Reservoir Engineering-Waterflooding

MSc Petroleum Engineering
School of Engineering
Reservoir Engineering
Waterflooding
Yingfang Zhou, PhD， Reservoir Engineering Page 1 www.abdn.ac.uk

Course outline:
• General topics
• Fractional flow theory
• Buckley-Leverett one dimensional
displacement
• Calculation of oil recovery
• Displacement in layered reservoirs
• Scaling of spontaneous imbibition

List of figures:
• Figure 1. A typical oil well 11
• Figure 2. A typical flooding scheme 12
• Figure 3. Oil recovery categories 14
• Figure 4. A digitized reservoir 17
• Figure 5. Primary well status 26
• Figure 6. Wells’ status at a later time 27
• Figure 7. Typical peripheral waterflood. 31
• Figure 8. Flood patterns 32
• figure 9. Well arrangements for dipping reservoirs 33
• Figure 10. fluid distribution at pore level 35
• Figure 11. Schematic of a waterflooding scheme 35
• figure 12. Sketch of vertical sweep efficiency 36
• Figure 13. water saturation distribution as a function of distance, prior to breakthrough

in the producing well 56
• Figure 14. Effect of dip angle on fw. 69
• Figure 15. Effect of the capillary term on the fw curve 79

General topics
• What is a waterflooding
• How does it work
• Properties affect waterflooding

Primary Oil Recovery
• The initial stage of

producing oil from a
reservoir
• Use natural forces such as
- expansion of oil, gas or
both
- displacement by naturally
pressurized water
- drainage from a reservoir
in high elevation to a well
in lower elevation
- artificial techniques Figure 1. A typical oil well
(pumps)

Secondary Oil Recovery
• Injection of fluids in
a series of wells to
force oil into
another series of
wells (essentially
augmenting the
natural forces used
in primary methods)
Figure 2. A typical flooding scheme • Waterflooding

Recovery Factor
Ratio of recoverable oil and / or gas to estimated oil and /

or gas in place in reservoir. Determined by a various factors
such as reservoir dimensions, pressure, nature of
hydrocarbons, and development plan.
Np
= RF
N
N = Original oil in place, resource
Np = Produced hydrocarbon

Recovery Factor
Figure 3. Oil recovery categories

What is waterflooding
• It is the injection of water into a wellbore to

push, or “drive” oil to another well where it can
be produced
• Recognized enhanced oil recovery technique
since early 1900’s
• Some oil reservoirs have natural water influx,
which increases oil production
• Called “water drive” reservoirs
• They are natural “waterfloods”

How does a waterflooding work
• Oil reservoirs and “Original Oil in Place”

• Oil recovery under “primary” production
• Target oil for waterflooding recovery

Volumetric calculation, OOIP
• Static log and core analysis measurements

form the basic for calculating the OOIP.
7758Ah NTG (1 − S wi )
N =
B oi
where,
N = oil in place, stb
A = drainage area, acres
Boi = initial formation volume factor,rb/stb
h = individual zone thickness, ft
φ = porosity, fraction
Swi = water saturation, fraction
NTG= Net to Gross, fraction
Figure 4. A digitized reservoir

Uncertainties in OOIP
Sources of uncertainties 7758Ah (1 − S wi )
N =
• Seismic interpretation B oi
• Reservoir area
• Well logging
• Reservoir area, WOC, porosity, Swi, NTG
• Cutoff and reservoir intervals

• Porosity, height, Swi, NTG
• PVT
• Volume factor
Figure 4. A digitized reservoir

Primary oil recovery
The Amount of Recoverable Oil Depends on the Natural
(Primary) Reservoir Drive Mechanism
• Solution Gas Drive
• Recovers 5% to 15% OOIP
• Leaving behind 85% to 95% of the OOIP
• Solution Gas Drive + Gas Cap Expansion

• Natural Water Drive


Why would you need to waterflood?
• MANY (majority?) oil reservoirs are solution gas

drive
• Waterflooding can recover much of the oil left
behind under “Primary” production, especially a
solution gas drive system
• Since waterflooding usually follows “primary”
production, it is often called a “secondary” recovery
technique

How does a waterflood work
• Certain oil wells are converted to water injection

wells.
• Other oil wells remain as producers.
• The injected water displaces, or “pushes” oil to the
producing wells.

Waterflood example
Figure 5. Primary well status

Waterflood example
Figure 6. Wells’ status at a later time

Properties affect waterflooding
• Well patterns
• Reservoir characteristics for waterflooding
• Timing of waterflooding
• Effectiveness of waterflooding

Water Flooding Patterns
Definition: The location of injection and production

wells is known as the “flooding pattern”
There are essentially four types of flooding pattern:

• Irregular injection patterns
• Peripheral injection patterns
• Regular injection patterns
• Crestal and basal injection patterns

Irregular Injection Patterns
• Typical offshore where infrastructure locations and drilling

radius strongly influence well placement.
• Surface or subsurface topology and/or the use of slant-hole
drilling techniques may result in production or injection wells
that are not uniformly located.
• Some small reservoirs are developed for primary production
with a limited number of wells and when the economics are
marginal, perhaps only few production wells are converted
into injectors in a non-uniform pattern.
• Faulting and localized variations in porosity or permeability
may also lead to irregular patterns.

