ramps and the treatment of the connections to the local road system. Where long lengths of an access
controlled facility exist, the needs of drivers to stop and refresh have to be considered. This may require

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the installation of Rest Areas and/or Service Centre to meet these needs and reduce the incidence of
fatigue related accidents.
Environmental factors
The relevant environmental factors will depend on the location of the facility. In rural areas, the impacts
on the natural environment, cultural heritage issues and good quality agricultural land may dominate
while in urban areas, social and cultural heritage issues may be the most important. Each case will have to
be treated on its merits. In most cases, the interchange will be a part of a larger project and the
environmental issues will be dealt with in the overall project development.
Economic factors
The factors to be considered are:
o Cost of initial and future stages;
o Maintenance costs;
o Accident costs; and
o Vehicular operating costs.
In evaluating the alternative interchange options, these factors have to be considered and an appropriate
balance found. The whole of life costs of the alternatives must be used in the benefit cost analysis and
these must include environmental and social costs of the options.

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