Nepal Journal of Science and Technology 9 (2008) 105-109

Microbial Load on Paper/Polymer Currency and Coins

Tista Prasai1, Kayo Devi Yami1 and Dev Raj Joshi2
1
Nepal Academy of Science and Technology, Khumaltar, Lalitpur
2
Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu

Abstract
Currency notes and coins serve as an agency of transmission of microorganisms since they are passed freely from
hand to hand as a medium of exchange. A research, with an objective to explore the microbial load on Nepalese paper/
polymer currency notes and coins, was carried out at the Environment Laboratory of Nepal Academy of Science and
Technology, Khumaltar from November 2006 to May 2007. All together 63 samples of paper/polymer notes and
coins from different professionals of different places at Kathmandu were collected and analyzed for the presence of
microorganisms. Among the total tested paper/ polymer and coin samples, 98.4% were found to have heterotrophic
aerobic bacteria, 87.3% were contaminated with coliform bacteria and 79.4% showed presence of Staphylococci.
Contamination level was found in increasing order of coins> polymer notes>paper notes. The presence of high microbial
load on currency notes and coins indicate the potentials of such currencies for possible disease spread in the human
communities.
Key words: currency notes, coins, heterotrophic bacteria, Coliform bacteria, Staphylococci

Introduction
Paper currency is widely exchanged for goods and
services in countries worldwide. It is used for every type
of commerce. Accumulated data obtained over the last
20 years on the microbial status and survival of pathogens
on coins and currency notes indicate that this could
represent a potential cause of sporadic cases of food
borne illness (Barry 2002). The paper/polymer currency
notes and coins may harbor various deadly pathogenic
microorganisms. Currency in the form of notes and coins
represents a universal medium for the transmission of
bacteria in the environment and among humans (Xu et
al. 2005). There is a possibility that currency notes might
act as environmental vehicles for the transmission of
potential pathogenic microorganisms (Brady & Kelly
2000). Microbial contaminants may be transmitted either
directly through hand-to-hand contact, or indirectly, via
food, water or other inanimate objects. These routes of
transmission are of great importance in the health of many
populations in developing countries, where the frequency
of infection is general indication of local hygiene and
environmental sanitation levels.
Survival of various microorganisms on paper money
and coins indicates that this could represent a potential
cause of sporadic cases of food borne illness and
represents an often overlooked enteric disease reservoir
(Barry 2002). The presence of pathogenic
microorganisms on currency notes is of great concern
because the notes might play a role in the
transmission and spread of diseases. In the hands of
bus conductors and fish and meat sellers, currency
notes become literally pestilent. Currency notes
carry various bacteria (Barro et al. 2006). Pieces of
money are in permanent movement, passing in all
environments that constitute a reservoir and source
of various bacteria (Pomperayer & Gaylarde 2000).
Although there is no direct evidence that
presence of potential pathogens on currency notes
or coins results in infections but contaminated notes
may act as potential source of infections. Therefore,
this study aims to investigate the bacteria that might
play a significant role in order to explore the
possibilities of transmission of infectious agents
through currency notes and coins.
Materials and Methods
A descriptive quantitative study was conducted
taking all together 63 samples of paper/polymer
notes and coins collected from different sources in
Kathmandu. The objects were analyzed for the
presence of microorganisms at the Environment
Laboratory of Nepal Academy of Science and
Technology, Khumaltar during November 2006 to
May 2007.