Peripheral Injection Patterns
• The injection wells are
located at the external
boundary of the reservoir
and the oil is displaced
toward the interior of the
reservoir; often producers
at the crest of a 4-way
dipping structure with
down-flank water
injectors.
Figure 7. Typical peripheral waterflood.

Regular Injection Patterns
• Usually employed
onshore, with
vertical producers
and injectors
arranged in regular
patterns
Figure 8. Flood patterns

Crestal and Basal Injection Patterns
• Basal water injection is common,

due to gravity segregation effects
• Crestal injection of water usually
reserved for reservoir pressure
maintenance, when the flanks are
less accessible. e.g. the Zakum
field in the Arabian Gulf
figure 9. Well arrangements for dipping reservoirs

Production history in a 5-spot waterflood pattern
One producer Early time, 100% Relatively early time,

and one injector oil production 100% oil production
Midlife, oil and Late time, amount of

water production water production;
Areal sweep efficiency

Reservoir oil recovery
▪ Recovery factor (RF) is defined as the ratio of the quantity of hydrocarbon
extracted to the quantity originally contained in the reservoir.
▪ RF in heterogeneous reservoir is given by: RF = E ps  Ems
• E ps is pore scale displacement efficiency.
• Ems is macroscopic sweep efficiency, and it also works in the vertical
dimension.
ms EA V =E E
Figure 10. fluid distribution at pore level
Figure 11. Schematic of a waterflooding scheme

Sketch of vertical sweep efficiency
figure 12. Sketch of vertical sweep efficiency

Reservoir characteristics for waterflooding
The following reservoir characteristics must be

considered in determining the suitability of a candidate
reservoir for water flooding:
• Reservoir geometry and depth
• Lithology and rock properties

• Fluid properties and fluid saturations
• Reservoir uniformity and pay continuity, Reservoir Heterogeneity
• Primary reservoir-driving mechanisms

Displacement efficiency
Displacement efficiency is the fraction of movable oil that has

been recovered from the swept zone at any given time.
Mathematically, the displacement efficiency is expressed as:
Volume of oil at the start - Remaining oil volume

ED =
Volume of oil at the start
S  S  S  S 
PV oi  − PV o   oi  −  o 
=  Boi   Bo  =  Boi   Bo 
S   Soi 
PV oi   
 oi 
B  oi 
B
Soi = initial oil saturation

Boi = initial oil formulation volume factor, bbl/STB
Bo = oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB
So = Average oil saturation

Reservoir hydrocarbon recovery
Np ≈ N*EA*EV*ED
RF=Np/N
Np = Cumulative Waterflood Recovery, BBL.
N = Oil in Place at Start of Injection, BBL.
EA = Areal Sweep Efficiency, Fraction
EV = Vertical Sweep Efficiency, Fraction
ED = Displacement Efficiency, Fraction
Evaluating Waterflood Effectiveness
Sweep Efficiency
• Ed is the fraction of movable oil that has been is
displaced from the swept zone at any given time or pore
volume injected. Because an immiscible gas injection or
waterflooding will always leave behind some residual oil,
Ed < 1.
• EA is the areal sweep efficiency; the fractional area of
the pattern that is swept by the displacing fluid. It is
determined by:
• fluid nobilities
• flood pattern
• areal heterogeneity
• volume of water injected
Evaluating Waterflooding Effectiveness
Ev is the vertical sweep efficiency; the fraction of the vertical section
of the pay zone that is contacted by injected fluids. The vertical
sweep efficiency is primarily a function of:
• vertical heterogeneity
• degree of gravity segregation
• fluid nobilities
• volume of water injected
Ev x EA is the volumetric sweep efficiency; the overall fraction of
the flood pattern that is contacted by the injected water.
The values of Ea, Ed and Ev all increase during the
waterflooding process and reach their maxima at the end
of the project. Effective waterflooding relies on
maximising these values.

Displacement efficiency
 Soi   So  Constant oil formation

  −   volume factor
 Boi   Bo  Soi − So
ED = ED =
 Soi  Soi
 
 Boi 
The initial oil saturation could be expressed as, Soi=1-Swi-Sgi.

For two phase flow, no gas is presented in the system, and then
the displacement efficiency could be expressed more
conveniently in terms of water saturation,
S w − S wi
ED =
1 − S wi

Example:
A saturated oil reservoir is under consideration to be waterflooded immediately

after drilling and completion. Core analysis tests indicate that the initial and
residual oil saturations are 70% and 35%, respectively.
Calculate the displacement efficiency when the oil saturation is reduced to 65%,
60%, 55%, 50%, and 35%. Assume that Bo will remain constant throughout the
project life.

