42 Second Language Research M e t h o d s
might research be different in these different settings? What are
some problems you might foresee?
3 Assume that language competence is a n internal representation
of w h a t people k n o w when they k n o w a language. What are
some problems created by this view, particularly for second
language research? H o w might they be overcome?
4 Consider a n aspect of the speech act system such as the ability t o
make a r e q u e s t . H o w rnight the acquisition of requests be studied
from the t w o perspectives of Parameter I ?
5 C o m p a r e t w o studies o n the same research question in second
language in terms of the four factors affecting degree of control
discussed under Parameter 3 .
6 Analyze the instruments of two second language acquisition
studies purportedly examining the same question. T o what
degree d o you think the findings of the studies are comparable,
given the manner in which data were collected in each study?
7 Select a topic of research. Show how that topic can lead to
different research plans according to the different parameters.
Keep your plan in outline form.
References
Cohen, A. a n d Hosenfeld, C. 1981. 'Some uses of mentalistic data in
second language research.' Language Learning 3 1/2:285-314.
Cohen, A. 1984. 'Studying second language learning strategies: H o w d o we
get the information?' Applied Linguistics 5/2:101- 112.
Ellis, R. 1985. Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Oxford:
O x f o r d University Press.
loup, C . a n d Weinberger, S. H. 1987. Interlunguage Phonology: The
Acquisition of a Second Lunguage Sound System. Cambridge, Mass.:
Newbury House.
Seliger, H. 1983. 'The language learner as linguist: Of metaphors a n d
realities.' Applied Linguistics 4/3: 179-1 9 1.
Tarone, E. 1982. 'Simplicity a n d attention in interlanguage.' Lunguage
Learning 3 1/1:69-84.
T a r o n e , E. 1979. 'Interlanguage a s chameleon.' Language Learning 29/
1:181-191.
3 The preparatory stages of research
'Have you guessed the riddle yet?' the Hatter said ,turning to Alice
again.
LNo, I give it up,' Alice replied, 'what's the answer?'
'1 haven't the slightest idea,' said the Hatter.
'Nor I,' said the March Hare. Alice sighed wearily. 'I think you
might d o something better with time,' she said, 'than waste it asking
riddles with n o answers.'
(Lewis Carroll: Alice in Wonderld?t~i)
~ntroduction
In Chapter 2, we developed a set of parameters which help to define
the conceptual a n d operational dimensions of second language
research. In this chapter w e shall be concerned with the beginning
stages of setting up actual research from the general conception of
the research idea to the formulation of a research plan o r
hypothesis. T h a t is, the idea o f research will be approached as a
disciplined form o f scientific inquiry. Iniplicit in this concept of
research is the need t o develop a careful plan for carrying o u t
A problem which novice researchers in second language acquisition
,
may have is selecting a topic for research. Sometimes the researcher
does not k n o w h o w o r where to begin the creative act of starting a
new research endeavor. Sometimes the topic chosen is trivial o r
impractical o r there is a leap from the conception of a n idea to a
full-blown experiment with n o consideration of other alternatives
or obstacles which may arise. All o f this makes it very important to
consider carefully the preparatory stages to research, which are
discussed in this chapter.
A word of caution is necessary a t this point. Conceiving a n d
carrying o u t research is as much a creative process as it is a scientific
one. The procedures described in this chapter are a n attempt to
formalize the beginning steps in the research process. We recognize
that there are many pathways which may be followed in developing
and conducting research. The preparatory steps described in this
chapter attempt to provide a sense o f logical progression which, in
 44 Second Language Research Methods
the case of the experienced researcher: is often intuitive. We
recognize thc dangcr in over-formalizing :In activity that contains
an element of 'art'. W e feel, however, that novice researchers
especially will benefit from following these preparatory steps.
While much of this chapter implies a more analytic-deductive
hypothesis-testing approach t o research, most o f the discussion will
also be suitable for the development of synthetic-heuristic hypothesis-
generating research as well. Throughout the chapter, we will
indicate the differences where appropriate. However, n o matter
w h a t the orientation, n o aspect of the development of a research
project o r study is more important than the initial steps in which
research questions a n d hypothescs are considered a n d developed.
In contrast to the riddle which the M a d Hatter posed t o Alice,
p a r t of the problem of doing research is formulating questions that
can be answered within the framework o f the research. As we shall
see, there is an integral relationship between the development of
good research questions a n d the execution o f the research itself. If
the questions are inaccurately o r vaguely posed, the total structure
of the research a n d its significance will be affected. A skill t o be
acquired by every researcher is the ability t o formulate good
questions. It is the formulation a n d fine-tuning of the research
question that will contribute t o reliable, valid, a n d significant.
results.
In the following sections of this chapter, w e shall move through
the progression of stages implicit in the development of research:
This, of course, does n o t mean t h a t all experienced researchers go
through these steps in a deliberate manner. However, it is suggested
t h a t the novice researcher in second language try to follow this
progression in order to avoid pitfalls which will only become.
apparent a t later stages.
Where do research questions come from?
T h e novice researcher is often perplexed a b o u t h o w to begin the.
process o f research. Students carrying o u t their first research project
involving collecting data or conducting an experiment are bewildered
a b o u t h o w to begin, how to control the various aspects of their
study, a n d h o w to carry o u t the study s o that the results are both
specific a n d meaningful.
It is useful t o conceive of the preparlltion for research as an
evolutionary process consisting of pl~ilses, with each successive
phase being a refinement of the preceding one. T h a t is, the
The preparatory stages of research 45
research are cyclical in nature with each phase
rrower, Inore focused vision of the preceding
of any particular research, there must be
efore the actual research can be carried out.
ese preparatory steps can best be described as the phases that
rchers go through initially before reaching the point of
ment, carrying o u t observations in the field, o r
some way. These preparatory steps should
1 research such as observations a n d data
n o r putting into operation a concrete experimental design.
arch study o r design is itself the end product of a process of
tes four phases in the development of a research
of a flow chart. Research may take different
a number o f factors, the most important being
the type of question being investigated a n d the research format
most appropriate f o r the investigation. In Chapter 2, w e described
the various parameters of second language research. These parameters
become concretized in the process of developing the research
question. At different points in the development of a research
decisions such as whether the research should be approached
syntheticully o r analyticrzlly a n d whether the research objective is to
describe o r test a hypothesis a b o u t a second language phenomenon
will affect future steps in the development of the research.
Phase 1: The general question
Sources for questions:
Experience a n d interests
Other research
Sources outside second language
In Chapter I, w e stressed that good scientists are observant of
phenomena around them. Their state of curiosity derives from a
lack of understanding of something. In the field of second language
studies, curiosity a n d the resultant questioning can arise from a
number of sources. These sources provide the stimuli for questioning
the phenomena associated with second language. We shall discuss
below some of the sources from which research questions might be
46 Second Language Research Methods T h e preparatory stages of research 47

Phase 1 : Formulating the general question questioning and perhaps t o the development of original research
Sources from this questioning.
Experience Other research in Sources outsld you may come to the field o f second language acquisition with
and interests language and second languag questions from other areas in which you have an interest and which
second language can be related to research in this field. For example, the theories a n d
methodologies of the field o f reading may hold implications f o r
General question in second language acquisition. T o w h a t degree is learning
to read in a second language the same a s learning t o read a first
Phase 2: Focusing the question language? Does the ability t o read in the first language facilitate
Is the general question: learning to read in a second? DO the metalinguistic abilities related
1 Important and feasible? to reading in a first language help o r hinder learning to read in a
2 Synthetic or analytic? second? H o w does the ability t o read in a language with a different
3 List the possible factors comprising the general question. orthographic system affect learning to read the target language?
V With the development o f research in metacognitive processes,
&ere has been renewed interest in language learners keeping diaries
If synthetic documenting their experiences and conscious thought processes
What are the phenomena What are the specific while in the language class o r other second language learning
encompassed by the question? constructs to be contexts. Such diaries might include the author's feelings during the

I
Heuristic
Phase 3: Deciding on an objective

Description of research
procedures, observations etc.
Conceptual definrtio
of construct

Formulation o
research questions.
Operational definitrons
actual language lesson but recorded after class, attitudes t o
language learning, attitudes toward the teacher, self-analysis of the
methods used for practising the language and s o on. While these
diary reports are subjective in terms of what is reported a n d
recalled, they can raise interesting questions for further controlled
research. In other words, they may be a place t o begin.
