INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

 Explain the meaning of the basic biological concepts and terminologies.
 Explain the importance of studying biology.
 Outline the characteristics of living things.
 Show the relationship between Biology and other related fields.
 Use sense organs to make correct observations.
 Take measurement of mass/ length and temperature
 Carry out simple Biology experiments
 Describe the Biology laboratory
 Distinguish the Biology from other school facilities
 Identify common apparatus and equipment used in Biology laboratory.
 Interpret warming sings on container of laboratory chemicals and apparatus
Meaning of Biology
The word Biology is delivered from two Greek words, namely:
(i) Bios – means life
(ii) Logos – means study
Therefore,
Biology
Is the study of life
OR
Biology: is a branch of science which deals with the study of living things
 A person who studies biology is called Biologist.
TERMINOLOGIES OF BIOLOGY
1. LIFE
Is the ability of living things to feed, reproduce, sense, respire, grow and develop, move and
excrete.
2. CELL
Is a basic unit of life.
 Some living things have one cell hence called unicellular organisms while others
have many cells hence called multicellular organisms
3. LIVING THING
Is anything which has life.
 Living things are also called organisms or animate things
 All living things are made up of very small units called cells.
Examples of living things
 Animals such as human being, cows, frogs, snakes
 Plants such as maize plants, bean plants
 Fungi such as mushrooms
 Microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses
 Protozoans such as amoeba, euglena, plasmodium and paramecium

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BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY
There are two main branches of biology, namely
(i) Zoology
(ii) Botany
(i) ZOOLOGY
Is the study of animals.
Examples of animals
 Human beings
 Lizards
 Fish
 Cow
 A person who study zoology is called Zoologist
(ii) BOTANY
Is the study of plants
Examples of plants
 Maize plants  Fern plants
 Bean plants  Pines, cypress and
 Moss plants Christmas tree
 A person who study botany is called Botanist

OTHER BRACHES OF BIOLOGY

The following are other branches of biology:
1. MICROBIOLOGY
Is the study of microorganism
Microorganisms are very small organisms that cannot be seen with naked eyes.
Examples of microorganisms
 Bacteria
 Viruses
 A person who studies microbiology is called microbiologist
2. BACTERIOLOGY
Is the study bacteria
Examples of bacteria
 Salmonella typhi
 Vibrio cholera
 A person who studies bacteriology is called bacteriologist
3. VIROLOGY
Is the study of viruses
Example of fungi
 HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus)
 Corona virus
 A person who studies virology is called virologist
4. MYCOLOGY
Is the study of fungi

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 Examples of fungi
 Yeast
 Mushroom
 A person who studies mycology is called mycologist
5. GENETICS
Is the study of inheritance
 A person who studies genetics is called geneticist
6. CYTOLOGY
Is the study of cells
 A person who studies cytology is called cytologist
7. ANATOMY
Is the study of internal structures of living things.
Example of internal structures of living things
 Heart  Brain
 Kidneys  Lungs
 A person who studies anatomy is called anatomist
8. ENTOMOLOGY
Is the study of insects
Example of insects
 Locust  Grasshoppers
 Butterflies  Butterflies
 A person who studies entomology is called entomologist
9. PHYSIOLGY
Is the study of how body structures of an organism function
 A person who studies physiology is called physiologist
10. HOLTICULTURE
Is the science and art of growing fruits, vegetables, flowers or ornamental plants.
11. IMMUNOLOGY
Is the study of body immune system
 A person who studies immunology is called immunologist
12. PARASITOLOGY
Is the study of parasites
Example of parasites
 Plasmodium  Some fungi
 Viruses  Some bacteria
 A person who studies parasitology is called parasitologist
13. TAXONOMY
Is the study of classification
 A person who studies taxonomy is called taxonomist

14. ECOLOGY
Is the study of relationship between organisms and their environment
 A person who studies ecology is called ecologist

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15. ORNITHOLOGY
Is the study of birds
Examples of birds
 Hen  Hawk
 Penguin  Vulture
 A person who studies ornithology is called ornithologist.
16. ICHTHYOLOGY
Is the study of fish.
17. MORPHOLOGY
Is the study of external forms and structures of organisms

THE IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING BIOLOGY

The following is an outlines of why the study of biology is important:
(i) It helps us to understand ourselves better.
(ii) Biology helps us to understand our environment better and how to conserve it
(iii) Biology helps us to know the causes, transmissions, signs and symptoms of diseases.
(iv) Biology enables scientists to come up with ways of preventing, treating and curing
diseases.
(v) Biology enables researchers to come up with improved breeds of crops and animals.
(vi) It is a foundation for getting into careers such as medicine and agriculture.
(vii) Biology helps us to answer some fundamental questions such as, what do we need to
survive?
(viii) Biology helps us to get professional people like doctors, pharmacists and teachers.
(ix) It encourages international cooperation.
(x) It helps us to acquire research skills such as measuring, observing, analysis and
making conclusions.
QUESTION
1. Form one students in a certain secondary school were interested to know why it is
necessary to study biology. Assume you are a Biology teacher: educate these students on
the importance of studying Biology by giving six (6) points.
2. Outline six reasons why it is important to study Biology?
3. Biology is more than a study of animals and plants. Explain
4. Distinguish between unicellular organisms from multicellular organisms giving an
example in each case.
5. How Botany differs from Zoology?
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS
There are seven (7) characteristics (life processes) that distinguish living things from non-
living things. These are:-
(i) Movement and locomotion
(ii) Respiration
(iii) Nutrition
(iv) Irritability or sensitivity
(v) Growth