105
 Nepal Journal of Science and Technology 9 (2008) 105-109

Sampling and sample collection Heterotrophic plate count

The study objects (paper/polymer notes and coins) were
collected randomly from different users from different
places in Kathmandu valley. The samples were collected
from grocery shops, canteens, vegetable shops, meat
shops, Pan Pasal and conductors of buses, microbuses
and mini buses at different parts of Kathmandu, Lalitpur
and Bhaktapur. During the collection of paper/polymer
notes and coins, users were requested to put these
objects into sterile plastic bags. The sealed bags were
then immediately transported to the laboratory where
further analysis was carried out.
Sample processing
Each paper/polymer currency notes were placed,
aseptically, in a test tube (25ml capacity) containing 10
ml of normal saline (10-1 dilution) and then shaked using
vortex shaker for one to two minutes so that microbes
adhered over the note surface come out to normal saline.
After this, the objects were taken out aseptically and
then washed. The contents of test tubes were used for
detection of microbes. In case of coins, each coin was
placed in a beaker (50-100ml) containing 10 ml normal
saline (10-1 dilution) with the help of sterile forceps and
gently shaked for one to two minutes. Then the coins
were taken out aseptically, washed with normal saline.
These were further used for detection of microbes. The
wash of currency notes and coins were subjected to the
following microbiological tests (Benson 1994).
Table 1. Sampling location distribution of paper notes, polymer notes and coins
Total aerobic heterotrophic plate count was carried
out by pour plate technique using plate count agar
(PCA). The plates were incubated at 370 C for 24 h
and total number of colony forming units (cfu) were
counted.
Coliform count
Total coliform count was carried out by pour plate
technique using violet red bile salt (VRBA). The
plates were incubated at 37 0C for 24 h and pink
colonies were enumerated.
Staphylococcal count
Total staphylococci count was carried out by pour
plate technique using mannitol salt agar (MSA). The
plates were incubated at 370C for 24 h and typical
yellow colonies were counted.
Identification of Staphylococci
Typical colonies of Staphylococci were subjected
to identification. The identification was based on
gram staining and biochemical tests (Baird 1996)
Results
Among 63 samples subjected to laboratory
investigation, 26 were coins, 23 paper notes and
14 polymer notes (Table 1). Paper notes analyzed
were that of Rs. 1, 2 and 5. Polymer notes were
that of Rs. 10 only, and coins of Rs. 1 and 2.
Highest numbers of samples were contributed by
bus/ minibus conductors followed by meat sellers
(Table 1)

S.N Sampling Distribution No. of paper note samples No of polymer note No. of coin samples
( Rs. 1, 2 and 5) (Rs. 10) samples ( Rs. 1 and 2)
1. Grocery shop 3 2 3
2. Canteens 3 2 3
3. Vegetable shop 3 2 2
4. Meat shop 6 3 7
5. Bus/ minibus conductors 7 5 8
6. Pan pasal - - 2
Total no. of samples 23 14 26

Load of heterotrophic bacteria
All (n=23) samples of paper currency notes were found
to be heavily contaminated (average load 3239.1 cfu/
note). However, one single sample from polymer note
was not contaminated (n=14). The average microbial
load on a single polymer note was found 723.8 cfu/ note.
All coins (n=26) were contaminated but average
bacterial count was low (507.3 cfu/ coin). Thus,
contamination level was found in order of paper
notes>polymer notes>coins (Table 2).

106
 T. Prasai et al./Microbial Load on Paper/Polymer..............

Table 2. Heterotrophic plate count

SN Paper/Polymer/Coin Samples with presence of No growth Average HPC

bacteria (cfu/note or coin)
1 Paper notes (n=23) 23 (100%) 0 3239.1
2 Polymer notes (n=14) 13 (92.9%) 1 (7.1%) 723.8
3 Coins (n=26) 26(100%) 0 507.3
Total (N=63) 62 (98.4%) 1 (1.6%) 1566.1

Load of coliform bacteria

Faecal indicator organism ‘coliform’ were enumerated
in all samples. It was estimated that above 91% paper
notes, 79% polymer notes and 89% coins were
contaminated with coliforms. The level of microbial
Table 3. Coliform count
load was the same as that of heterotrophic plate count
that is paper notes> polymer notes>coins. The coliform
bacterial load was 727, 220 and 167 cfu per note/coin
on paper notes, polymer notes and coins respectively
(Table 3).