Bailey (1983) recorded in a diary her o w n experiences o f
learning French as a foreign language. She noticed evidence of
of variables. competitiveness and anxiety in her writing, which raised questions
in her mind about whether such feelings were facilitative o r not. She
(Poss~blecombrnations: synthetic-heuristrc. analytic-heuristic,
synthetic-deductive, anaiytrc-deductive) then related these experiences to other literature dealing with
competitiveness and anxiety in second language learning. Teachers,
1
Phase 4: Formulating the research plan or hypothesis
similarly, may wish t o keep diaries of things observed in a language
lesson o r of any student behaviors that seem t o have some effect o n
Descrlptlve or Research hypothesi language learning.
qualitative research
(Process may end here or . . .) / Null hypothesi
Confirrnatio
In the examples above, which are drawn from everyday
experience, there is n o preconceived o r deductive notion of w h a t we
should observe o r record. Instead, a diary of experiences is kept,
Figure 3.1 Prepclratory phases o f research without focusing o n any particular aspect o r question. By sifting
1 Experience and interests through diary entries o r informal observations, it may be found
that a number of factors are of interest for further research. The
Questions for research can derive from everyday experience with evaluation o r description of these factors can become a later stage
language learning. Curiosity can be aroused by something observed of the research o r a single factor may be isolated for more
in a personal language learning experience which leads t o further controlled study.
 48 Second Language Research Methods
!
2 Reading other research in language and
second language
Involvement in a professional field requires researchers t o read
research conducted by others in order to keep up with developments,
innovations, a n d new insights. However, reading research in a field
such a s second language learning a n d teaching can itself become a
source for further questioning a n d curiosity a b o u t claims made by a
theory o r the way a study w a s conducted.
A theory which claims t h a t learners monitor o u t p u t in terms of
grammatical rules learned in t h e classroom (Krashen 1 9 7 8 ) can
lead t o research o n h o w grammatical rules are learned and used by
learners, a n d whether such rules can m a k e a difference in the
learners' performance (Seliger 1 9 7 9 ) .
Research useful for stimulating ideas for further investigation can
be f o u n d in t w o categories:
a ) Research of a theoretical nature, which presents a theory, a
synthesis of other theories, o r the discussion of implications for
second language research of a theory outside of second language. In
this category, w e find research in theoretical linguistics, research
discussing the relevance of theoretical linguistics for second
language research, research which reviews o r surveys other research
a r o u n d a central issue but which contains n o original empirical
research itself, a n d s o on.
As a n example of this, linguistics in recent years has been
concerned with the theory of universal g r a m m a r and h o w it
pertains t o language acquisition (Chomsky 1 9 8 1).Some have seen
this theory as having potential for explicating issues in second
language acquisition a n d h a v e explored this ( C o o k 1985). Some
journals, such as Applied Linguistics, specialize in articles which
contain discussions of theoretical issues. This book will not be
concerned with h o w t o conduct this kind of research which is, in a
sense, research a b o u t research. F o r o u r purposes, it is sufficient t o
observe t h a t theoretical research may be considered hypothesis-
generating because of the questions which it intentionally raises.
b) Empirical research, which may be heuristic o r deductive a n d
m a y o r may n o t be based o n a particular theory o r hypothesis, but
is assumed t o be based o n data collected from second language
learners. To continue with the previous example above, if the
theory of government a n d binding, p a r t of universal grammar, is
taken as a potential explanation for second language acquisition, it
should be able t o predict the kinds of errors learners will make. If
The preparatory stages of research 49
is the case, the theory will have important implications f o r
the order of acquisition of g r a m m a r rules in the second
language, defining w h a t rules will likely be transferred from the first
language, a n d w h a t rules a r e l ~ k e l yt o be learned independently o f
the first language. M a n y researchers have already begun exploring
this theory with these questions in mind (Flynn 1 9 8 7 , Mazurkewich
1984, White 1 9 8 5 ) .
While reading research in second language acquisition a n d other
fields, readers should ask themselves a number of questions t o
their o w n t h ~ n k i n ga b o u t possible original research, such
as:
1 Does this research test o r generate hypotheses?
2 If the research is descriptive, where d o the d a t a come f r o m ?
3 If the d a t a are gathered from other studies o r sources, h o w
reliable d o the d a t a seem t o be?
4 W h a t is the hypothesis o r theory being tested?
5 Is the design o r n ~ e t h o d o l o g yappropriate for the kind of
research?
6 Does the research really test the hypothesis o r theory?
7 H o w a r e the conclusions reached by the research supported by
the research and the d a t a ?
8 Are theoretical claims m a d e by t h e research s u p p o r t e d ? H o w ?
9 Does the research m a k e a clear distinction between the results
of the study based o n data a n d extrapolations which may g o
beyond the d a t a ?
10 Are hypotheses which still remain t o be tested presented as
conclusions o r results?
11 Are there good alternative explanations t o those given by the
author?
These a n d similar questions will be discussed more extensively in
Chapter 4 , which deals with reviewing literature o n i c thc research
topic h a s been selected. T h e questions above a r e primarily t o
stimulate thinking while reading research. N o t only is it m o r e
productive for comprehension t o read research with a questioning
mind, b u t it can also lead the reader t o the eventual development of
researchable questions.
3 Sources outside second language acquisition
While the examples above a r e taken from linguistics, similar
research of J theoretical a n d empirical nature is found in
psychology, sociology, a n d education. Herc too, questions a n d
 50 Second Language Research Methods
hypotheses for research in secorrd language can be found. Ir, fact, i t
appears that most of the more interesting theories about second
language acquisition have derived from these other fields a n d have
become tools f o r investigation within second language research.
General questions which may be developed into research can
come from a field not normally associated with language o r
language acquisition. For example, the concept of anomie is
concerned with the social psychological orientation of the individual
in society. T h e concept is concerned with relative feelings of social
rootlessness and w a s first proposed by Durkheim in 1897. Six
decades passed before researchers used this concept to describe the
psychological trauma experienced by bilinguals as they become
more integrated into the second language social group and begin to
feel alienation toward their L1 group. T h e application of this
concept gave rise to instruments for measuring anomie among
second language learners. T h e relative degrees of anomie measured
by these instruments became a correlate of the instrumental o r
integrative orientation of the language learner (Lambert a n d
Gardner 1 9 5 9 ) . T h e type of orientation was then used to predict
success in various aspects of second language acquisition.
Exposure to sources o f knowledge such as everyday experience,
reading other research in linguistics a n d second language in related
fields such as psychology, social psychology, a n d education arouses
curiosity and questioning. As Pasteur noted long ago, 'Le hasard ne
favorise q u e les esprits pripares.' T h a t is, research questions are n o t
the result o f chance o r wild guesses but develop naturally in
'prepared minds', that is, minds occupied with ideas and concepts
and sensitized to observation.
Once questions have been raised in the mind of the researcher as
a result o f curiosity, observation, and reading, these questions must
be formulated in a general sense. Referring back to Figure 3.1, we
can see that before entering into Phase 2 o r Phase 3, the question
must be stated in a form which will allow it to be further narrowed.
For the researcher, this is often a difficult stage because i t requires
the careful analysis of the general question in order t o reduce it to a
level where it may be considered researchable.
Let us take an observation discussed above as an example to see
h o w we might move through the steps in Phase 1:
Observation
- -
Learners acquire language a t different rates.
The preparatory stages of research 51
L curiosity
?
Are diffcrrllt rates of acquisition due to characteristics of learners or
Are different rates of acq~pisitiondue to some aspect of method or material?
As we consider this observation, we arrive a t a general question
about the phenomenon of different rates of acquisition.
~ e n e r a question:
l Why d o learners o f a second language progress at
different rates?
T h e problem with this general question is that i t is too broad and
too inclusive. In its current f o r ~ n u l a t i o nwe d o not know whether
we are speaking o f children o r adults, learning in a classroom o r in
nature, learning all skills o r a specific skill such as reading, learning
a foreign language, o r a second language, and s o on. In other
words, before we can decide whether t o approach this question o n
a synthetic o r analytic basis, there are many other questions which
must first be asked. This brings us to Phase 2.
Phase 2: Focusing the question
IS the general question feasible? Should i t be approached synthetically
o r analytically? If synthetically, what are the phenomena encom-
passed by the question? If analytically, what are the specific factors
to be investigated?
Having arrived a t a general question, it is n o w necessary to
consider whether it is possible o r feasible to d o research o n such a
question. If it is feasible, the next step is to decide what basic
approach (in terms of Parameter I ) , synthetic o r a7zalytic (Chapter
2), would be best for this kind o f research. Sometimes the decision
about the basic approach to the research question can only be made
at a later stage after more consideration is given to the factors o r
variables which make up the question.
Feasibility
While i t may be fairly easy to agree that the general question is
important, it is more difficult to decide if it is feasible. Another way
of asking whether there is an answer t o the general question is to
ask whethcr the question can be invest~gatedgiven the researcher's
or the world's state of knowledge, the intellectual, academic, and
 52 Second Language Research Methods
researc!~would have tc; be conducted. It: brief, we are a s k i ~ g ,'1s
finding a n answer to the general question feasible?'
T h e question of feasibility may be divided into several subparts
which we shall n o w discuss. T h e question must be formulated s o
that a n y investigation may be carricd o u t within the limitations of
the resources available for the research.