Solution
Calculate initial water saturation:
𝑆𝑤𝑖 =1-0.7=0.3 Sw
Calculate ED Water Oil

S w − S wi
ED =
1 − S wi Distance
𝑆𝒐 𝑆𝑤 = 1 - 𝑆𝒐 𝑆𝑤 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖
𝐸𝐷 =
1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖
0.65 0.35 0.071
0.60 0.40 0.142
0.55 0.45 0.214
0.50 0.50 0.286
𝑆𝑜𝑟 = 0.35 0.65 0.500 (maximum)

Outline
• General topics
displacement
• Frontal advance equation

Frontal Displacement Theory
• Frontal Displacement Theory was developed by Buckley and
Leverett (1942) to describe immiscible displacement in one
dimension.
• It can be used to determine the increase in water saturation
behind an advancing flood front.
• Development is based on two equations:
• Fractional Flow Equation
• Frontal Advance Equation
Figure 13. water saturation distribution as a function of

distance, prior to breakthrough in the producing well

Fractional Flow Equation
• Fractional flow for oil and water is defined as the

water flow rate divided by the total flow rate:
qw qw
fw = =
qt qw + qo
Where:
fw = fraction of water flowing i.e. water cut

qt = total flow rate, bbl/day
qw = water flow rate, bbl/day
qo = oil flow rate, bbl/day

qw qw
fw = =
qt qw + qo
• Extend Darcy’s law for multiphase flow
− kk rw A  pw  qw w  pw 
qw = + g  sin ( )  = − + g  sin ( )
w  x w  kk rw A  x w 
− kk ro A  po  qo o  po 
qo = + g  sin ( )  = − + g  sin ( )
o  x o  kk ro A  x o 
where subscripts o, w = oil and water
k =permeability
kro, krw =relative permeability
qw w qo o
μo, μw = viscosity − =
Po, Pw = pressure kk rw A kk ro A
ρo, ρw = density
A = cross-sectional area  po pw 
x = distance  −  − g ( w −  o )sin ( )
α = dip angle  x x 
qw w qo o  po pw 
− = −  − g ( w −  o )sin ( )
kk rw A kk ro A  x x 
• From the definition of capillary pressure, Pc, pc = po − pw

qw  w qo o
−
kk rw A kk ro A
 p p  q 
=  o − w  − g ( w −  o )sin ( )  w w − t
(q − qo )o = 1  pc − g sin( )
 
 x x  qt kk rw A qt kk ro A qt  x 
p
= c − g sin ( )
x
kk ro A  pc 
1+ − g   sin ( )
fw =
qw
=
qw qt o  x 
fw =
qt qw + qo k 
1 + ro w
k rw o
kk ro A  pc 
1+ − g   sin ( )
qt o  x 
fw =
k 
1 + ro w
k rw o
0.001127kk ro A  pc 
•In field unit, 1+  x − 0 . 433  sin ( )
qt o
fw =
k 
where 1 + ro w
fw = fraction of water (water cut), bbl/bbl k rw o
= water-oil density differences, g/cm3
kw = effective permeability of water, md
qt = total flow rate, bbl/day
μo = oil viscosity, cp
μw = water viscosity, cp
A = cross-sectional area, ft2
Δ = water-oil density difference, g/cm3

•In general term for any injected fluid

0.001127kk ro A  pc 
1+  x − 0 . 433  sin ( )
qt o
fD =
k ro  D
1+
k rD o
•The effect of capillary pressure is usually neglected because

the capillary pressure gradient is generally small.
1+
0.001127kk ro A
0.433 sin( )
qt o
fD =
k 
1 + ro D
k rD o
• In a horizontal reservoir i.e. no dip, the fractional flow equation can be
written as: 1
fw =
k 
1 + ro w
k rw o
• Water-Oil ratio (WOR) is an important quantity in measuring
performance and forecasting future production and it is given by:
qw
WOR =
qo
•Express the water cut in term of WOR (Reservoir condition),
qw
qw WOR qo
fw =  fw = =
qw + qo qw
+ 1 WOR + 1
qo

• At the surface condition, qws

Bw
qw qws Bw WORs Bw qos
fw = = = =
qw + qo qws Bw + qos Bo qws B + B WORs Bw + Bo
w o
qos
Bo f w Bo
 WORs = = WORr
Bw (1 − f w ) Bw
Where: 1
f ws =
Qw = surface water production rate
 1  Bw
Qo = surface oil production rate 1 +  − 1
WORs = water-oil ratio at surface conditions  fw  Bo

Mobility and mobility ratio
• Mobility is defined as, M=k/u

•Total mobility during two phase flow
kk rw kk ro
M ow = +
w o
•Mobility ratio,
k ro k rw
M o k ro o +
= M ow o w
=
M w k rw w Mo k ro (S wi )
o

Fractional Flow Curve
• Parameters that affect the fractional flow curve

•Relative permeability curve, Kro/krw
•Viscosity ratio, uw/uo
•Gravity term, density difference and dip angle
1+
0.001127kk ro A
0.433 sin( )
qt o
fw =
k 
1 + ro w
k rw o

•Effect of relative permeability curve, neglect gravity effect.
•Corey’s correlation
S w − S wi
S wn ( S w ) = k ro ( S w ) = (1 − S wn ( S w )) N o k rw ( S w ) = k rw
o
S wn ( S w ) N w
1 − S wi − S orw
1
1 1
0.9
0.9 0.9 case 1
0.8 case 2
0.8 0.8
0.7
0.7 0.7
0.6
0.6 0.6
0.5
kr
fw
0.5 0.5
kr
0.4
0.4 0.4
0.3
0.3 0.3
0.2
0.2 0.2
0.1
0.1 0.1
0
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Sw Sw Sw
1
No=5, Nw=3, k = 0.3
o
rw
No=2, Nw=2, k = 0.5
o
rw
fw =
k ro w
1+
k rw o
•Effect of viscosity ratio, neglect gravity effect.
1
No=2, Nw=2, k = 0.5
o
rw No=5, Nw=3, k = 0.3
o
rw
fw =
k 
1 1 + ro w
k rw o
1
0.9 uw/uo=0.5
0.9 uw/uo=0.5
0.8 uw/uo=1
0.8 uw/uo=1
uw/uo=10
0.7 uw/uo=10
0.7
fw
0.6
fw
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Sw
Sw
Figure shows the general effect of viscosity ratio on the fractional flow curve for both water-
wet and oil-wet rock systems. This illustration reveals that regardless of the system
wettability, a higher oil viscosity results in an upward shift (an increase) in the fractional flow
curve.