SN Paper/Polymer/Coin No of samples with coliform No growth Average coliform count

bacteria (cfu/note or coin)
1 Paper Notes (n=23) 21 (91.3%) 2 (8.7%) 727
2 Polymer Notes (n=14) 11 (78.6%) 3 (21.4%) 220
3 Coins (n=26) 23 (88.8%) 3 (11.5%) 167
Total (N=63) 55 (87.3%) 8 (12.7%) 416

Load of Staphylococci
Staphylococci were detected in 87% paper currency with Staphylococci. The average load detected was
notes, 71% in polymer notes and 77% in coin samples. 483.5, 149 and 86.5 cfu per note/coin on paper note,
In average 79% samples were found to be contaminated polymer notes and coins respectively (Table 4).

Table 4. Staphylococcal count

SN Paper/Polymer/Coin No of samples with No growth Average Staphylococcal
Staphylococci count (cfu/note or coin)
1 Paper notes (n=23) 20 (87%) 03 (13%) 483.5
2 Polymer notes (n=14) 10 (71.4%) 04 (28.6%) 149
3 Coins (n=26) 20 (76.9%) 06 (23.1%) 86.5
Total (n=63) 50 (79.4%) 13 (20.6%) 257.8

Discussion
There is a possibility that currency notes might act as
environmental vehicles for the transmission of potential
pathogenic microorganisms (Abrams & Waterman
1972). Human occupational activities, without hygienic
intervention, especially those involving simultaneous
money handling, could introduce the risk of infections.
Contaminated currency is identified as a potential public
health hazard as pathogens can be spread by circulating
banknotes (Igumbor 2007).
In this study, altogether 63 Nepalese papers
polymer notes and coins were analyzed for the presence
of total mesophilic bacteria, indicator coliforms and
Staphylococci. Random sampling was adopted to collect
the samples money from various professional groups at
Kathmandu. This study reports increasing mesophilic
bacterial contamination level in the order of coins,
polymer notes and paper notes with maximum average
count of 3239 cfu/paper note. All coins (n=26) were
contaminated but average bacterial count was low
(507.3 cfu/coin). However, higher contamination level
has been reported in an investigation of money (1000
bacteria on coins and a few million on paper money) in
the Netherlands (Beumer 2007). Of course this depends
on the type of material the money is made of. In the
present study paper notes were more contaminated than