If the researcher is able to test the general question for feasibility
before progressing to more advanced phases of developing the
research, much waste of time a n d energy can be avoided. Below are
some of the questions relating to feasibility which should be raised
a t this stage in the development of the research project. It is best t o
ask these questions a t this stage in order to avoid aborting a study
a t a later stage because of some unforeseen problems.
1 H o w can the answer to the general question be found? W h a t
does it entail? Will finding the.answer necessitate setting up a n
experiment? Will it require the development of a test o r a survey
questionnaire?
2 Does the researcher have the prerequisite background knowledge
t o investigate the question? Is a knowledge of linguistics o r
sociolinguistics necessary? H o w much statistical analysis appears
to be involved? Will someone with more expertise be required? If
the study is to be related to other peripheral areas, h o w much
research should be d o n e before proceeding to the next phase?
3 Are the terms a n d concepts used in the formulation of the general
question defined clearly a n d consistently? Are the concepts a n d
terms used in a way that is consistent with how other researchers
have used t h e m ?
4 W h a t logistical a n d practical problems can be anticipated? I f the
general question asks a b o u t :he language acquisition of children
o r adults, will the researcher have access to the number of
subjects required t o investigate the question? W h o will collect
the d a t a ? Is i t necessary to train assistants? If computer analysis
of d a t a is necessary, will there be access to computer time a n d
assistance? Will the researcher need to be trained in the use of
computer statistical analysis such as SPSS o r SAS?
Researchers should try to avoid proceeding directly to the stage
of the research itself without considering the theoretical a n d
practical implications o f the general question, because this inevitably
leads to false starts o r problems with the design a n d methodology
of the research. Even experienced researchers sometimes have to
discontinue efforts because of unforeseen o r unavoidable obstacles.
However, the more experienced researchers become, the more they
T h e preparatory stages of research 53
learn to ask qliestions about feasibility a n d to predict possible areas
of d i f f i c ~ ~ l t yIt. is n o t ~ l n u s u a lto abandon research ideas a t the
general question stage because of infeasibility.
Let us n o w apply these questions of feasibility to the general
question, W h y d o learners o f a second language progress at
different rates?
1 How?
In the case of this general question, there are several possibilities.
The research could be conducted in a school setting o r in a natural
setting by studying individuals in the process of second language
acquisition. It could be studied synthetically, by observing groups
o f learners a n d describing their activities, o r analytically, by
focusing o n some specific aspect of language acquisition such as the
acquisition o f a syntactic form o r a discourse strategy associated
with acquisition. It might be possible t o select learners w h o have
already been identified as learning a t different rates a n d test them
for various characteristics that have been related t o successful
language learning. In other words, there are many possible ways t o
investigate this question a n d it would be wise, before beginning, to
explore them for possible advantages and disadvantages.
2 Prerequisite knowledge
Investigating this general question would require different kinds of
knowledge depending o n the direction which the researcher decides
to take. If the goal is t o observe the social processes involved in
second language acquisition, then it is necessary t o acquire
background knowledge in areas such as group behavior, language
interaction patterns in groups, a n d theories relating to the role of
the social environment in language acquisition.
If, however, the focus of the research is o n the linguistic factors
involved in the development of language competence by good a n d
poor language learners, then the research will require familiarity
with linguistic theories pertaining to second language acquisition,
methods for analyzing linguistic data, and methods for collecting
such data.
3 T h e consistent definition o f concepts iznd terms
In the case o f the general question under consideration, the
definition of terms such as lizngziuye leizrner, Lz~zguage leizrning,
rate o f learwing, will have to be narrowed considerably in order t o
 54 Second Language Research Methods
i
! Phase 2 (Figure 1.1); in which the general question will
be ~ s e f u for
becollie more focused.
I t is clear that in a study concerned with rates of acquisition, a
consistent definition of .language leurning o r acquisition is crucial.
Will acquisition be defined in terms of scores o n a test? Will a
functional measure of acquisition be used, such as the ability to
perform specified discourse functions? This does not mean that
definitions of terms used must be universally accepted. If the
research carefully defines how terms will be used for the purposes
of the particular study, problems of ambiguity and inconsistency
will be avoided.
4 Logistical and practical pro blenzs
This aspect of feasibility includes factors bearing on the logistics of
the investigation. D o we have direct access t o groups of subjects?
H o w much time will be required t o study this question? Will the
subjects be available throughout the duration of the study? Will
special equipment such as tape recorders, video, o r body microphones
be required? Will the procedures used to collect data be intrusive to
the ongoing routines of the class? H o w does the research schedule
fit in with t h e school schedule of the classes being studied?
Under the heading of ~ r a c t i c a lproblems, n o detail should be left
unexamined. If it is decided t o develop data from video tapes of the
subjects performing a language task o r interacting in a language
lesson, additional judges may be necessary in order to record a n d
agree upon what is being observed. However, this means that these
judges will have t o be trained in methods of observation; coding
instruments which can be used in a consistent manner will have to
be developed.
Which approach: synthetic or analytic?
Having considered the level of feasibility of the general question, i t
is n o w necessary to decide which approach, synthetic o r analytic, is
the most suitable.
Chapter 2 discussed the difference between the two approaches
and h o w it is possible t o view second language phenomena from
either perspective. A synthetic approach would view the research
holistically, as a composite of factors which might not be easily o r
validly analyzable into separate parts. An unalytic approach would
select one o r several factors which make u p the phenomenon for
T h e preparatory stages of research 55
=lose analysis, perhaps in a controlled study. Either perspective has
implications for research design and method.
~t is useful, before deciding which approach to take t o the general
question, W h y d o learners o f a second language progress at
different rates?, t o think a b o u t the factors which might be involved
in determining different rates of language acquisition. Some of
these factors might be more suitable for an analytic approach,
others for a synthetic approach. There are also factors involved in
rate of acquisition which could be investigated by either approach:
1 T h e learner's previous language learning experience.
2 The learner's attitude toward the language class, the teacher, o r
the materials.
3 The learner's aptitude for language.
4 The learner's first language.
5 The learner's sex.
6 The a m o u n t of practice which the learner engages in both in a n d
o u t of the language class.
7 The kind of practice which the learner experiences - drill versus
communicative use of the target language.
8 Personality characteristics of the learner.
9 Cognitive characteristics of the learner. (This list is extensive but
not necessarily exhaustive.)
T h e synthetic approach
I t may be decided t o approach the research from a synthetic
perspective. This may be because of the nature of the factor o r
factors t o be studied, o r because i t is felt that a particular
phenomenon is best studied from a holistic point of view and that
taking an analytic approach will distort the nature of the
phenomenon. For example, if i t is felt that something related t o the
manner o r a m o u n t of practice in the language class is responsible
for different rates of acquisition, it may be decided to look a t all o r
many aspects of classroom practice such as practice in drills, group
practice, individual practice, controlled practice, spontaneous
practice, o r practice in pairs. All o f these forms of practice are part
of the total phenomenon which we refer to as 'practice' and t o
isolate o n e form from the others may distort its role, while taking a
synthetic approach may allow us to evaluate the relative contribution
that each form of practice makes to the overall process of
acquisition.
At this stage, then, the decision would be concerned with what
 56 Second Language Research Methods
p h e n ~ m e n s wou!d h e included in the composite concept of
'practice'. T h a t is, because we may not have a clear idea of what
kind of practice o r h o w much practice plays a part in varying rates
of acquisition, we would decide t o look a t a whole range of types of
practice and h o w they interrelate and interact as they naturally
occur in the language class.
T h e analytic approach
As discussed in Chapter 2, taking a n analytic approach means that
the second language phenomenon is analyzed into its constituent
parts and one o r a cluster of these constituent parts is examined in
greater detail t o the exclusion of other factors. When a n analytic
approach is taken, it usually means that the investigation will
benefit from looking a t some aspect o f the second language
problem in isolation; that a constituent approach to the phenomenon
is possible and will not distort the nature of the phenomenon itself;
and that enough is known about the constituent factor chosen for it
to be studied in isolation.
Returning t o the particular factor of practice, let us suppose that
we h a d grounds for believing that some aspect of individual
practice was responsible for differing rates of acquisition. In an
analytic approach, a single factor o r cluster of factors relating t o
individual practice in the language classroon~would be isolated for
further study. For example, we might decide t o study individual
practice in formal settings, such as drills, o r combine a study of
individual practice in formal and communicative settings.
For an nnulytic approach, it is necessary t o define the terms used
in the general question more precisely. At this stage, we are
concerned with arriving at a conceptual rather than an operational
definition. T h a t is, in addition to defining what is meant by terms
such as 'rate', 'learning', and 'different rates', we must also define
conceptually what we mean by 'practice', 'formal practice',
'communicative practice', and other related terms. An important
problem that arises in much research is the lack of clear and
consistent definitions of the terms which later become the focus of
the research. Note that the process we are describing consists of a
gradual narrowing of the focus of the study. Having a clear and
agreed conceptual definition of the terms will facilitate operation-
alizing them in Phase 3.