Mobility and mobility ratio
No=2, Nw=2,
o
k rw = 0.5 No=5, Nw=3,
o
k rw = 0.3
1 1
0.9 0.9 uw/uo=0.5
0.8 0.8 uw/uo=1
0.7 0.7 uw/uo=10
Mow
Mow
0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
uw/uo=0.5
0.2 uw/uo=1 0.2
0.1 uw/uo=10 0.1
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Sw Sw

•Effect of gravity term 1+

0.001127kk ro A
0.433 sin ( )
qt o
fw =
•Downdip flooding k 
1 + ro w
k rw o
sin ( )
1+ X
qt
fw =
k 
1 + ro w
k rw o
•Updip flooding
sin ( )
1− X
qt
fw =
k ro w
1+
k rw o
0.001127kk ro A0.433 
X= Figure 14. Effect of dip angle on fw.
o
Counter flow in down dip waterflooding
•It is interesting to re-examine fractional flow Equation when displacing
sin ( ) k ro w
the oil down dip and X 
qt k rw o
sin ( )
1+ X
qt Injection
fw = 1 Well
k ro w
1+ Production
k rw o
Well
This could only occur when displacing the oil down dip
at a low water injection rate qt. The resulting effect of
this possibility is called a counterflow, where the oil
phase is moving in a direction opposite to that of the
water (oil is moving upward and the water downward).
When the water-injection wells are located at the top
of a tilted formation, the injection rate must be high to
avoid oil migration to the top of the formation.

Example
Use corey’s correlation to plot the fractional flow curve for a

linear reservoir system with oil-water viscosity ratio equals
to 0.1, 1 and 10, Swi=0.2, Sor=0.1.
o
k rw = 0.5 No=4, Nw=4,
S w − S wi
S wn ( S w ) = kro ( Sw ) = (1 − Swn ( Sw )) No krw ( Sw ) = krw
o
Swn ( Sw ) N w
1 − S wi − S orw

Solution
Relative permeability curves Fractional flow curves
1
1
0.9 uw/uo=0.1
0.9 kro krw
0.8 uw/uo=1
0.8
uw/uo=10
0.7 0.7
fw
kr
0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Sw
Sw
1
fw =
k 
1 + ro w
krw o
Frontal Advance Equation
• The Fractional Flow Equation describes the water cut at any point
in the reservoir as a function of Sw
• However, this assumes that Sw is known at this point at any given
time
• In order to calculate this, a different time-dependent solution is
required
• This Frontal Advance Equation will provide a solution for the
water saturation profile in the reservoir at any given time during
water-injection.

“All models are false;
some models are useful.”
- George E P Box

Buckley-Leverett method
• 1D flow through a homogenous permeable medium. No phase

changes.
• Incompressible phases (and rock).
• Uniform initial conditions.
• Immediate attainment of local steady-state conditions, which are a
function of local phase saturations and compositions only.
• Absence of all dispersive processes: diffusion, dispersion, heat
conduction: governing equations are 1st-order p.d.e.’s
• Besides surfactant adsorption, fluids do not react with the rock.
• Newtonian mobilities for all phases.
• For this lecture, only two phases present at any location.
• Absence of gravity forces, fingering and dispersion

Buckley and Leverett Theory
• Volume entering the element – Volume leaving the element
= change in the fluid volume.
• Volume of water entering the element = qt f wdt
• Volume of water leaving the element = qt ( f w − df w )dt
• Change in the fluid volume = AdxdS w / 5.615
qt f wdt − qt ( f w − df w )dt = AdxdS w / 5.615

 qt df wdt = AdxdS w / 5.615
df w A dS w
 = Conservation equation
dx 5.615qt dt
Figure 14. Water flow through a linear differential
element
where:
A = cross-sectional area, ft2
qt = total flow rate (oil + water), bbl/day
• Conservation equation,
df w A dS w
=
dx 5.615qt dt
• Front advance equation
Cubic
feet per
barrel
 dx   df w 
  = (v ) = 5 . 615
qt
 
At
Sw
 dt  Sw  dS w  Sw
Slope of the
Speed of fractional flow
the flood curve
front, ft/day

• Front advance equation
 dx   df w 
  = (v ) = 5 . 615
qt
 
At
Sw
 dt  Sw  dS w  Sw • The distance travelled by the flood front is
q  df  proportional both to the water injected
 (dx )Sw = 5.615 t  w  dt
At  dS w  S and to the slope of the fractional flow
w
curve.
x
 df w  t
  (dx )Sw
qt
= 5.615    dt • A shock front develops, where the
0
At dS w  Sw 0 saturation rises rapidly from Swi to Swf as the
qt t  df w 
 ( x )Sw = 5.615
flood front moves.
 