107
 Nepal Journal of Science and Technology 9 (2008) 105-109
polymer notes and coins. The results indicate that coins
are relatively safer to handle (Barro et al. 2006). Coins
usually carry few microorganisms, which is also the case
for some materials used in producing paper money
(Beumer 2007). Several authors have reported similar
results of microbiological status of money (Abrams &
Waterman 1972; Brady & Kelly 2002, Wendy and
Bonifazi 2002).
In this study we have reported that above 91%
paper notes, 79% polymer notes and 89% coins were
contaminated with coliforms. Staphylococci were
detected in 87% paper currency notes, 71% polymer
notes and 77% coins samples. In a similar study
conducted in Africa, bacteria were isolated from 96%
of the used banknotes, and none from the new
(control) notes (Igumbor et al. 2007).
Coliform bacteria are indicators of faecal
pollution. Staphylococcus aureus is commonly
present on the skin and in the nasal passage of about
one third of the human population. The level of
microbial load was same as that of heterotrophic plate
count that is paper notes> polymer notes>coins. Barro
et al. (2006) also reported a dominant presence of
coliforms and S. aureus on paper money. According
to them, total coliforms, thermotolerant coliforms and
Staphylococci were 540, 46 and 180 cfu/currency
respectively. Pieces of money were found to be
always associated with microorganisms (p d” 0.05).
In another study, twelve bacterial species were
isolated, with Staphylococcus epidermidis (13%),
Klebsiella species (11%) and Staphylococcus aureus
(11%) being the most prevalent (Igumbor 2007).
Money are in permanent movement, passing in all
environments that constitute a reservoir and source
of various bacteria as pathogenic Escherichia coli,
which can survive 11 days on the inert surfaces
(Pomperayer & Gaylarde 2000).
Transmission of microorganisms is possible from
any place where they are attached. Hand to hand
transfer of money plays important role in spread of
diseases. The number of transferring organisms from
coins or notes depends on a series of factors such as
the number of organisms present and their ability to
survive in dry environment (Beumer 2007). The form
of contact also makes a difference, whether it is by
touching contaminated money, which can transfer the
organisms to the hand. The source of contamination
108
may be chiefly dirty hands, food and water. Coliforms
and S. aureus can be re-introduced in food by many
ways. It was observed that, during vending
operations, the same hand alternatively served and
held food and money (Barro et al. 2002a, 2002b).
Money handling constitutes another risk factor of
street food contamination (Barro et al. 2006). These
routes of transmission are of great importance in the
health of many populations in developing countries,
where the frequency of infection is general indication
of local hygiene and environmental sanitation levels.
To date no outbreaks of foodborne and other
illness have been associated with infection from
money. However, evidence for the presence of
pathogenic bacteria on currency reinforces the need
for strict adherence to hygienic practices among
money handlers who also handle food and water.
Acknowledgement
We thank all the staff of the Environmental
Laboratory of NAST for their cooperation. We also
appreciate the cooperation of the professionals who
provided money samples for this study.
References
Abrams, B. L. and N. G. Waterman.1972. Dirty money.
Journal of American Medical Association 219:
1202-1203.
Baird, D. 1996. Staphylococcus: Cluster forming Gram
positive cocci. In: Mackie and MaCartny Practical
Medical Microbiology (Eds. J. G. Collee, A. G. Fraser,
B. P. Marmion, & A Simmons) (14 th Edition).
Churchill Livingstone. pp. 245-61.
Barro, N., P. Nikiéma, C.A.T. Ouattara and A. S. Traoré.
2002a. Evaluation de l’hygiène et de la qualité
microbiologique de quelques aliments rue et les
caractéristiques des consommateurs dans les villes
de Ouagadougou et de Bobo-Dioulasso (Burkina
Faso). Rev. Sci. Tech. Sci. Santé. 25: 7-21. (In French)
Barro, N., C.A.T. Ouattara, P. Nikiéma, A.S. Ouattara and
A.S. Traoré. 2002b. Evaluation de la qualité
microbiologique de quelques aliments de rue dans la
ville de Ouagadougou au Burkina Faso. Cah. Santé.
12: 369-374. (In French)
Barro, N., A. R. Bello, A. Savadogo, C. A. T. Ouattara.,
A. J. Ilboudo and A. S. Traoré. 2006. Hygienic status
assessment of dish washing waters, utensils, hands
and pieces of money from street food processing sites
in Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso), African Journal of
Biotechnology. 5 (11): 1107-1112.
 T. Prasai et al./Microbial Load on Paper/Polymer..............
Barry, M. 2002. Handling money and serving ready to eat
food. Food Service Technology 2: 1-3.
Benson, H. J. 1994. Microbiological Applications: A
Laboratory Manual in General Microbiology, (6 th
Edition), Wm C. Brown Company Publishers, Dubuque
Lowa.
Beumer, R. 2007. Filthy lucre? New Scientist Magazine
No. 2634: 81.
Brady, G. and J. Kelly. 2002. The assessement of public health
risk associated with the simultaneous handling of food
and money in the food industry. In: Report of central
goldfields money survey. Central Goldfields Shire
Council. Dunn, Son and Stone. pp. 1-10.
Igumbor, E.O., C.L. Obi, P.O. Bessong, N. Potgieter and T.C.
Mkasi. 2007. Microbiological analysis of banknotes
109
circulating in the Venda region of Limpopo province,
South Africa. Research in Action 103 (9 & 10): 365-
366.
Pomperayer R.D.M.C. and C.C. Gaylarde. 2000. The
influence of temperature on the adhesion of mixed
culture of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia
coli to propylene. Food Microbiology 17: 361-365.
Wendy, L. and R. N. Bonifazi. 2002. Money’s dirty, but
health risk overstated. Natural Foods Merchandiser
23: 36.
Xu, J., J. E. Moore and B. C. Millar. 2005. Ribosomal
DNA (rDNA) identification of the culturable bacterial
flora on monetary coinage from 17 currencies,
Journal of Environmental Health 67:1-7.
Nepal Journal of Science and Technology 9 (2008)

110