T h e preparatory stages o f research 57
phase 3: Deciding on an objective or purpose
Once an approach has been decided, the objective of the research
must be considered. Is the purpose to discover o r describe o r is i t t o
test a hypothesis that is based on previous work? The reader is
referred t o the discussion of Parameter 2 in Chapter 2.
Heuristic Deductive
Description of research proce- Operational defintion of terms or
dures, observat~ons;some factors; formulation of research
operational defin~tionof terms questlon or hypothesis
- - - - -
Tuble 3.1 Phase 3: Decidirzg o n an objective or purpose
Heuristic research
It will be recalled from Chapter 2 that heuristic research was
characterized by its inductive and descriptive nature. The researcher
may begin with a general notion about some aspect of second
language learning and gather data in various ways t o learn more
about the phenomenon under study. Descriptions o r hypotheses
may then be developed from these data. Other forms of heuristic
research may describe specific aspects of second language acquisition
in order to see if they correlate with other factors. If the decision is
made t o pursue the research question through heuristic research
methods, this last phase will consist of developing the plans o r
procedures which the research will follow.
Research might have a heuristic purpose o r goal but be combined
with either a synthetic o r a n analytic approach to the research
problem so that we might have synthetic-heuristic o r analytic-
heuristic research depending on the approach t o the second
language phenomenon and the goals of the research. For example,
in the case of analytic-heuristic research, if we suspected that a
specific factor involved in classroom language learning played
a part, but were not certain what that part was, o r had n o theory o r
hypothesis, we might conduct a heuristic study focused on that
particular constituent of classroom language learning. The case of
synthetic-heuristic research is perhaps the more common. This
combination might be decided upon if it was felt that the research
should be as inclusive as possible without any predispositions for
assigning Inore importance t o one factor o r another.
58 Second Language Research Methods
y T h e preparatory stages o f research
As was noted in Chapter 2, heuristic research does not neces-
sarily begin with preconceived hypotheses. However, some aware-
ness of the factors involved in the phenomenon may help decide
what research strategies t o follow. If the purpose o f our research on
the question o f rates of acquisition is to discover what factors most
affect it, we d o not begin with a hypothesis t o be confirmed or
rejected. Rather we might begin with only a vague idea about what
factors affect different rates of acquisition or with a suspicion that
some factors, such as those listed on page 55, may be more
important than others.
Deductive research
Any of the nine factors listed under Phasc 2 could serve as the basis
for more focused research questions. In Chapter 2, we noted that
research. with a deductive objective or purpose begins with a
preconceived notion about what may bc found. This preconceived
notion is then formulated as a prediction or hypothesis t o be
confirmed or rtjected. The hypothesis is usually grounded in a
theory which attempts to explain the behavior in question.
As in the previous discussion of heuristic research, deductive
research can be combined with either a synthetic or an analytic
approach. An example of synthetic-dedzictiue research would be an
investigation in which a relationship is predicted between a large
number of related variables or factors on the one hand and a
language ability o n the other. However, because the group of
factors is seen as interdependent in some way, they are first treated
synthetically as a composite whole to see whether in combination
they correlate with language ability. In a study of factors which
predict a second language learner's ability t o acquire accurate
pronunciation, Purcell and Suter (1980) first examined a battery of
twenty variables which they hypothesized woulJ predict 2ccuracy
in pronunciation. Gradually, through statistical procedures, the
authors limited the size of the group of factors, first t o a set of
twelve and finally to a set of two factors which best predict
pronunciation accuracy.
In our discussion of deductive research, we will limit ourselves to
a single t ~ ~ c t onru, n ~ h c r6, from the set of nine which we previously
listed. What we have done is to break down or analyze the cluster
of factors which we associate with rate of acquisition and attempt
to study a single factor because we have some dedirctive basis or
theory for believing that this factor can predict rLlte of acquisition.
59
The process we have followed is analytic because we have broken
down the synthesis of factors into constituent factors, and
deductive because we have analyzed one of these as being most
likely to be related to rate of acquisition. This kind of research can
be &aracterized as analytic-deductive. We now try to reformulate
this isolated factor in the form of a focused question about the
relationship between practice and rates of acquisition:
- 6 Does the amount o f practice affect the learner's rate o f
acquisition?
The focused question allows us to look a t specific factors that
intuitively relate practice and rate of acquisition. In this case, within
the focused question, there are terms which, for the purposes of
will have t o be defined more precisely. The degree of
definition will later facilitate the design and methodology of the
research whether it be experimental, observational, or descriptive.
The description and definition of these factors subsumed under the
focused question may best be arrived at through a questioning
process as before:
- 6A H o w is 'language practice' to be defined? How will it be
measured?
- 6B H o w is 'acquisition' to be defined? Will it be defined in terms
of grammatical competence, communicative competence, o r
a combination of the two? H o w will it be measured?
- 6C What kind(s) of practice are thought to affect rate o f
acquisition?
- 6D H o w is the amount o f practice thought to affect rate o f
acquisition ?
- 6E H o w will measures of language practice be related to
measures of language acquisition?
It is at this point, in answering these questions, that the researcher is
forced t o confront the crucial problem of translating conceptual
definitions into operutional definitions, defining the terms o r
constructs which will be studied. Methodological issues are also
addressed a t this stage, such as whether the research can be carried
out with a small number of subjects by conducting in-depth case
studies of a few learners, or whether the research requires many
subjects in order to test the hypothesis.
Let us continue our hypothetical example for the purposes o f
demonstration. It may be that after our review of the literature, we
will find two competing definitions o f 'language practice', one
relating to the frequency of repetitions of a sentence pattern (6A)
and another relating to the meaningful use of language In a
60 Second Language Rese~rrchMethods
communicative context (6A'). Let ,IS also assume that we will define
language acquisition as the learner's ability t o function with
language in meaningful o r real-life situations ( 6 B ) . That is,
successful communication will be considered a measure of language
acquisition. At this point, we will not discuss the more c o n ~ p l e x
questions o f h o w we could measure successful communication.
Chapter 8 will discuss the development o f instruments t o measure
various constructs.
Exploring the implications of the questions raised under 6 A and
6 B leaves us with more focused questions about the relationships
between practice a n d acquisition. (See Figure 3.2.)
Definition of ~ r a c t i c e6A Definition of practice 6A'
\ /
Measure of language acquisition
Figure 3.2 The relationship between practice a n d acquisition
Questions 6D and 6 E put the theoretical construct language
practice into more concrete o r operational form. They require us to
consider h o w the behavior we are researching can be quantified and
what quantification might mean for the underlying research
question. What, for example, can be considered a unit of 'practice'?
What will be considered 'acquisition'? H o w will these units be
measured and interpreted?
However, it should be emphasized that constructs cannot be
translated into concrete o r operational form in an actual study o r
experiment until there are clear answers t o the questions 6 A and
6B. If the construct 'practice' is not clearly defined, it would be
foolish t o design and carry out research measuring this ill-defined
idea. W e might define 'practice' as the number of tlmes a subject
repeats a sentence from a language laboratory tape o r as the
number o f self-generated sentences that a subject produces in a
face-to-face communicative context. Each definition will produce
different outcomes and different interpretations about the role of
practice.
Phase 4: Formulating the research plan or the hypothesis
I f the study is to be some form of heuristic research, this last
phase will consist of dec~dingon appropriate procedures and
The preparatory stages of research 61
designing methods f o r collecting data reiating t o a single factor or a
synthesis o f factors which may affect the rate of acquisition. In
Chapter 6 , we will discuss in detail the procedures for conducting
kinds o f heuristic research.
If the study is t o be deductive, the procedures are more complex.
This is because deductive research requires the demonstration of a
clear relationship between the factor o r variable which is thought t o
be closely related t o o r responsible for the rate of acquisition. In
Chapter 1, i t was stated that the requirements for a scientific
hypothesis are that it be testable o r falsifiable. A hypothesis,
contrary to popular belief, is not supposed t o lead to conclusions
which cannot be tested further. Confirming o r rejecting a research
hypothesis is always conditional o r qualified since it must always be
open t o falsification, rejection, o r revision. N e w evidence may
present itself o r other relevant research may cast new light on the
object o f research. It is part of the 'game' of science to view research
as the best possible 'guess' a t a particular point in o u r state of
knowledge. As new insights and knowledge are gathered and new
theories present different ways of viewing the same phenomenon,
hypotheses will necessarily be revised o r rejected.
Qualitative o r descriptive research Research hypothesis
(The process may end here o r . . .) i
l
-1
Null hypothesis
[Confirmation o r rejection]
The research hypothesis and the null hypothesis
Question 6 above asked: Does the amount of practice affect the
learner's rate of acquisition? Let us assume that we have arrived a t
satisfactory conceptual and operational definitions of all of the
terms which are found in the question. The next step is t o convert
this question into a research hypothesis.