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 (vi) Excretion
(vii) Reproduction
NB: For easy study of these characteristics the word MR NIGER can be used
(i) MOVEMENT
Is the act of changing position or postures by the whole organism or part of an organism.
 Living things moves in order to search for food, water, mate, light and to escape from
dangers.
 It can occur at a cellular level e.g. cytoplasmic streaming in amoeba and it can also
occur in an organ level. E.g. Closing and opening of leaves, folding of leaves in
plants.
Example of movement
 Singing  Closing and opening
 Yawning of leaves
 Clapping hands
LOCOMOTION
Is the change in position by the whole body of an organism from one place and another.
Example of locomotion
 Walking  Swimming
 Running  Crawling
(ii) RESPIRATION
Is the process of breaking down of food materials within the cells to release energy.
 Living things need energy for movement, growth and development, and functioning of
body organs.
(iii) IRRITABILITY (SENSITIVITY)
Is the ability of an organism to detect and respond to a stimulus.
Stimulus
Is a change in the external and internal environment of an organism.
Examples of stimulus
 Light  An alarm clock
 Temperature  A smell of food
 Cold  A fly landing on your eye.
 Wind
Response
Is the change shown by an organism in reaction to a stimulus
Example of response
 Salivation when food smells
 Blinking when a fly landing on the eye
 Picking up a phone after hearing it ringing
(iv) NUTRITION (FEEDING)
Is the process of taking in food, absorb and assimilate nutrients
 Nutrition is the characteristic of living things which is the basic difference between
plants and animals.
 Plants make their own food through photosynthesis process hence called autotrophs

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  Animals get their food by eating other living things hence called heterotrophs.
 All living things need food to provide energy for such activities such as growth, repair
and health.

(v) GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Growth: Is an irreversible and permanent increase in size and dry mass of an organism.
 All living things grow and build up their bodies.
 Animals grow until they reach certain adult size, but most plants can grow continuously
throughout their lives.
Example of growth
 Increase in body weight
 Increase in body height
 Increase in body size and shape
DEVELOPMENT
Is the change in the complexity of an organism.
Example of development
 Emergence of a new structure
 Ripening of fruits.
(vi) REPRODUCTION
Is the process by which living things produce new individuals of their kind.
 All living things reproduce, to replace organisms lost by death.
 Human beings bear babies; birds hatch chicks; and plants produce seedlings as new
organisms, which eventually grow to mature organisms to replace those lost by
deaths.
(vii) EXCRETION
Is the process of removing metabolic waste products from the body of living organisms.
 Excretion is shown by both animals and plants
Example of waste products
 Carbon dioxide  Urea
 Excess water  Ammonia
 Waste products are removed from the body by excretory organs such skin, kidneys, lungs
and liver
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LIVING THINGS AND NON-LIVING THINGS
Living things Non-living things
They respire Do not respire
They grow Do not grow
They respond to stimuli Do not respond to stimuli
They reproduce Do not reproduce
They excrete Do not excrete
They feed Do not feed
They move Do not move

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QUESTIONS
1. A scientific space craft brought a material to earth from outer space. Explain how you
would establish if the material is living or non –living thing. Give four points. Your
answer should be in tabular form as shown below:
If the material is living thing If the material is non –living thing
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

2. By giving example distinguish the following terms:

(a) Nutrition and respiration
(b) Growth and development
(c) Movement and locomotion
3. Excretion is the process of removing metabolic by-products from the body of an
organism. Give four examples of excretory products eliminated by the living things.
4. Write seven processes that take place in the bodies of living things.
5. State whether it is movement or locomotion.
(a) Singing (e) Hopping
(b) Yawning (f) Leaping
(c) Clapping hands (g) Flying
(d) Walking
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BIOLOGY AND OTHER RELATED FIELDS
Biology relates with many other fields, some of them are:
(i) Agriculture
(ii) Medicine
(iii)Pharmacy
(iv) Nutrition
(v) Forestry
(vi) Veterinary science

THE TABLE BELOW SHOW HOW BIOLOGY RELATES WITH OTHER FIELDS
FIELD MEANING HOW IT RELATES TO BIOLOGY
AGRICULTURE Is the practice of growing crops Knowledge of Biology enables
and keeping animals researchers to come up with improved
A expert person in agriculture breeds of crops and animals in order to
who gives advice to farmers is increase animal products such as meat,
called agriculturist milk and eggs..

MEDICINE Is the science of diagnosing, (i) Doctors, surgeons and nurses apply
treating and preventing diseases knowledge of biology to diagnose,
in humans. treat and prescribe the right medicine

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 to cure the disease.
(ii) Doctors apply knowledge of biology
to offer education to the patients on
how to prevent themselves from the
diseases

NUTRITION Is the study of how food is taken Knowledge of biology enables us to

in and used in the human body in know the suitable diet that should be
relation to the needs of the body. taken in order to maintain good health.
 A person who studies
nutrition is called
nutritionist.

PHARMACY Is the study of developing drugs Pharmacists apply knowledge of biology

and medicines for human and
animal use.
A person who studies pharmacy
is called a pharmacist
VETERINARY Is the study concerned with the
SCIENCE health of animals and treatment
of diseases that affect them.
A person who treats and taking
care of the health of animals is
called veterinarian
FORESTRY Is the science or practice of
planting and taking care of trees
and forests.
 A forest is a large area of
land covered with trees.
A person who takes care of
forests is called a forester.
to develop drugs and medicines for
human and animal use.
Veterinarians apply knowledge of
biology to diagnose, treat and prevent
illness in large and small animals.
Knowledge of biology helps to know
how to plant trees, the importance of
planting trees and the danger of cutting
down of trees
Knowledge of biology is applied to
determine the type of plants the type of
plants to be grown related to the climate,
soil and water availability.