At  dS w  S where:
w
Winj = cumulative water injected, bbl
 df w 
 ( x )Sw = 5.615
Wi
  t = time, days
At  dS w  Sw (x)Sw = distance from the injection pt for any
given saturation Sw, ft
Shock front saturation
• Fractional flow curve and its derivative without (L) and with (R) the inclusion of a capillary pressure
term.
• With the Pc term, the water saturations behind the shock front, given by Swi<Sw<Swf, move with the
same speed as indicated by the constant value of the derivative.
Constant
f w (S wf )
1 speed 1.4
0.9
1.2
0.8
0.7 1
0.6
0.8
dfw/dSw
0.5
kr
0.6
0.4
0.3 0.4
0.2
0.2
0.1
0 0
0 0.2 0.4
Sw
0.6
S wf
0.8 1
f w ( S wf ) − 0 f w Figure 15. Effect of the capillary term on the fw curve

=
S wf − S wi S w
Mobility ratio at shock front
•Shock front mobility ratio at shock front is defined as,

 k ro k rw 
 + 
(M ow )S  o w  Swf
wf
=
Mo k ro (S wi )
•Favourable displacement,
o
(M ow )S wf
1
Mo
• Unfavourable displacement,
(M ow )S wf
1
Mo

Application-saturation profile evolution
• The goal of Fractional Flow and Frontal Advance theory is to allow us to
forecast production, water cut development and ultimate oil recovery, based
on simple modelling techniques.
• It can be shown that a tangent drawn from (Sw=Swc,fw=0) to the fractional
flow curve meets it at a point where Sw=Swf.
• The slope of the curve at any point where
Sw>Swf allows us to calculate the distance of
any saturation from the injection well at any
given time by applying:
 df w 
(x )S = 5.615
Wi
 
w
At  dS w  Sw
c
Figure 16. Fractional flow curve.

Application- water break through time
• it can be shown that the number of pore volumes of water injected at time
of breakthrough are given by,
 df w 
(x )S = L = 5.615
Wi
  
5.615Wi
= QibT =
1
wf
At  dS w  Swf At L  df w 
 
 dS w  Swf
• Generally it is observed that a significant number of pore volumes of water
need to be swept in order to achieve significant recovery factors in
waterflooding projects.
• This is a frequent oversight in project design with respect to water injection
and water handling/processing capacity; many developments manage to
sweep only c. 1 PV of water during life of field.

Exercise
A waterflooding is characterised by the following parameters:
Sw krw kro
0.20 0.000 0.864 Bo = 1.5 rb/stb
0.25 0.003 0.666
0.30
0.35
0.010
0.023
0.500
0.365 Bw = 1.0 rb/stb
0.40 0.040 0.256
0.45
0.50
0.063
0.090
0.172
0.108
o = 0.4 cp
w = 1.5 cp
0.55 0.123 0.063
0.60 0.160 0.032
0.65 0.203 0.014
0.70 0.250 0.004
0.75 0.303 0.001
0.80 0.360 0.000

Exercise
1. Calculate the fractional flow, fw, and the producing water-cut,

fws, and plot them as functions of Sw
EG 40JS Reservoir Engineering II: Performance and
Model 1 1
fw = , f ws =
ro  w
September –kDecember 2011  1  Bw
1+ 1 +  − 1
k rw o  fw  Bo
2. Estimate the breakthrough saturation from the plot and the

surface water-cut at breakthrough.
3. Is the displacement favourable or unfavourable?

Solution
•Calculate fractional flow curves and related surface water cut curves
as given below,
Sw krw kro fw fws
0.2 0 0.864 0 0
0.25 0.003 0.666 0.0012 0.001799
0.3 0.01 0.5 0.005305 0.007937
0.35 0.023 0.365 0.016526 0.024586
0.4 0.04 0.256 0.04 0.058824
0.45 0.063 0.172 0.088983 0.127789
0.5 0.09 0.108 0.181818 0.25
0.55 0.123 0.063 0.34238 0.438503
0.6 0.16 0.032 0.571429 0.666667
0.65 0.203 0.014 0.794521 0.852941
0.7 0.25 0.004 0.943396 0.961538
0.75 0.303 0.001 0.987775 0.991817
0.8 0.36 0 1 1

Solution
S wf = 0.7
1 5
0.9 fw 4.5
0.8 4
EG 40JSdfw/dsw
0.7
Reservoir Engineering II: Performance and 3.5
Model
0.6 3
September – December 2011
0.5 2.5
0.4 2
0.3 1.5
0.2 1
0.1 0.5
0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

Solution
f w (S wf ) = 0.94 f ws (S wf ) = 0.96
1
0.9
fw fws
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

Solution
0.9
0.8 fw Mow
0.7
0.6
M ow (S wf ) 0.177
= 1
fw
0.5
Mo 0.864
M ow (S wf ) = 0.177
0.4
0.3 0.4
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Sw
•Favourable displacement
Exercise
A waterflooding is characterised by the Sw fw