The research hypotheses in this example might take one of the
following forms:
- H I Learners w h o exhibit high levels of practice will acquire a t a
faster rate than those w h o d o not.
- HZ Learners w h o exhibit high levels of practice will acquire a t a
slower rate than learners who d o not.
62 Second Language Research h/lethods
- H3 Learners w h o exhibit high levels of practice will acquire at
the same rate as those who d o not.
Note that the first two hypotheses are 'directional'. That is, they
make a prediction about the direction of the possible outcome of
the research. The only problem with directional hypotheses is that
it is very difficult to argue unambiguously for a specific factor
causing the directional effect. The results may be due to high levels
of practice. Unfortunately, the results may be due t o other factors
as well. (Chapters 5 and 7 will discuss this problem in greater
detail.)
Because it is difficult to 'prove' a directional hypothesis con-
clusively, the research hypothesis is usually stated in the form of a
null hypothesis. The third hypothesis above, H3, is the null
hypothesis and states that n o differences exist between the rates of
acquisition of high level practicers and low level practicers. There
are statistical tests which may then be applied to the data t o show
whether there is o r is not a significant difference between the two
groups. If the null hypothesis cannot be rejected a t a statistically
significant level, that is, it cannot be shown that the high and low
level prtcticers are n o t different in rates of acquisition, then the
research hypotheses ( H I and H 2 ) are automatically rejected.
It is usually the hope of the researcher t o reject the null
hypothesis. If this hypothesis is rejected, it is interpreted as meaning
that one of the other research hypotheses is supported. Since it is
unlikely that high levels of practice will lead to slower rates of
acquisition, the rejection of H 3 is assumed to provide indirect
support for H I . That is, in actual practice, the research hypothesis,
while the focus of the research itself, is not the hypothesis that is
tested. Rather, for the purposes of the research itself, a null
hypothesis is formulated. T h e null hypothesis is usually a statement
of what the research really hopes to disprove. That is, the null
hypothesis is stated so that its jalsificution o r rejection will lead to
acceptance of one of the research hypotheses.
Confirmation o r rejection of the hypothesis is not, of course, the
end of the research process. In Figure 3.1, we have shown an arrow
returning to Phase 2. This is intended to show that the outcome of
the research is recycled back to the theory o r hypothesis from which
it emanated, either requiring an adjustment in the original theory o r
a rethinking of the original hypothesis for the purposes of
continued research.
T h e preparutory stages o f research 63
Summary
Chapter 3 has traced the preparatory stages in the developnlent of a
project from the stage o f an observation to the declslon
h the general approach. T h e phases of this process are
below. All scientific research does not necessarily
follow the progression through the four phases which we have
described here. However, we have followed these stages In order t o
describe the logic involved in develop~nga research ~ d e ain second
language.
The four phases in the development of research were:
Phase 1: T h e general question
Phase 2: Focusing the question
Phase 3 : Deciding on an objective o r purpose
Phase 4: Formulating the research plan o r the hypothesis
Activities
1 If you are a language teacher, keep a diary of your teaching
experience for a week. At the end of the week, review your diary.
What research questions are suggested in your diary about
second o r foreign language learners? About teaching? About
teacher-learner interaction ?
2 Select a study from a second language journal. (See Chapter 4 for
suggestions.) What additional questions are suggested by the
research that were not investigated by the researcher?
3 Select a research journal in a n area such as cognitive psychology,
sociology, o r education. Find a n article which raises a theoretical
issue and discuss h o w this issue might have relevance for second
language research.
4 Select two topics for a research project. Discuss:
a ) The source of the topic.
b) Why i t is important to investigate.
c) Problems of feasibility.
5 Select a topic in second language research, such as the relationship
of age t o second language acquisition. Follow this topic through
the steps outlined in Figure 3.1 along each of its branches,
developing research plans f o r both heuristic and deductive
research.
 64 Second Language Research M e t h o d s

References 4 Contextualization of research

Bailey, K. M. 1983. 'Con~petitivenessand anxiety in adult second language
learning: Looking a t and through the diary studies' in H. W. Seliger and
M. H. Long (eds.): Classroom Oriented Research in Second Languag
Acquisition. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House.
Chomsky, N. 1981. Lectures on Government and Binding. Dordrech The excavator should be familiar with the work of his precursors
Foris. and his contemporaries; he should know where to fit his new data
. Cook, V. J. 1985. 'Chomsky's universal grammar and second language into the total picture. . .
learning' Applied Linguistics 6/1: 2-1 8. ( W . F . Albr~ght:The Archeology of Palestine)
Durkheim, E. 1897. Le Suicide. Paris: G. Alcan.
Flynn, S. 1987. A Parameter Setting Model for L2 Acquisition. Dordrech
D. Reidel. The what and why of contextualization
Krashen, S. D. 1978. 'Individual variation in the use of the monitor' in
Once the area, topic, o r problem o f the research has been chosen
W. C. Ritchie (ed.):Second Language Acquisition Research. New York:
and defined, the research needs t o be placed in a broader context by
Academic Press.
reviewing t h e related literature. This will be referred t o as
Lambert, W. E. and Gardner, R. C. 1959. 'Motivational variables in
second language learning.' Canadian Journal of Psychology 13. contextualizing the research.
Mazurkewich, I. 1984. 'Dative questions and markedness' in F. R. There a r e a n u m b e r o f reasons f o r contextualizing the research.
Eckman, H. Bell, and D. Nelson (eds.): Uniuersuls of Second Language O n the o n e hand, it helps the researcher broaden the view a n d
Acquisition. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House. perspective o f the research; 011 the other it helps him o r her n a r r o w
Purcell, E. T. and Suter, R . W. 1980. 'Predictors of pronunciation down the topic a n d arrive a t 3 focused research question. These
accuracy: A reexamination.' Language Learning 30/2: 271-287. two purposes, which seem t o be contradictory a r e actually
Seliger, H. W. 1979. 'On the nature and function of language rules in complementary, because in research there is a need t o both e x p a n d
language teaching.' TESOL Quarterly 13:359-369. the perspective a n d t o n a r r o w it d o w n in order t o arrive a t a
White, L. 1985. 'The acquisition of parameterized grammars: subjacency workable research question.
in second language acquisition.' Second Language Research 1/1: 1- 17.
Therefore a review of t h e literature should take place a number
of times d u r i n g the research process. In the preparatory phase it
helps the researcher select a n area, topic, o r problem; this process
was described in C h a p t e r 3. In the second stage, once the topic has
been selected, a thorough a n d systematic review of the literature is
necessary t o broaden the perspective of the research a n d t o
familiarize the researcher with the theoretical framework underlying
the selected topic. Finally, the literature is reviewed once m o r e
when the researcher needs t o n a r r o w d o w n the topic in preparation
for the actual administration of the research. It should be noted,
however, t h a t in carrying o u t actual research these different
purposes a r e not pursued in strict sequence.
We will n o w describe these stages through a hypothetical
example o f researchers w h o a r e a b o u t t o conduct research in the
area of age a n d second language acquisition.
 66 Second Language Kesearch Methods
Selecting the research topic
Consider the example of researchers who have a general interest in
the effect of age on second language acquisition. While this interest
may have evolved from observations of their personal experiences
(arriving in a country as immigrants and having difficulties in
learning the new language - unlike their children, w h o seem to have
learned the language much faster, with n o observed difficulties)
they begin reviewing the literature, searching for research articles
a n d other materials which address this topic. They obtain initial
references on the topic from bibliography lists given by the lecturers
a t the second language acquisition course they may be attending a t
the time. In the process of reviewing these sources they locate
additional references and materials from the bibliography lists
included in these articles. While reading the material they realize
that although there is ample research on the topic there are also
many unanswered questions. For example, there are conflicting
findings as t o the effect of age on second language acquisition in
different learning contexts (formal or informal). There also seem to
be differences in the effect of age on the acquisition of certain
aspects of language. Research studies show, though not consistently,
that age is correlated positively with the learning of grammar (the
older people are, the better they acquire grammar), but that
younger children seem to have an advantage in acquiring phonology.
They then discover that while there are a large number of studies on
age and second language acquisition in informal contexts, there is
very little research on the phenomenon of age and language
learning in the school context. This issue, they believe, is very
important since it may have implications for curriculum planning,
teaching methodologies, and educational Folicies. The researchers
therefore decide to carry o u t their research on the effect of age o n
the acquisition of phonology in formal versus informal contexts.
This is still a general topic of research that is not immediately
researchable, since there are many aspects which need to be worked
on before the researchers are ready to begin the study. They will
have to go through a number of 'phases (outlined in Chapter 3 ) , in
order t o examine the feasibility of this research topic. Then, in
order to arrive a t better-defil~edand more focused questions o r
hypotheses, the researchers will have to make decisions about the
specific age of the subjects and the type of formal instruction they
receive. The specific context of infornial learning will have t o be
decided and the topic will be researched either by designing An
Contextualization of research 67
where learners of a certain age get a specific type of
instruction in school. o r i t will be studied by observing different
types of learners in a variety of learning contexts without
conducting a n experiment.