REVISION 1
1. Choose the correct answer
(i) Biology is derived from two Greek words namely,
A. Logos and Lagos C. Bios and logos
B. Logos and phyla D. Bios and phyla
(ii) The following are characteristics of living things except
A. Nutrition C. Growth
B. Reproduction D. Dancing
(iii)A branch of biology which deals with the study of plants is called
A. Botany B. Dermatology

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 C. Ecology D. Zoology
(iv) A person who studies zoology is called
A. Botanist C. Zoologist
B. Virologist D. Ecologist
(v) All of the following are living things except
A. Bean plant C. Lizard
B. Sand D. Rat
(vi) Which of the following is the most important basic difference between plants and
animals?
A. Growth C. Nutrition
B. Reproduction D. Movement
(vii) Which of the following is out of place?
A. Excretion C. Endocrinology
B. Virology D. Zoology
(viii) The following is the best description about irritability
A. Removal of waste products
B. Ability to move from one place to another
C. Increase in size of an organism
D. Ability to respond to environmental changes
(ix) The picture below best represents
A. Reproduction C. Nutrition
B. Movement D. Sensitivity
(x) A person picks up a telephone after hearing it ringing. Which characteristics of
living things is the person showing by this action?
A. Excretion and reproduction
B. Respiration and nutrition
C. Irritability and movement
D. Respiration and growth
2. For each of the following write TRUE if the statement is true and FALSE if the
statement is not true.
(i) Biology is a branch of science which deals with the study of living
things__________________
(ii) Dancing is one of the characteristics of living things _________________
(iii)A person who studies ecology is called mycologist _________________
(iv) Knowledge of biology can help us to improve our health ________________
(v) Living things normally increase in size. The process of increasing in size is
called growth ______

3. (a) What do you understand by the following terms?

(i) Biology (iii)Bacteriology
(ii) Cell
(b) List down seven (7) characteristics of living things.
(c) Give seven differences between living things and non-living things.
(d) Outline the importance of studying biology

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 (e) Why are a mosquito and a dog considered to be living things?
4. (a) Give four differences between plants and animals.
(b) A motor car moves from place to place, obtains energy by combining petrol
with oxygen and produces waste gases. Does this mean cars are alive? Look
through the seven features, of living things and list those which do not apply
to cars.
5. (a) What do you understand by the following terms?
(i) Pharmacy
(ii) Forestry
(iii)Veterinary medicine.
(b) Using examples, explain how the following fields are related to biology
(i) Nutrition
(ii) Medicine
(iii)Pharmacy
(iv) Agriculture
(v) Forestry
(vi) Veterinary medicine

SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES IN BIOLOGY

The study of biology involves scientific processes.
 Scientific processes are conducted in order to solve different life problems and help us to
understand well our environment.
WAYS USED IN CARRYING OUT SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES IN BIOLOGY
There are three basic skills that are needed in studying biology (scientific studies)
(a) Observation
(b) Measurement
(c) Scientific method
(a) OBSERVATION
This method is done by using sense organs
 All scientific investigations involve observation using sense organs
SENSE ORGANS USED IN OBSERVATION
There are five sense organs used in observation, namely;
(i) Eyes
(ii) Ears
(iii)Nose
(iv) Tongue
(v) Skin

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THE TABLE BELOW SHOWS THE FUNCTION OF EACH SENSE ORGAN
SENSE FUNCTION
ORGAN
EYES  Used for seeing or vision.
Example: shape, colour and size of the object
SKIN  Used for touch
 Used to detect pain, heat, cold and pressure
Example: texture of an object, temperature and sharpness of an object.
NOSE  Used for smelling.
Example: smell of chemicals or foods
EARS  Used for hearing.
Example: sounds of living and non-living things
TONGUE  Used for tasting.
Example: tastes of different specimens such as sugar and salt.

Example: If you have a coconut, you can use sense organs to determine that:
(i) It is round – by seeing
(ii) It contains a liquid – by hearing the sound when shaken
(iii)It has rough husk (surface) – by touching
(iv) It has good smell – by smelling
(v) It has good taste – by tasting after breaking the coconut
WEAKNESS OF USING SENSE ORGANS IN MAKING OBSERVATION
(i) Sense organs are based on person’s ideas rather than facts.
(ii) Sense organs alone cannot be enough to give out all the details in accuracy
way.
ADVANTAGE OF USING SENSE ORGANS IN OBSERVATION
 Enables us to study living things.

PRECAUTIONS WHEN USING SENSE ORGANS IN OBSERVATION

(i) Avoid smelling everything in the laboratory without permission from your teacher
or laboratory technician.
(ii) Avoid tasting anything in the laboratory unless you are told do so by the teacher
or laboratory technician.

(b) MEASUREMENT
Is the system of using specific instruments and units to make investigations.
Or is the process of assigning numerical values to different things in order to find
their size or magnitude.
 For any meaningful measurement in Biology, we need to state the physical
quantity (parameter) to be measured and its units.
 The units applied in measurement are International System of units (SI-Units).

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COMMON PHYSICAL QUANTITIES (PARAMETERS) MEASURED IN
BIOLOGY
The following are common physical quantities (parameters) measured in biology with
their standard units and instrument used for measuring each parameter:
PHYSICAL QUANTINTY Instrument used SI unit
(i) Mass Weighing balance kilogram (kg) or gram (g)
(ii) Length Ruler or tape Metre (m) or centimetre
measure (cm)
(iii)Temperature Thermometer Celsius (0C) or Kelvin (K)
(iv) Time Stopwatch Seconds (s)
(v) Pulse rate Stethoscope Numbers of beats per
minutes

1. LENGTH (l)
Is the distance between any two points
 The instrument used to measure length is called ruler or tape measure
 It is expressed in millimetres (mm), centimetres (cm), metres (m), and
kilometers (km)
Where:
1cm = 10 mm
1m = 100 cm
1km = 1000 m
WORKED EXAMPLES
1. Convert the following units into millimeter
(i) 10 cm
(ii) 10 km
(iii)50 m
2. Change the following units as directed
(i) 1000km to cm
(ii) 320 to km
(iii)200mm to km
(iv) 900km to m

2. MASS (m)
Is the quantity (amount) of matter in the object
 The instrument that can be used to measure mass is called weighing balance
such as beam balance, electronic balance
 It is expressed in grams (g) or kilograms (kg)
Where
1kg = 1000g
WORKED EXAMPLES
1. Convert the following units as directed

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 (i) 70g into kg
(ii) 40g into kg
(iii)10kg into g

3. TEMPERATURE
Is the measure of relative hotness and coldness of a body or object
 The instrument used to measure temperature is called thermometer
 It is expressed in Kelvin (K), degrees Celsius (℃)and degrees Fahrenheit (℉)
 The normal body temperature is between 36℃ to 37℃
Temperature in different units can be calculated by using the following formula