0.2 0.035629
following parameters:
0.25 0.057415
0.3 0.091262
0.35 0.142056
o = 2cp, w = 1cp,  = 0.2 0.4 0.214448
Cross - section area A = 26400 ft , Formation thickness h = 20 ft , 0.45 0.310386
injection rate q = 100bbl / day 0.5 0.425969
0.55 0.55025
0.6 0.668561
0.65 0.768824
•Calculate and plot the water saturation 0.7 0.845754
profile after 100, 200, and 500 days.
0.75 0.900401
Wi  df w 
( )
0.8 0.937126
x Sw = 5.615   0.85 0.960898
At  dS w  S 0.9 0.975913
w

Solution
Sw fw dfw/dSw
0.2 0.035629 0.640721
0.25 0.057415 0.968024
 df w 
0.3 0.091262 1.392843
(x )S = 5.615
Wi
 
0.35
0.4
0.142056
0.214448
1.868847
2.284385
w
At  dS w  Sw
0.45 0.310386 2.4931
0.5 0.425969 2.405045
0.55 0.55025 2.059479 t=100 t=2000 t=500
0.6 0.668561 1.591808 169.2092 338.4185 846.0462
0.65 0.768824 1.136136 120.7713 241.5426 603.8565
0.7 0.845754 0.765842 81.40903 162.8181 407.0451
0.75 0.900401 0.49663 52.79172 105.5834 263.9586
0.8 0.937126 0.31404 33.3824 66.7648 166.912
0.85 0.960898 0.195435 20.77469 41.54938 103.8734
0.9 0.975913 0 0 0 0

Solution
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Sw
0.5
0.4
0.3
t=100days t=200days t=500days
0.2
0.1
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
x

Calculate displacement efficiency
• Displacement efficiency is defined as,

S wavg − S wi
RF =
EG 40JS Reservoir1 − S wi Engineering II: Performance and
• Where,
Model x2 2 2
 S ( x)dx – December
September [d ( xS ) −xdS ] 2011
w
S x −S x
w  xdS w w
S wavg = = = −
x1 1 w2 2 w1 1 1
x 2 − x1 x 2 − x1 x 2 − x1 x 2 − x1
S w 2 x 2 − S w1 x1 V (t )
2
df w ( S w ) S w 2 x 2 − S w1 x1 V (t )( f w 2 − f w1 )
A( x 2 − x1 ) 1 dS w
= − dS = −
x 2 − x1 x 2 − x1 A( x 2 − x1 )
w
• When x2=L, and x1=0 gives,

1-f w ( S w ) 1-f w ( S w )
Swavg = Sw + 1-f w ( S w )Qi = Sw +  Sw +
f w f w
S w S w

Exercise
Sw krw kro fw
0.3257 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000
0.3501 0.0123 0.7623 0.1143
0.3746 0.0244 0.5863 0.2498
• Calculate the displacement 0.3991 0.0366 0.4515 0.3934
efficiency using the following 0.4236 0.0493 0.3448 0.5335
EG 40JS Reservoir Engineering
parameters. II:
0.4480 Performance
0.0627 0.2585 and0.6599
0.4725 0.0771 0.1885 0.7659
Model 0.4970 0.0928 0.1324 0.8487
September – December 20110.5215 0.1100 0.0891 0.9081
Water cut, 0.5459 0.1288 0.0572 0.9474
𝜇𝑜 =8cp 0.5704 0.1496 0.0352 0.9714
𝜇𝑤 =1cp 0.5949 0.1725 0.0207 0.9852
0.6193 0.1976 0.0114 0.9928
0.6438 0.2251 0.0051 0.9972
0.6683 0.2552 0.0008 0.9996
0.6928 0.2879 0.0000 1.0000

Solution
• Calculate average saturation as a function of saturation at

the outlet,
EG 40JS Reservoir Engineering II: Performance and
Model 1-f w ( S w ) 1-f w ( S w )
Swavg = Sw + 1-f w ( S w )Qi = Sw +  Sw +
September – December 2011 f w f w
S w S w
• Calculate the displacement efficiency using,
S wavg − S wi
RF =
1 − S wi

Solution
krw & kro fw

1.0
1.0
krw
0.8 EG 40JS Reservoir Engineering II: Performance and
kro
fw
0.8
0.452604295
Model
0.6 0.6
September – December 2011
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0
0.0 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
η
Sw

Outline
• General topics
displacement

Spontaneous imbibition
• Water flow into rock spontaneously with capillary force.

• It happens often in fractured rock.

Solution of spontaneous imbibition, Darcy’s unit
• Mass conservation equation,
qw S w
=
x t No gravity term and injection rate
w   pc  w   pc 
qw = q
 t + k o +  sin ( )   q =  ko  
o   x 
w
o   x 
• Then, combine these two equation, gives
  kow pc S w  S w S w   S w 
  +  =0 =  D( Sw ) 
x  t S w x  t t x  x 
kow pc
D( Sw ) = − Sw
t S w
1-Sor, for stronger water wet
• Boundary condition, Sw1=Sw (Pc=0), other cases

x
• Define the following, =
t
• And we assume that the solution can be stated as Sw(w) only, and
dF
we also we can write,  = and F ( Swc ) = 0, and Fmax = F ( Sw1 )
dS w
• Now, we can write,
S w S w   dS w S w S w  1 dS w
= =− = =
t  t 2t d x  x t d
• And then change PDE to ODE,
S w   S  dS d  dS w 
=  D( Sw ) w    w + 2 D =0
t x  x  d d  d 