BY reviewing the literature and examining other research studies
in the same field, the researchers will be able to decide o n the details
of the research topic, making it more specific and focused.
Broadening the perspective and narrowing the question
Once the researchers have selected the topic, they need t o expand it,
mainly by investigating prevailing theories relating to it. Thus,
during this stage the researchers will conduct a more thorough and
systematic review o f the literature by examining and reviewing
current theories in a number of related disciplines such as applied
linguistics, linguistics, psychology, neurolinguistics, sociology, and
education. They will want to f~lmiliarize themselves with the
theories these disciplines provide on various aspects of the research
topic. In the above example, these will include current theories o n
the acquisition of phonology, o n age-related differences in ability t o
acquire certain aspects o f a second language, and on the effect of
the learning context (formal versus informal) on learners of
different ages. Notice that the researchers focus also on related
disciplines, beyond applied linguistics. Clearly a t this stage the
researchers cannot simply rely on the bibliography list obtained in a
university course, but will need t o collect references from other
sources as well. Indices such as Resources in Education and
Language a n d Language Behavior Abstracts are likely to include
references to additional articles not encountered in the earlier
literature review. The researchers may also wish to conduct a
computer search, to generate updated references on the topic and
thus obtain i !arger p o ~ lof references. A description of such
sources and the procedures for obtaining them will be described in
the next section of this chapter.
In reviewing the literature, the researchers will have t o make a
decision as to which references are most relevant and most useful,
by reading the abstracts that precede most articles. They are likely
to begin by reviewing articles which relate most directly to the
research topic, such as those which focus on differences in the
acquisition of phonology by learners of different ages in different
learning contexts. They will be likely to review first the most recent
ones and then work 11)ackwat-ds towards less recent research.
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w o r l r r . i I24 pcrrenr), c r d r w u r k r r r ~ n \upcrvl*c,rr
d
- Informarive Abstract

words o r descriptors, to assist them in finding references related to I 2 0 prrcrnr). mandgrrr .rid . ~ d m n n ~ ~ r r ~ r (cI,S
c m r ) . ~ n opcrlrmvrr
d ( I I pcrccnrl T h u pllhilcarll,n
r sper-

cunrJ!nr J hrnrf dlr~urso<rn2nd crnplovrncllr ink,r-

their topic. For example, in a search for references related to the ~ n ~ c c oconccrnnng
n occup2rron.i i o r prc,icsric,sal 2nd
r c ~ h n h ~ awc~rkcrs,
l rn.an.xgrrr .and ~ d r n ~ n i s r r . ~ r ~ ~ ~ .
topic of age a n d second language acquisition, the relevant \knlIcd 1~4de5, s.>In worker\. Llermcal wq,rkcrs. .,"d
w r v i c e wcwkcrs. I n order h,r wc,mrn ro r2kc
descriptors in the Thesaurus are likely to be age, second language . ~ d u ~ n r . ~ gc,ir n n c r c ~ w d Ihhor rn.lrkrr drmindr.
emplc,ycr ~ r r t r u d c rn#w.trd w o r k i n g wc,rnrn nerd t,,
learning, informal learning, bilingualism, school learning, and ch.~ngc ~ n wc,rncn d m w r : Ill rccclvc hcrrcr c.nrrrr
p l ~ n n t n g.tnd ~c,unrrl!ng. (2) change rhclr c ~ r c c r
cognition. Figure 4.2 is a san~plt.page from the Thesuurus of ERIC '.~rpcr.nrmon\. 2nd (.3) fully urillrc rhc \',urcc, ,,legal I
p r o r r c r w n ~ n ~dr \ i r w n c erh;xr ~ r ar v ~ t l . ~ h rcl
l r rhcm.
Descriptors, compiled by Educational Resources Information IS8J -
-
A b s c r a ~ t o r ' sI n , ~ i a l r .
Clearinghouse (ERIC).
The indices which are most useful for second language learning
research are those of work in linguistics, applied linguistics, Figure 4.1 Sample resume' from Resources in Education
education, sociology, and psychology. Descriptions of these indices
are provided below:
Languuge and Language Behavior Abstracts ( L LB A ) is published
quarterly by Sociological Abstracts. It summarizes the contents of
periodicals, papers, ~ n o n o g r a p h s ,and transactions published in
over thirty languages, and covers the areas of anthropology, speech,
applied linguistics, rhetoric, psycholinguistics, education, a n d
c o m ~ n ~ i n i c a t i o nThis
. index includes abstracts, subject index,
source index, and author index, and is invaluable for locating
references in second language acquisition.
74 Second Language Research Methods
2 Computer search
A computer search is the procedure by which references o n certain
topics are generated f r o m available computer databases. It is a
quick, efficient way t o obtain references to articles, reports and
papers available in specific databases. M a n y institutions therefore
require research students t o run a computer search before the
research study is conducted.
T h e most i m p o r t a n t database in second language acquisition is
the o n e by ERIC, which includes a large number of documents o n
different topics related t o education. ERIC has a number o f
clearinghouses in different areas. Those which compile language
references a r e Language a n d Linguistics a n d Bilingual Education.
Items can be generated from t h e database after the researcher has
identified descriptors from the Thesaurus o f E R I C Descriptors.
These descriptors a r e then used to scan the database and a list o f
relevant references can be printcd o u t , beginning with the most
recent ones. Each item listed includes the title, n a m e of author,
date, place of publication, where it can be obtained, a n d a n abstract
of t h e content of the document. Figure 4.3 displays a sample item
obtained f r o m a computer search using the ERIC database in the
area of Cognitive Styles in Foreign Languages.
T h e first code number in the sample refers to the reference
n u m b e r in the database; following it a r e the title of the article, the
author's name, place a n d d a t e of publication, where the document
can be obtained, the language in which i t appeared, a n d the type of
document.
C o m p u t e r searches using the ERIC system can be conducted for a
small fee in m a n y libraries o r through the ERIC Clearinghouse o n
Language a n d Ling~listics (Cent-er for Applied Linguistics, 1118
2 2 n d Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 2 0 0 3 7 ) .
3 Bibliographies
These a r e a usef~ilsource for obtaining lists of literatare references.
Annotuted bibliographies a r e reference lists which focus o n specific
topics, a n d are usually put o u t by research centres such as the ERIC
Cleuringhouse o n Language and Linguistics and on Biling~lal
Education. O n e example is the annotated bibliography on language
testing, compiled by Clifford and Lange and published in 1981. T h e
Modern Lang~iageAssociation (MLA) publishes an annual annotated
Contextualization of research 75
1 ~J:68450 FL.514691
St~~dent-TeacherCognitive Styles and Foreign
Language Achievement: A Preliminary Study.
Mansen, Jacqueline; Stansfield, Charles
Modern Language Journal, V.66, N.3, P.263-73,
Fail, 1982
Available from: Reprint: UMI
Language: English
Document Type: JOURNALS ARTICLE (080):
RESEARCH REPORT ( 1 4 3 ) : NON-CLASSROOM MATERIAL
(05.5)
Journal Announcement: CIJJAN83
In terms of second-language learning, examines:
(1) What is the signific~nce, educational and statistical, o f
the performance difference between field-dependent and
field-independent students? and ( 2 ) Does the learner's
cognitive style interact with other factors in the learning
situation, such as the teacher's cognitive style, to affect
differentially? (EKN)
Descriptors: '"Cognitive Style: College Students;
Language Aptitude; Performance Factors; '"Second Language
Learning; ".Success; "Teaching Styles
Identifiers: ':-Field Dependence Independence
Figure 4.3 A sample i t e m obtained from a computer search
(using the E R I C system)
bibliography which includes references t o a large number of books
and articles o n a variety of language topics.
T h e bibliographies which accompany articles, reviews, o r books
also provide accessible sources f o r obtaining useful references
which can often lead t o additional references. However, it should
be noted t h a t bibliographies can be selective anci may overlook
relevant material. Since they are usually based o n published
material, they d o not always represent the most up-to-date
references.
4 Professional conferences
Research reports a n d papers presented a t conferences also provide
valuable sources for locating references. T h e published conference
programs which list ( a n d often describe) the papers presented are a
good source for finding o u t a b o u t unp~lblishedongoing a n d newly-
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78 Second Language Research Methods
for locating references co the literature as well as for obtaining
actual literarure material. Thcsc different sources are listed in Table
4.1. Once the literature material is obtained the researcher needs to
review a n d organize it. Ways of doing it will be discussed in the
next section.
Sources
1 Indices
2 Computer searches
3 Bibliographies
4 Professional conferences
5 'Underground' press
6 Journal articles
7 Edited collections, reviews, books
Table 4.1 Sources for locating the literature material
Reading the literature
Once researchers have located the material, they need to sift
through it t o determine its relevance to their specific research topic.