(i) K = ℃ + 273
9
(ii) ℉ = (5 × ℃) + 32
5
(iii) ℃ = 9 × (℉ − 32)
WORKED EXAMPLES
1. Convert the following units into Kelvin (K)
(i) 85℃
Solution
From: K = ℃ + 273
Where: ℃ = 85
K = 85 + 273 = 358
Therefore: 85℃ = 𝟑𝟓𝟖K
(ii) −450℃

Solution
From: K = ℃ + 273
Where: ℃ = −450
K = −450 + 273 = −177
Therefore: −𝟒𝟓𝟎℃ = −𝟏𝟕𝟕K

(iii)115℃
(iv) 40℉
2. Convert the following units into degrees Celcius (℃)
(i) 20K
(ii) 40℉
(iii)100℉
3. Convert the following temperature into degrees Fahrenheit (℉)
(i) 85℃ (iii)100℃
(ii) 115℃ (iv) 20K
4. PULSE RATE
Is the number of times the heart beats per minute.
 The instrument used to measure pulse rate is called stethoscope

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  It is expressed in number of heart beats per minute.
NB: For a person in normal health, the pulse rate occurs 72 times per minute
but for the embryo of human being aged about 60 days, the pulse rates is 150 beats
per minute
Parts of the body where Pulse is felt
Pulse is felt in any artery by placing the index and middle fingers on:
 The neck  Behind the knee,
 The wrist  On the side of elbow
 Below ears  Near the ankle joint.
NB: Do not use the thumb to make pulse because it has its own pulse.

(c) SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Is a set of steps that a scientist follows to solve a problem about nature.
OR is an organized set of guidelines used to solve scientific problem
 The scientific method is also called scientific process or scientific procedure

IMPORTANCE OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD

(i) It helps us to solve scientific problem
(ii) It helps us to gain new knowledge
(iii)It helps us to conduct project work or carry out field work

STEPS OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

The scientific method involves the following steps;
1. Identifying a problem
2. Formulating a hypothesis
3. Conducting experiment
4. Collecting data
5. Analysing data
6. Interpreting data
7. Conclusion
1. IDENTIFYING THE PROBLEM
This is the first step in the scientific method where a problem is recognized or identified.
 In our day to day life one often comes across questions which require explainations or
answers.
PROBLEM
Is a specific event observed in the environment
For example
In a certain region of Tanzania, Agricultural officers observed tomatoes yield was low despite
frequent irrigation, correct planting techniques, timely planting and adequate sunlight.
Question (problem could be)
What could have caused poor yield of tomatoes in Jama’s garden despite all the
efforts made?”

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2. FORMULATING A HYPOTHESIS
This is the second step in the scientific method where a possible answer to a question is
suggested.
Hypothesis
Is an intelligent guess which tries to answer the observed problem.
Or is a tentative explanation for the observation made.
 A hypothesis from the above problem could be that the low yield of tomatoes is
caused by poor soil fertility.”
 Therefore the agricultural officers suggested that application of fertilizer could
increase the tomatoes yield.
Ways used to test hypothesis
(i) By careful observation in a natural setting
 Example: Behaviour of a certain type of wild animal can be studied by
carefully observing the animal in the field they live
(ii) By conducting experiment

3. EXPERIMENTATION
In this step, scientists plan and conduct an experiment
 In planning an experiment
 Scientists collect necessary information concerning the problem, determine which
apparatus will be used, which materials will be required and what procedures will be
followed to prove or reject the hypothesis.
Experiment
Is a test done to confirm or reject the hypothesis
 Experiment is conducted to determine if the hypothesis is correct or not.
 Experiment is repeated more times to obtain more accurate results
NB: In conducting experiment, two sets of subjects are involved:
(a) Experimental group or test experiment
(b) Control group or control experiment

(a) Test experiment

Is the one that receives treatment
Or is the experiment which is done by changing variables or factors from time to time
 Example: addition of fertilizers
(b) Control experiment
Is the one that does not receives treatment
Or is the experiment which is done without changing variables or factors.
 Example: no addition of fertilizers
 Control experiment is usually set in order to compare it with the test experiment and to
prove the hypothesis.

From our example of low tomatoes yield, a plan for investigation could be as follows:
Aim of the experiment: To observe if low yield is due to poor soil fertility

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Requirements: Tomato seed from affected area, fertilizer
Instructions:
(i) Set aside two plots and name them as: Plot A and Plot B
(ii) Subject all the two plots to the same ecological conditions
(iii)In plot A apply fertilizer as recommended by the agricultural officers
(iv) In plot B fertilizer should not be added.
(v) Harvest and compare the yields of the two plots
NB: In the above planned experiment, the plot B is not applied with fertilizer, this is a control
experiment. The controlled experiment proves that the fertilizer is the one that determines the
tomatoes yield.
The experiment is conducted by using variables
VARIABLES
Are conditions or factors that can change or be changed during an experiment
TYPES OF VARIABLES
There are three types of variables, namely;
(a) Dependent variable
Is the condition or factor that is investigated or observed to obtain the results of the
experiment
(b) Independent variable (manipulated)
Is the condition or factor that is changed systematically to obtain different results
(c) Controlled variable
Is the condition that is kept constant during the experiment. Example light

4. COLLECTING DATA
Is the process of recording and presenting all the changes or information observed during
experiment
 In this step, all changes observed during the experiment are collected and recorded.
Data
Is the information gathered during the experiment.
Or is unprocessed information that is collected from the experiment by observation or
measurement.

5. DATA ANALYSIS
Is the process of translating information observed during an experiment.
 Data analysis involves comparing the results obtained and hypothesis
 Data are organized and analyzed in order to test the hypothesis, to see trends and
patterns
 To enable one to see the results in an organized manner, data should be presented
using different methods such as tables, bar charts, pie charts, histograms drawings or
line graphs.

