4 The shaping of landforms

Orogenic forces from inside the Earth can form huge mountain ranges. Over time, external agents shape
landforms, further influencing Earth's relief.

Water

• Karst relief forms when water dissolves' through permeable rock. On the surface, this can create landforms
such as canyons and sinkholes. Below the surface, the water can create caves with stalactites (cone-shaped
formations on ceilings) and stalagmites (cone-shaped formations on floors).

• Fluvial relief forms when the moving water of rivers erode2 rock.

• Glacial relief forms when large masses of ice move across high mountain and polar regions. This slow-
moving ice leaves U-shaped valleys as it erodes and transports rock across the land.

Wind

• Wind creates aeolian relief when it picks up and transports grains of sand and blows them against rocky
surfaces. Sand dunes are also aeolian landforms.

Temperature

As a result, frequent and sudden changes in temperature can create cracks and fractures in rock.

Humans

• Humans also shape the land with their actions.