It is important to decide a t this point h o w much reviewing should
be done, which references should get more emphasis, and which
aspects the researcher should focus o n s o that the material becomes
meaningful for the contextualizntion of the research. Once the
researchers have read the material they must decide how the material
should be organized, presented, and reported in the literature
review section of the research.
Determining the relevance of the material
M a n y of the sources which researchers find elmerge during the
process o t enquiry. It thus becomes difficult to define the scope o f
the literature review before reading. One fairly common situation is
t h a t the literature review becomes an unending ~ a t hand the
researchers find it difficult to decide when t o stop. Ifthe scope of
the readings is t o o broad, the researchers may be discouraged and
may lose the right perspective o n the research; if it is too narrow, on
the other hand, they may overlook studies which contain important
a n d relevant information. However, while the literature review
never really ends, since the researchers will go o n reading before,
during, and even after the study is finished, it is important to set
Contextualization of research 79
boundaries. These can be determined by the relevance o f the
: material t o the study.
- The initial decision is to determine whether o r not the content of
the report which the researcher reads is relevant t o the research
problem under study. If it is n o t relevant, it can be deleted; if it is
relevant, the information it contains must be summarized o r
somehow p u t into a usable f o r m s o it will be retrievable again when
the researcher needs it later.
The most useful way for researchers to determine whether certain
material is relevant o r not, is through reading the abstracts which
appear in most indices and which accompany articles in most
journals. The descriptions in the abstracts provide useful information
on various aspects of the material.,
.One criterion for determining relevance is the degree t o which the
content of the article is directly related to the topic of the research.
noth her criterion is the source of the report. Material taken from
journals aimed at researchers is likely t o be more relevant than
material from sources aimed at practitioners; well known a n d
highly valued sources are preferable for most material, and material
which comes from primary sources, such as the research article
itself, as reported by the researcher, is usually more relevant than
material which comes from secondary sources such as the report of
another a u t h o r o n the research. Secondary sources are often less
reliable a n d should only be used to obtain access t o primary
sources. Another criterion of relevance is the recency of the
~ u b l i c a t i o no f the material; the more recent research is usually
more relevant.
Compiling and summarizing the information
Once the researcher has selected the relevant materials and deleted
the irrelevant ones, each report needs to be compiled and
organized. This phase includes a ) compiling a bibliography list and
b) writing an abstract which contains the most important information
of the report.
T h e bibliography list should be arranged alphabetically a n d each
entry should contain the name(s) o f the author(s), the title of the
report, facts a b o u t publication, page numbers, and so on. I f it is a
journal article it should include the name of the journal, volume,
and inclusive page numbers. If it is a book, it should include
information a b o u t the publisher, a n d place a n ~ date
l of publication.
T h e abstract of each report s h o i ~ l dinclude the most important
80 Second Language Research M e t h o d s
information of the report a s weil a s criticism. Ir should be written in
such a way as t o be easily retrievable when the researcher has to
write the literature review, which is usually arranged in alphabetical
o r d e r a n d / o r according to different subheadings related to the
research topic. It is recommended that each abstract be entered on a
3 x 5 card o r preferably in the database of a computer. M o s t word
processor programs today have facilities for compiling bibliography
lists in databases according to a number of different categories.
T h e information in the abstract should consist of a descriptiorl of
the most important points of the study, a n d the researcher should
focus o n points such as the reasons for conducting the research, the
underlying assumptions o f the study, the ~ r o c e d u r e as n d methodo-
logies used for collecting the data, the major findings o f the
'research, the specific new information which the study added t o the
research area, a n d a critical perspective of the research.
Table 4.2 provides a list of questions which researchers may find
helpful in reading, summarizing, and criticizing research reports.
T h e abstract should be brief, yet as accessible as possible when
needed later in writing the literature report.
Tuble 4.2 Questions for reading, summarizing, a n d
c r i t i c i z i n g research
7 What is the main research area?
2 What is the research problem?
3 What are the major research questions or hypotheses?
B About t h e research context
1 What other research studies were conducted in the same area?
2 What w e r e their main findings?
3 What is the rationale of the research?
4 Why was it important t o conduct the research?
C About t h e research m e t h o d
1 What are the main variables of the study?
2 W h ~ c hresearch deslgn was used? (experimental, correlational, des
cript~ve,multivariate, ethnographic?)
3 Description of the population, sample, and selection procedures
4 The data collection procedures - information about thelr development.
reliability, validity, pilot study
5 Description of the data collected
C o n t e x t u a l i z a t i o n of research 81
D About t h e data analysis
1 What are the specific data analysis procedures used?
2 Were they quantitative o r qualitat~ve,or both?
E About t h e findings
1 What w e r e the main findings?
2 What does the researcher conclude from t h e m ?
3 H o w do the findings relate to the research context and to the
underlying theories?
4 What are t h e implications of the findings?
5 What recommendations does the researcher make based on the
findings?
6 What recommendations are drawn from the results?
F Criticism of t h e research
Consideration o f A-E above and specifically:
1 the statement o f t h e problem
2 the identification of the hypotheses
3 the description and definition of the variables
4 the appropriacy o f the design of the study
5 the appropriacy o f the instruments
6 the appropriacy of the data analysis procedures
7 the consistency o f the results w i t h the analysis
8 whether t h e conclusion, implications, and recommendations are
warranted by the results.
Note: not all questions are applicable to all research reports
Organizing and reporting the review of the literature
Once the material f o r the review has been collected, reviewed, a n d
summarized, the researchers need to synthesize it and write the
review of the literature, to decide how to orgnnize the infornmation,
and to compile the abstracts in the literature report.
Often the nature of the research problem will determine the
organization o f the literature review. T h e review can be organized
according t o the a m o u n t of irlformation bearing directly o n the
research problenl, that is, each question or hypothesis of the
research is substantiated by the relevant literature. For example, in
the study on the relationship between age and second language
learning which includes hypotheses about age and the sex of the
learner, age a n d the language learning context, and age and
learning style, each of these hypotheses could be preceded by a
review o l the relevant literature.
84 Seconcf Lungtiuge Research Methotis
Exawzple 2
A researcher (Dunkel 1988) conducted research o n the r e l a t ~ o n s h ~ p
betwcen thc content o f 11 a n d LZ students' lecture notes and test
She contextualizes the research by describing the facil~tative
effects of taking notes in learning, the numerous programs t o teach these
skills, t h e limited empirical knowledge a s t o the relationship between the
content of t h e subjects' notes a n d their test perfurnlance, and the lack o f
information a s t o w h a t constitute 'good notes'.
She then continues with the l i t e r a t ~ ~ rreview e where she reports o n a
r~urnberof studies which investigated s o m e of these issues.
T h e literature review is organized according to different topics: studies
which examined the relationship between the content of notes a n d test
studies which attempted t o determine h o w 'quality of notes'
relates t o the p o s t - l e c t ~ ~ rrecognition
e o r recall ~ e r f o r m a n c e ,those which
examined notes taken by college students and their grades in certain
courses, and those studies which investigated student variables related to
lecture notes.
T h e literature report, a n d espei-ially the finding regarding gender
differences between note-takers, leads the researcher t o the rationale for
hcr o w n s t u d y : ' I f gender Jiffcrences between note-takers exist, it is
possible that there may be other differences attributable t o ethno-cultural
background o r language proficiency a m o n g note-takers from d ~ f f e r e n t
regions.' 'Such differences nlight provide important information concerning
the note-taking strategies employed by these students as well as the
relationship between the content of L 1 a n d L 2 students' notes a n d their
comprehension ~ n dretention of English language lecture material. . . .
T h u s In light o f the dearth of research cor~cerningcross-cultural diffcrcnccs
in students' notes, the complete lack o f research o n the content of L2
students' notes, and thc increased ped.lgogical focus placed o n training L2
students t o develop listening and note-taking skill in English, a study was
conductsd t o . . .' (p. 7 6 3 ) . Herc $he continues with a description of the
purpose a n d plan of her o w n study.
Thus, t h e resc3rchzr began by contextualizing her research
problem. She then reviewed and reported on the relevant literature,
organized according to different topics, a n d this led her to the
rationale and purpose of her own study. More specific research
questions followed, leading in t u r n to a description of the design of
her research and the procedure used in conducting i t .
These aspects o f d e s i g n a n d procedure will be discussed in the
following chapters of the book.
Summary
In this cl13prer we first discussed thc functions o t contextualizing
t h e research: to help select -1 rrsenrch problem, to broaden the
Corztextualization of research 85
p e r s p c ~ ~ i vuf
t . the research, to acquaint the researcher with existing
literature on the topic, t o create a rationale for the study, a n d to
help the researcher narrow down the research question in preparation
for conducting the research.