dF
= F ( S wc ) = 0, and Fmax = F ( S w1 )
dS w
x
• Define the following,  =
t
dS w d  dS w  dS w dS w
 +2 D  = 0   d = −2 D
d d  d  d d
dS w d d 2F
 F ( S w ) − F ( S wc ) = −2 D F = −2 D  F 2 = −2 D
d dS w d Sw
• Water flow rate can be expressed as,
w
  pc  S w kow pc
qw =ko  x  = −D x
o D( Sw ) = −
   t S w
• With S w = S w  = 1 dS w
x  x t d
w   pc  S w D dS w FF ' ' dS w F
qw = 
 o  x 
k = −D = − = =
o    x t d 2 t d 2 t
• Cumulative water that enters the system is,

t t F
Qw =  qwdt =  max
dt = F max t
0 0 2 t
• The amount imbibes scales as the square-root of time.
• This provide us fundamental for scale recovery of spontaneous
imbibition as a function of dimensionless time.
• The solution of saturation profile could be obtained using a simple
numerical approach.
d 2F
F 2 = −2 D
d Sw

• The solution of saturation profile could be obtained using a simple

numerical approach.
• Compute D for given relative permeability and capillary
pressure curves, k  p
D( Sw ) = − o w c
t S w
• We guess Fmax and impose F’(Sw1)=0.

• Iterate to find the value of Fmax such that when F(Swc)=0.
• Example is given as in the following slides.

• Compute D for given relative permeability and capillary pressure

curves,

• Iterate to find the value of Fmax such that when F(Swc)=0,
x
=
t

Scale of oil recovery and time
• Cumulative water that enters the system is,

t t F max
Qw =  qwdt =  dt = F max t
0 0 2 t
• This indicates that the cumulative oil production before water
breakthrough could be expressed a function of
Qw F max t
RF  =
Lspec Lspec

Existing scaling group
• Different scaling groups have been proposed using different
assumptions, (Schmid and Geiger, 2013)
Dimensionless time Assumption Proportionality constant
𝑆𝐵𝐶
Lucas–Washburn (1918/21), Washburn 11 𝜎 𝑆𝑤 − 𝑆0 )𝑘𝑟𝑤 𝐽′(𝑆𝑤

𝑡𝑑 ∝ 2 𝑟 𝑡 𝜇𝑜 ≪ 𝜇𝑤 𝑐≈඲ 𝑑𝑆𝑤
(1921) 2 𝐿𝑐 𝜇𝑤 𝐹(𝑆𝑤 )
𝑆0
𝑆𝐵𝐶
1 𝑘 𝜎 𝑆𝑤 − 𝑆0) 𝑘𝑟𝑛 𝑘𝑟𝑤 𝐽′(𝑆𝑤

Rapoport (1955), Mattax and Kyte (1962) 𝑡𝑑 ∝ 𝑡 𝜇𝑜 = 𝜇𝑤 𝑐=඲ 𝑑𝑆𝑤
𝐿2𝑐 𝜑 𝜇𝑤 𝐹(𝑆𝑤 )
𝑆0
𝑆𝐵𝐶
1 𝑘 𝜎 𝜇𝑜 ≈ 𝜇𝑤 𝑆𝑤 − 𝑆0 ) 𝑘𝑟𝑛 𝑘𝑟𝑤 𝐽′(𝑆𝑤

Ma et al. (1997) 𝑡𝑑 ∝ 2 𝑡 𝑐≈ ඲ 𝑑𝑆𝑤
𝐿𝑐 𝜑 𝜇𝑤 𝜇𝑛 𝐹(𝑆𝑤 )
𝑆0
𝑆𝐵𝐶
∗ ∗
1 𝑘 𝜆𝑚 𝜆𝑛 𝜆𝑤 𝜆𝑜 𝜆𝑤 𝜆𝑜 𝑆𝑤 − 𝑆0 )𝐽′(𝑆𝑤
Zhou et al. (2002) 𝑡𝑑 ∝ 2 𝜎 𝑡 (𝑆𝑤 ) ≈ 𝑐≈ ඲ 𝑑𝑆𝑤
𝐿𝑐 𝜑 𝜆𝑡 𝜆𝑡 𝜆𝑡 𝐹(𝑆𝑤 )
𝑆0
𝑆𝐵𝐶
1 𝑘 ∗ 𝑀𝑊: 𝜆𝑤 ≪ 𝜆𝑜 𝑆𝑤 − 𝑆0 )𝐽′(𝑆𝑤
Behbahani and Blunt (2005) 𝑡𝑑 ∝ 𝜎𝜆 𝑡 𝑐≈ ඲ 𝑑𝑆𝑤
𝐿2𝑐 𝜑 𝑤 𝐹(𝑆𝑤 )
𝑆0
∗
1 𝑘 𝜆𝑤 𝜆𝑛
𝑡𝑑 ∝ 𝜎 𝐽∗ 𝑞𝑤 (𝑥 ∗ , 𝑡 ) 1
Li and Horne (2006) 𝐿2𝑐 𝜑 𝜆𝑡 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑐≈ ∗)
𝑞𝑤 (0, 𝑡 ) 𝐹(𝑆𝑤
⋅ (𝑆𝐵𝐶 − 𝑆0)𝑡
2
2𝐴
This work 𝑡𝑑 ∝ 𝑡 - c=1
𝜑𝐿𝑐