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 Example
A table below presents the data analyzed from our tomato experiment
PLOT TOMATO YIELD
A 2,300 kg
B 150 kg

6. DATA INTERPRETATION
Is the process of giving meaning of the collected data.
 In our tomato yield experiment, the data in the table above shows that there is a
difference in tomato yield from the two plots.
 The yield of plot A was higher than of the plot B. this mean that, the amount of
fertilizer has effect on the amount of tomato yield.
7. CONCLUSION
Is the statement that summarizes the results of the experiment conducted.
 In conclusion, a hypothesis can be accepted or rejected based on the data collected
and analyzed.
Example
 In our tomato yield experiment, the results have shown that the application of
the right amount of fertilizer increased crop yield.
 Therefore, low tomato yield was a result of poor soil fertility.
 The results support the hypothesis that low crop yield was caused by poor
soil fertility
 In this case, the hypothesis was accepted or confirmed.
 In some cases, when the hypothesis selected and involved for experiment is
rejected another hypothesis is formed and an experiment is conducted again.
 Conclusion results to the formation of law, theory and principle.
The steps for scientific method are summarized in the figure below.

Problem Formulation

Hypothesis

Experimentation

Test Experiment Control Experiment

Experiment
Observation and Data collection

Interpretation and Data analysis

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 Conclusion

REVISION 2
1. Choose the best answer from the choices given
(i) The first step in scientific method is ____
A. Experimentation
B. Asking questions
C. Identifying a problem
D. Formulating a hypothesis
(ii) ____ are conditions or factors that can change or be changed in an
experiment
A. Hypothesis C. Problems
B. Variables D. Conclusion
(iii) A step involving an intelligent guess is known as developing a______
A. Observation C. Hypothesis
B. Conclusion D. Experimentation
(iv) A scientist may accept or reject a hypothesis by conducting:-
A. An experiment C. Recording
B. An observation D. Data collection
(v) A stage in scientific procedure, which can be used to compare the results and
hypothesis is___
A. Conclusion C. Data collection
B. Observation D. Data analysis
(vi) Scientists, engineering, doctors and geologists apply a method is solving
scientific problems. This method is called______
A. Project work
B. Data recording
C. Scientific procedure
D. Data collection
(vii) In the scientific method, a conclusion involves:-
A. Accepting a hypothesis only.
B. Rejecting or accepting a hypothesis
C. Rejecting a hypothesis only.
D. Collecting data
(viii) After conducting an experiment, the next step is______
A. Data collection C. Hypothesis
B. Conclusion D. Data interpretation
(ix) In the scientific procedure, data are organized to test the hypothesis in a stage
called_____
A. Data interpretation B. Data analysis

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 C. Data collection D. Conclusion
(x) Living things are composed of units called
A. Cells C. tissues
B. Organs D. systems
(xi) Multicellular organisms
A. Possess smaller cells only
B. Possess larger cells only
C. Have many, non-interacting cells
D. Have many, well-interacting cells
(xii) The study of living things is known as ___
A. Chemistry C. Mathematics
B. Physics D. Biology
(xiii) A person who studies biology is called ___
A. Botanist C. Zoologist
B. Veterinarian D. Biologist
(xiv) The process involving removal of waste from the body of an organism ____
A. Excretion C. Irritability
B. Reproduction D. Respiration
(xv) If you are working in a field which deals with planting and caring for trees in
the forest, you are a ____
A. Dietician C. Veterinarian
B. Forester D. Agriculturist
(xvi) The next step after experiment process in scientific process is ____
A. Hypothesis formulation
B. Observation and data collection
C. Interpretation and data analysis
D. Conclusion
2. Fill in the blanks with the most correct word.
(i) The standard system of measurement used by scientists all over the world is
called ____
(ii) ______ is the distance from one point to another
(iii) ______ is a statement that summarizes what a scientist has learnt from an
experiment.

3. Define the following terms

(a) Temperature
(b) Hypothesis
(c) Mass
(d) Data
(e) Experimentation
4. (a) Name the five sense organs and their functions
(b) Give one weakness of using sense organs to make observations.
5. Work out the following problems
(a) Convert the following temperatures to degree Fahrenheit:

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 (i) 100 0C
(ii) 45 0C
(iii) 57 K
(iv) 124 K
(b) Convert the following temperatures to degree Celsius:
(i) 430F
(ii) 273 K
(iii) 142 0F
(c) Convert the following units as described:
(i) 10cm into millimetres
(ii) 2m into centimetres
(iii) 5500 cm into metres
6. What instrument would you use to measure
(a) Time
(b) Length
(c) Temperature
(d) Mass
7. (a) Read the explanation below and answer the questions that follows:
Lately, it has been observed that the production of maize in your school garden
seems to be decreasing.
(i) State which step of the scientific process it represents.
(ii) What will be the next step after the one you mentioned in (a) above?
(b) What next is a scientist supposed to do if the hypothesis is rejected?
8. Write TRUE for correct statements and FALSE for statements that are not correct
(i) Scientific procedure involves only observation and experiment._____
(ii) To be accurate, scientists use special tools to take measurements. _____
(iii) A hypothesis is an idea or explanation that is proposed as an answer to the
observed problem.__
(iv) A control experiment is not necessary if the test experiment ends with the
expected results ____
(v) Pulse rate can only be measured by qualified doctors._____
(vi) Tongue is a dangerous sense organs in making observation. _____
(vii) A scientist can accept or reject a hypothesis by doing experiments. ____

THE BIOLOGY LABORATORY

The word ‘laboratory’ originates from Latin name ‘laborare’ which means “a place for work”

Laboratory is a room or building designed for carrying out scientific experiments.