We then described the different sources for locating the literature:
references to existing material, such as indices, computer searches,
and bibliographies, and the actual material such as journal articles
and reviews. We ended the chapter with a description of criteria for
determining the relevance o f the material to the research topic,
p i d a n c e on procedures for reading the literature in preparation for
conducting the research, a n d suggestions on ways of organizing and
reporting the literature review.
Activities
1 Locate six references from indices on [he t o p ~ of
c the role and use
of strategies in reading con~prehension.T w o of the references
should be from language indices, two from educational indices,
and two from psychological and/or sociological indices. Which
descriptors did you find t o be most helpful in locating the
references ?
2 Choose a hypothetical research topic in your field of interest.
Locate ten articles on that topic through a survey of the different
sources (indices, annotated bibliographies). Try to obtain items
from a variety of sources (journals, books, edited collections,
reviews, papers presented a t meetings of professional bodies).
3 N o w determine which items are most relevant to thc research
topic. What criteria did you use t o make that decision?
4 Summarize the relevant items in a way that will lead to a research
question o r 3 hypothesis.
References
Aiken, E. G., T h o m a s , G. S., and Shennurn, W. A. 1975. 'hlemory for a
lecture: Etfects o f notes. lecture r:lte, a n d information dens~ty.'/ocir~z,zI
/ ' s y c h o l o g v67:439-444.
of E d u c ~ t i o n a ~
Baker, K . 1987. 'Comments o n Willig's "A rneta-analysis o t selected
studies o n the effectiveness of bilingual e d u c n t i o ~ ~ . " 'R e z ~ i e t c ~of
Erjur-~itiunizlRrsc7drch 57/3 :35 1 -.3 6 2 .
Baker, L. and Lombardi, 8. R. 19S.5. 'Students' lecture notes and their
relation to test perf0rrn;lnce.' T r i l i / ~ z n gr~f.['svc-hokc~gy
1?:28-32.
86 S e c o n d L u ~ z g u a g eR e s e a r c h M e t h o d s

Gass, S. a n d Selinker, L. 1983. L,~rilguageTransfer in Langu~zgeLearning. 5 The components of research

Rowley, Mass.: N e w b u r y House.
Dunkel, P. 1 9 8 8 . 'The content of L I a n d L 2 students' lecture notes a n d its
relation t o test ~ e r f o r m a n c e . 'T E S O L Quarterly 22/2:259-281.
Hedges, L. V. and Olkin, I. 1 9 8 5 . Statistical Methods for Meta-analysis.
Orlando, FA.: Academic Press.
Lee, J. 1986. ' O n the use of recall task t o measure L2 reading Whatever phenomenon varies in any manner wherever a n o t h e r
comprehension.' Studies in S e c o n ~ Language i Acquisition 8/2:201-212. phenomenon varies in some particular manner, is either a cause o r
Secada, W. G. 'This is 1 9 8 7 , n o t 1 9 8 0 : A comment o n a comment.' Review a n effect of that phenomenon, o r is connected with it through some
of Educational Research 5 7 / 3 :377-384. fact of causation.
Willig, A. C . 1985. 'A meta-analysis of selected studies o n the effectiveness ( J o h n Scuarc Mill: A S y s t e m of Logic)
of bilingual education.' Review of Educational Research 55/3:269-3 17.
Willig, A. C . 1987. 'Examining bilingual education research through meta-
analysis a n d narrative review: A response t o Baker.' Review of The need for a plan
Educational Research 57/3:.363-376. Designing research may be described as the process of planning a n d
organizing the elements o r components that comprise the research
study. Research must be guided from the very beginning by a plan
of some kind. Without a coherent plan, it is n o t possible to give
concrete expression to hypotheses which have been developed from
general questions n o r is it possible t o pursue answers to general
questions.
In Chapter 1, we noted that scientific research is disciplined
inquiry characterized by terms such as 'structured', 'organized',
'methodical', and 'systematic'. T h e lack of a clear plan for the
conduct of research may stem from the lack of clarity in the focus of
the researcher o r in the definition of thc goals of the research a n d its
questions. (See Chapter 3 . ) The purpose of the discussions in
Chapters 5 , 6 , a n d 7 is to aid in the formation of clear plans for
research once the research questions have been precisely focused.
There is n o o n e plan f o r researching a question but there are
many possible plans a n d different research formats. T h e nature of
the question o r the hypothesis will determine which approaches
and objectives are preferable. Sometimes researchers appear to be
predisposed to a particular research format. For example, a n
ethnographer might be convinced that the only valid way to
research a language question is by studying the language phenomena
within natural contexts.The experimentalist, o n the other hand,
may believe that only after the particular phenomenon has been
totally isolated from other distorting factors can it be adequately
studied. Each of these approaches could be viewed as potentially
complementary t o each other. O u r approach here, as is evident
from Chapter 7 where we discussed the four p a r u ~ n c t e r sfor second
88 S e c o n ~Lungtiage
i Res~rurchMethods
Ianguagc research, 1s that all o f tllese approaches are valid hut that
each looks a t different facets of the reality of sccond language
acqu~sit~on.
The research plan and the type of research
In previous chapters, we have referred t o different kinds of research
formats o r paradigms which one can use in second language
research. As the quotation a t the beginning of this chapter
indicatcs, one way to view research is to see it as the search for
explanations of cause-and-effect relationships. As Mill makes clear
in his statement, wherever o n e factor regularly varies in the
presence of another, we may be dealing with either a cause o r an
effect. It is important to note that we d o not know what causes
what; all we have is the co-occurrence of the phenomena. Another
possibility is, o f course, that co-occurring factors may not be
related a t all and their co-occurrence is purely coincidental. O n e of
the functions of statistical tests in research, such as those t o he
discussed in Chapter 9, is to determine the degree t o which the
relationships found are significant o r coincidental.
Aside from noting the co-occurrence of the phenomena, we
might wish to concentrate on describing the phenomena without
entering into the problem of whether phenomenon A causes
phenomenon B o r vice versa. In other words, rather than being
concerned with trying t o predict what will happen (A causes B), it
may be sufficient t o describe the phenomena o r the patterns of their
co-occurrence.
In Chapters 2 and 3 , we noted that research might have either a
heuristic o r a deductive objective. In heuristic research, w e claim
that we d o not know enough about the phenomenon o r that
perhaps a deductive approach is inappropriate because of the
nature of the phenomenon being studied. (See Smith and Heshusius
1986, for interesting insights into the problem of matching the type
of research t o the characteristics of the phenomenon being studied.)
We therefore attempt to describe it in order to discover possible
underlying patterns or relationships from the description.
In heuristic research, which we will discuss in detail in Chapter 6 ,
procedures are used to gather data which are then organized
according t o patterns o r a structure which emerges with the
research. Because o f this, heuristic research is more inductive and
more likely to arrive a t new insights into the phenomena being
studied. Planning heuristic research is concerned with deciding how
T h e components o f research 89
% to collect o r gain access to data. Ir, research describing the
8
p
= development of a scntencc type in the i~iterlanguagegrammar o f the
second language learner, researchers d o not attempt t o decide in
t advance h o w the data will look. Rather they must first decide on
the best methods o f collecting such data and under what conditions,
and then examine the data t o see if instances of the target sentence
type have been found.
C O n the other hand, in deductive research we make assurnptions
3 and try t o predict cause-and-effect relationships o r the co-
-2 occurrence o f phenomena. W e attempt t o support our predictions
by designing an investigation, collecting data, a n d statistically
.$,
~2
g examining the results. However, because this kind of research
:G:g attempts to demonstrate a clear relationship of cause and effect o r
&-occurrence, it becomes imperative that the research be so
meticulously designed that other factors which may also be present
6; - in the research context cannot explain the relationship. It is because
./. 2+ o f this need t o demonstrate a relationship unarnbiguously that
:iz,
-+;~.
5. deductive research is concerned with the problems of the control of
g. ;
&&: * ,
these factors o r variables, and intern31 and external validity.
Making predictions and controlling variables
g,/
,.@~;
. .
;, $,: Independent and dependent variables
; In the simplest and most straightforward case, a single variable (or
phenomenon in Mill's sense) which may be called the predictor will
predict what will happen t o a second single variable t o which it is
related in some way. The predictor variable is called the independent
variable, while the variable about which predictions are made is
called the dependent vuriable. In other words, variations in the
independent variable predict corresponding changes in the dependent
variable (the predicted). Another way to describe the relationship
between the independent and the dependent variable is to state that
the indepen~icntvariable is that factor o r phenomenon which the
investigator manipulates in order to see what effect any changes
will have. T h e dependent variable is the means by which any
changes are rneasureci.
Look a t the following excerpt from the abstract of a piece of
published research. T h e independent variable has been enclosed in
brackets I.. .] a n d the dependent variable has been italicized:
; T h e present research tested the hypothcs~s that predictions
f
-.
2:' .
concerning second language (SI.) achievement and use would be
.>s:
.$' :
Y
.3,".
A.