Existing scaling group
• Example of scaling spontaneous imbibition (Schmid and Geiger,

2013)
Water-wet Mixed-wet
RF RF
td td_equivalent
Outline
• General topics
displacement

Displacement in layered reservoirs
• Displacement stratified/layered reservoirs,
• Each layer has its own rock and

EG
w
40JS Reservoir Engineering II: Performance and
fluid properties,
Model • Permeability, porosity, thickness
September – December 2011 • Relative permeability curves,
viscosities
• Assumptions:
• No cross-flow between layers
• Immiscible displacement
• Linear flow
Stratified reservoir model • The distance water has
travelled through each layer is
proportional to its permeability
• Piston- like displacement
Displacement in layered reservoirs, Stiles’ method
• The method assumes that there is piston-like
• Idealized layer system displacement of oil, so that after water
breakthrough in a layer, only water is produced
from this layer.
• After water breakthrough,
 C   k rw o B o 
W OR =    k  B 
1 − C  ro w w 
• C is the fraction of the total flow capacity
represented by the layers that have water BT.
k  i n
    ( h ) j +  ( kh ) j
EV =  
j =1 j =i +1
k  i
    ( h ) j
  j =1

Displacement in layered reservoirs, Further reading
• Non-piston like displacement. (SPE16344, SPE68067)

• Pseudo-relative permeability approach. (SPE2929)
• Cross-flow. (EI-Khatib, 1985; Zhang et al., 2011)

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Go Anywhere.
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MSc Petroleum Engineering

Yingfang Zhou, PhD， Reservoir Engineering Page 1 www.abdn.ac.uk

Yingfang Zhou, PhD， Reservoir Engineering Page 2 www.abdn.ac.uk

• Figure 2. A typical flooding scheme 12

• Figure 3. Oil recovery categories 14

• Figure 4. A digitized reservoir 17

• Figure 5. Primary well status 26

• Figure 6. Wells’ status at a later time 27

• Figure 7. Typical peripheral waterflood. 31

• Figure 8. Flood patterns 32

• figure 9. Well arrangements for dipping reservoirs 33

• Figure 10. fluid distribution at pore level 35

• Figure 11. Schematic of a waterflooding scheme 35

• figure 12. Sketch of vertical sweep efficiency 36

• Figure 13. water saturation distribution as a function of distance, prior to breakthrough

• Figure 14. Effect of dip angle on fw. 69

• Figure 15. Effect of the capillary term on the fw curve 79

Yingfang Zhou, PhD， Reservoir Engineering Page 3 www.abdn.ac.uk

Yingfang Zhou, PhD， Reservoir Engineering Page 4 www.abdn.ac.uk

• The initial stage of

Yingfang Zhou, PhD， Reservoir Engineering Page 5 www.abdn.ac.uk

Figure 2. A typical flooding scheme • Waterflooding

Yingfang Zhou, PhD， Reservoir Engineering Page 6 www.abdn.ac.uk

Ratio of recoverable oil and / or gas to estimated oil and /

Yingfang Zhou, PhD， Reservoir Engineering Page 7 www.abdn.ac.uk

Figure 3. Oil recovery categories

Yingfang Zhou, PhD， Reservoir Engineering Page 8 www.abdn.ac.uk

• It is the injection of water into a wellbore to

Yingfang Zhou, PhD， Reservoir Engineering Page 9 www.abdn.ac.uk

• Oil reservoirs and “Original Oil in Place”

Yingfang Zhou, PhD， Reservoir Engineering Page 10 www.abdn.ac.uk

• Static log and core analysis measurements

Figure 4. A digitized reservoir

• Cutoff and reservoir intervals

Figure 4. A digitized reservoir

• Solution Gas Drive + Gas Cap Expansion

• Natural Water Drive

Yingfang Zhou, PhD， Reservoir Engineering Page 13 www.abdn.ac.uk

• MANY (majority?) oil reservoirs are solution gas

Yingfang Zhou, PhD， Reservoir Engineering Page 14 www.abdn.ac.uk

• Certain oil wells are converted to water injection

Yingfang Zhou, PhD， Reservoir Engineering Page 15 www.abdn.ac.uk

Figure 5. Primary well status

Figure 6. Wells’ status at a later time

Yingfang Zhou, PhD， Reservoir Engineering Page 18 www.abdn.ac.uk

Definition: The location of injection and production

There are essentially four types of flooding pattern:

Yingfang Zhou, PhD， Reservoir Engineering Page 19 www.abdn.ac.uk

• Typical offshore where infrastructure locations and drilling

Yingfang Zhou, PhD， Reservoir Engineering Page 20 www.abdn.ac.uk

Figure 7. Typical peripheral waterflood.

Yingfang Zhou, PhD， Reservoir Engineering Page 21 www.abdn.ac.uk

Figure 8. Flood patterns

Yingfang Zhou, PhD， Reservoir Engineering Page 22 www.abdn.ac.uk

• Basal water injection is common,

figure 9. Well arrangements for dipping reservoirs

Yingfang Zhou, PhD， Reservoir Engineering Page 23 www.abdn.ac.uk

One producer Early time, 100% Relatively early time,

Midlife, oil and Late time, amount of