There are various types of laboratory such as;

(i) Biology laboratory
(ii) Chemistry laboratory
(iii) Physics laboratory

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 (iv) Clinical laboratory
(v) Industrial laboratory
BIOLOGY LABORATORY
Biology laboratory is a special room or building where biological experiments are conducted.
The biology laboratory differs from other scientific laboratories in the following ways;
(i) Biology laboratory has preserved specimens
(ii) Biology laboratory has models of organs
(iii)Biology laboratory has microscope
(iv) Biology laboratory has dissecting kit
(v) Biology laboratory has charts showing different body systems and organs
(vi) Biology laboratory has cages
Cage is an enclosure made to hold animals
(vii) Biology laboratory has aquaria (single–aquarium)
Aquarium is tank made for keeping live aquatic animals
QUALITIES OF A GOOD LABORATORY
(i) Laboratory has doors which exit outwards. This is for easy escape when accident
occurs.
(ii) Laboratory should have source of water. Water help in boiling, mounting specimens
and cleaning.
(iii) Laboratory should have source of heat. Heat is needed for experiments
(iv) Laboratory should have electricity supply. Electricity is for lighting and electronic
devices.
(v) Laboratory should have adequate apparatus for conducting experiments
(vi) Laboratory should have adequate storage room and cupboards. For storing apparatus
and specimens
(vii) Laboratory should have adequate space for carrying out experiments.
(viii) Laboratory should have emergency facilities placed in area where can be reached
easily. Example fire extinguishers and sand buckets
LABORATORY SAFETY RULES
Laboratory can be a dangerous place if the safety rules are not observed.
The following are some rules to ensure safety in a laboratory.
(i) Do not enter the laboratory or do an experiment without permission from a teacher.
(ii) Do not run, play or make noise in the laboratory.
(iii) Do not eat any food or drink in the laboratory
(iv) Do not use broken apparatus or unlabeled chemicals.
(v) Do not take any laboratory tool or specimen out of the laboratory.
(vi) Do not taste anything without being instructed
(vii) Do not put laboratory equipment at the edge of benches or tables.
(viii) Do not leave water and gas taps open
(ix) Do not block the emergency facilities and passage ways.
(x) Follow all instructions before starting any experiment.
(xi) Wash your hands with clean water and soap after the experiment.
(xii) Wash the apparatus and benches at the end of the experiment
(xiii) Wear safety tools before you start the experiment

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 (xiv) Read and understand all the warning signs on the container.
(xv) Report all accidents occurred to your teacher or laboratory technician.

COMMON APPARATUS AND EQUIPMENT USED IN THE BIOLOGY

LABORATORY

APPARATUS
Is a tool used for carrying out experiments in laboratory.
Some common biology laboratory apparatus and equipment include:
1. TEST TUBE
It is used to hold, mix or heating small amounts of substance

2. TEST TUBE HOLDER

It is used to hold test-tubes during heating

3. TEST TUBE RACK

Used to hold and support test tubes

4. PETRI DISH
 Used for putting specimens
 Used for growing small organisms

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 5. BUNSEN BURNER
Used to heat materials in the laboratory

6. THERMOMETER
 Used to measure temperature

7. DROPPER
 Used for adding liquids drop by drop

8. BEAM BALANCE
 Used to measure mass of substances

9. MORTOR AND PESTLE

 Used for crushing and grinding substances

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 10. MICROSCOPE
 Used to magnify micro-organisms

11. HAND LENS

 Used to magnify small organism/objects for observation.

12. POOTER
 Used for catching up small organisms without hurting them

It is made with two tubes where one is for sucking organisms and another for
drawing in the apparatus

13. FISH NET

 Used for catching organisms living in water
Example fishes and tadpoles

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 14. SWEEP NET
 Used for catching flying insects

15. SPECIMEN BOTTLE

Used for keeping preserved organism

16. DISSECTING KIT

 It carries tools used for dissection

THE MICROSCOPE
MICROSCOPE
Is an instrument used to magnify micro-organism.
 Micro-organisms are very smallest organism which cannot be seen by our naked
eyes.eg bacteria.

TYPES OF MICROSCOPE
There are two types of microscope
(i) Light microscope (compound)
(ii) Electron microscope

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1. ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
Is a microscope that uses beams of electrons to magnify specimen.
 The maximum useful magnification of most electrons microscope is one million times
(100, 0000×)
 Electron microscope is very expensive.
 It is mostly found in research centres.

2. LIGHT MICROSCOPE
Is a microscope that uses light to illuminate and magnify small specimen.
 Light microscope is also called compound microscope
 It has low magnification compared to that of electron microscope
 Maximum useful magnification of most light microscope is about one thousand time
(1000×).
 Light microscope is commonly found in school laboratories and health centres.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ELECTRON AND LIGHT MICROSCOPE

LIGHT MICROSCOPE ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
(i) It is less expensive It is more expensive
(ii) Uses light to illuminate object Uses electron beam to illuminate object
(iii)It has low magnification It has high magnification
(iv) It has low resolution It has high resolution
(v) It uses glass lenses It uses magnetic deflector

A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF A LIGHT MICROSCOPE

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 PARTS OF THE LIGHT MICROSCOPE AND THEIR FUNCTION
Light microscope has the following parts:
(i) Eyepiece lens (ocular lens)
(ii) Eyepiece (ocular)
(iii) Body tube
(iv) Coarse adjustment knob
(v) Fine adjustment knob
(vi) Rotating nose piece
(vii) Objective lens
(viii) Stage
(ix) Stage clip
(x) Condenser
(xi) Diaphragm
(xii) Mirror
(xiii) Arm
(xiv) Hinge screw
(xv) Base
PART OF THE MICROSCOPE FUNCTION
1. Eye piece lens  Used to increase magnification
2. Ocular tube  Allow light to pass from the objective lens to the
eyepiece.
 It has a lens that magnifies the specimen
3. Body tube  It holds the ocular lens and objective lenses at the proper
working distance from each other.
 It supports the eyepiece and rotating nose piece
 It connects the eyepiece to the objective lens
4. Coarse adjustment knob  It raises or lowers the body tube in order to bring the
image into focus.
5. Fine adjustment knob  It raises or lowers the body tube in order to bring the
image into sharp focus
6. Rotating nose piece  It holds two or more objective lenses
7. Objective lens  It bring s image into focus and magnify it
8. Stage  It is a place where slides of specimen are kept
9. Stage clip  It holds the slides firmly in place.
10. Condenser  It concentrate the light which passes through the
specimen.
11. Diaphragm  It regulates the amount of light that passes through
the specimen.
12. Mirror  It reflects and directs light to the specimen under
observation.

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13. Hinge screw  It raises or lowers the stage to keep the specimen in
right position for observation.
14. Arm/limb  Supports the body tube, knobs, stages, diaphragm
and mirror
 It helps to handle microscope when moving it.
15. Base  It provides firm support for the microscope.

HOW TO USE LIGHT MICROSCOPE

(i) Place the microscope on the laboratory bench or table. Position the microscope such that
the arm faces you and the stage faces away from you.
(ii) Mount the specimen on slide and cover it with a cover slip.
(iii) Make sure that the low objective lens is in line with the eye piece lens.
(iv) Place the slide with the specimen on the stage and hold it in place with the stage clip.
(v) While looking through the eyepiece use your hand to adjust the mirror so that the light is
directed to the specimen on the stage. Always keep both eyes open when looking through
eyepiece
(vi) Adjust the coarse adjustment knob to bring the specimen into focus
(vii) Adjust the fine adjustment knob to bring the specimen into a sharp focus.
(viii) Rotate the nose piece to a higher power objective lens if you want to observe more
details of the specimen.
PRECAUTIONS WHEN HANDLING AND CARING OF A LIGHT MICROSCOPE
(i) Always use two hands when carrying a light microscope. One hand holding the arm
and the other holding the base.
(ii) Never place the microscope at the edge of the bench or table. This is because it could
be knocked over.
(iii) Do not touch the surface of the mirror or lenses with your fingers.
(iv) Clean dirty lenses using lens tissue or a soft cloth
(v) Lubricates the moving parts regularly
(vi) Always use the cover slip in order to protect the lenses of the microscope from
getting into contact with the specimen
(vii) Remove the slides from the stage immediately after use.
(viii) Turn the adjustment knob slowly. Always start with the course adjustment knob.
(ix) When not in use, cover the microscope with clean cloth and store it in dry and
dustless place.
(x) When not in use for a long time, remove the lenses and put them in a desiccator
(xi) Move the objective lenses up when storing the microscope.
(xii) When storing the microscope rotate the nose piece so that the low magnification lens
is in line with the eyepiece lens.
NB:
SLIDE
Is a flat rectangular piece of glass used to hold a specimen for microscopic observation
SLIDE COVER (COVER SLIP)
Is a small glass used to cover the specimen on slide

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MAGNIFICATION
Is the number of times the image has been enlarged
 In microscope, magnification is determined (calculated) by multiplying the eye piece
lens magnification by the objective lens magnification.

Total magnification = Eyepiece lens magnification × Objective lens magnification

Worked Example
1. Calculate the total magnification of the image seen by ×5 of eyepiece lens and by ×10
of the objective lenses
Solution
Data given
Total magnification =Asked
Eyepiece lens magnification = 5
Objective lens magnification =10
Total magnification = eyepiece lens magnification × objective lens magnification
Total magnification = 5 ×10 =50
Therefore, the total magnification of the image is ×50

2. Calculate the objective lens magnification of the object, if the total magnification is
×250 and the eyepiece lens is ×10

Solution
Data given
Total magnification =250
Eyepiece lens magnification = 10
Objective lens magnification =Asked
From:
Total magnification = eyepiece lens magnification × objective lens magnification
250 = 10 × objective lens magnification
250
Objective lens magnification = = 25
10
Therefore, the objective lens magnification is ×25

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Calculate the total magnification of image, if the objective lens magnification is ×20 and
eyepiece lens magnification lens is ×10.
2. If the magnification power of eyepiece lens of a compound microscope is ×10 and that of
the high power objective lens is ×50, what is the total magnification of the specimen
under observation?
3. Calculate the objective lens magnification of object. If the total magnification of the
object is ×300 and the eyepiece lens magnification is ×5.

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4. Calculate the eyepiece lens magnification of an object. If the objective lens magnification
of the object is ×15 and the total magnification of an object is ×120.

HAND LENS
Is an instrument composed of a convex lens used for magnifying small objects.
The Diagram of hand lens

PARTS OF HAND LENS

Hand lens has three main parts, namely:
(i) Convex lens: used for magnifying small objects.
(ii) Frame: gives support to the convex lens
(iii)Handle: helps to handle the hand lens when moving it.
HOW TO USE A HANDLENS
In order to magnify an object by using a hand lens, the following procedures should be
followed:
(i) Place the object or specimen under observation on the bench or table.
(ii) Move the hand lens with one hand from the object or specimen to the eye
(iii)As the object or specimen comes into focus an enlarged image will be observed
How to determine magnification of an object or specimen viewed under a hand lens
Magnification of an object or specimen viewed under a hand lens is determined (calculated)
by dividing the length of a drawing by the length of the actual object.
As follows:
𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐰𝐢𝐧𝐠(𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞)
Drawing magnification =
𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭
OR
𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐰𝐢𝐧𝐠(𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞)
Magnification of a drawing =
𝐒𝐢𝐳𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭
WORKED EXAMPLES
1. A drawing of 10cm in length was made of Bee of 5cm in length. Calculate the
magnification of drawing.

Solution
Data given
Length of a drawing =10
Length of the actual object = 5
Magnification of a drawing =Asked
From:
Length of a drawing
Magnification of a drawing =
Length of the actual object

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 10cm
Magnification of a drawing = =2
5cm
Therefore, Magnification of a drawing is ×2

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. If the length of the drawing is 8cm and the actual length of the object is 2cm. What will
be the magnification of a drawing?
2. (a)How do you determine the magnification of an object viewed under a hand lens?
3. Basically, there are two types of microscope, name them:
4. Compare and contrast a light microscope and an electron microscope.
5. How do you determine the magnification of an object viewed under a light microscope
6. Mention three parts of a hand lens
7. (a) Draw a well labelled diagram of a light microscope.
(b) State the function of each part labelled in the diagram 7 (a) above.
8. Draw a well labelled diagram of a hand lens.
WARNING SIGNS
Are special symbols that caution on possible danger.
Or are the instructions and safety signs that are found on apparatus and chemical containers
in the laboratory.
 Some may be found in or on the boxes in which chemicals and apparatus are kept.
 These signs must be observed to ensure safety in the laboratory
 Warning signs are also called safety signs
The following are warning signs that are found on apparatus and chemical containers in
the laboratory or on the boxes in which chemicals and apparatus are kept.
(i) Toxic (vi) Harmful
(ii) Corrosive (vii) Irritant
(iii) Flammable (viii) Fragile
(iv) Oxidant (ix) Radioactive
(v) Explosive (x) Biohazard

1. TOXIC
Is a poison substance which may cause death when touched, swallowed or inhaled.
Examples of toxic substances
 Pesticides
 Veterinary medicine
A diagram of toxic warning sign

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2. CORROSIVE
Is a substance that can burn the skin or a surface.
 It can cause body wounds or burn various things such as a clothes and furniture
Examples of corrosive substances
 Concentrated acids e.g. sulphuric acid,
 Concentrated alkaline e.g. Sodium hydroxide.
A diagram of corrosive warning sign

3. FLAMMABLE
Is a substance which can catch fire easily.
 The substances should never be brought near open flame
Examples of flammable materials
 Alcohol
 Petrol
 Kerosene
 Diesel

A diagram of flammable warning sign

4. OXIDANT
These are chemical that can accelerate burning of materials.
Example of oxidant substances
 Potassium permanganate  Potassium hydroxide
A diagram of oxidant warning sign

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5. EXPLOSIVE
An explosion is a forceful rapid reaction, which involves throwing off of particles at high
speed.
Example of explosive substances
 Gunpowder  Mosquito spray

6. HARMFUL
Is the substance which can cause illness.
 This substance may not kill immediately but may have effects when used for a long
period.
Examples of harmful substances
 Alcohol
 Cigarettes
DIAGRAM OF HARMFUL

7. RADIOACTIVE
Is the substance that emits harmful radiations.
 Radioactive substances are elements that emit radiations either alpha, beta, gamma or
neutrons.
 Radioactive substances can cause dangerous effects such as skin damage, skin
diseases, disabilities, death, blindness and various types of cancer ases
Example of radioactive
 X- rays
 Uranium splits to emit neurons
 Radium emits alpha and gamma rays
 Tritium emit beta rays
 Cesium emit gamma rays

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 A diagram of radioactive warning sign

BIOHAZARD
Is a biological substance that can cause disease or threat to the health of humans.
 Biohazard contains microbes
 Biohazard is a short form of biological hazard
Example of biohazards substances
 Medical waste e.g. wound dressings
 Sludge waste
DIAGRAM OF BIOHAZARDS

REVISION QUESTIOS

1. Write TRUE or FALSE

(i) A laboratory is a special room designed for scientific investigation
(ii) Thermometers and burners are only found in the biology laboratory
(iii)Laboratory safety rules are formulated to frighten students
(iv) Corrosive chemicals can burn books and clothes because they catch fire
easily
(v) Using microscope, biologists have been able to observe very small
organisms.
2. Name the laboratory apparatus used in the following activities
(i) Magnifying substance
(ii) Catching flying insects
(iii)Keeping specimens
(iv) Crushing things
(v) Measuring mass

3. State the function of the following parts of microscope

(i) Base
(ii) Diaphragm
(iii)Condenser
(iv) Mirror

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 (v) Stage
(vi) Objective lens

4. List four features that make biology laboratory different from other facilities.
5. Explain how the following substances should be handled.
(i) Harmful
(ii) Explosive
(iii)Oxidants

SAFETY IN OUR ENVIRONMENT

FIRST AID
Is an immediate help which is given to a sick or injured person before sending him/her to the
hospital for further treatment.
IMPORTANCE OF FIRST AID AT HOME AND AT SCHOOL
(i) It saves life
(ii) It reduces pain
(iii) It brings hope and encouragement to the patient
(iv) It reduces fear of death
(v) It prevents the illness or injury from becoming worse
(vi) It helps a victim to recover from shock
(vii) It shows spirit of helping each other.

FIRST AIDER
Is a specialist who gives first aid.
QUALITIES OF THE FIRST AIDER
(i) Should have ability to assess the problem and give immediate and appropriate help.
(ii) Must be able to act quickly, quietly, calmly
(iii) Should be sympathetic to the victim.
(iv) Should be able to recognize dangerous signs and give immediate help for example
detecting immediately if breathing has stopped or is failing -there is severe bleeding-
poisoning-fractures.
(v) Should be able to help the injured person without unnecessary movement
FIRST AID KIT
Is a small box which is used to keep instruments and chemicals for First Aid.
 The first Aid kit should be placed in a safe and accessible place.
Components of the First Aid kit
(i) Bandages (ix) Safety pins
(ii) A pair of scissors (x) Iodine tincture or spirit
(iii) Gauze (xi) Soap
(iv) Assorted bandages (xii) Pain killers e.g. Panadol
(v) Cotton wool (xiii) Sterilized forceps and pins
(vi) New razor blade (xiv) Liniment
(vii) Gentian violet (GV) (xv) A pair of tongs
(viii) Petroleum jelly (xvi) Antibiotic solution
NB: Bandages are of different forms and width. Here are types of bandages

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  Gauze bandage
 Plaster or adhesive bandage
USES OF THE INSTRUMENTS AND CHEMICALS IN THE FIRST AID KIT
Item Function/uses
1. Soap  Used for washing hands, wounds and equipment.
2. Gauze bandage  Used to cover the cuts or wounds to prevent
infections.
 Used to tie a broken arm or leg
3. Plaster or adhesive bandage  Used for covering small wounds
4. Cotton wool  Used for cleaning and drying wounds
5. A pair of scissors or razor  Used for cutting dressing materials such as
blade bandages.
6. Gentian Violet solution (GV)  Used as an antiseptic to clean wounds and reduce
bleeding.
7. Petroleum jelly or Vaseline  Used for soothing bruised skin
 Used for treatment of burns
8. Safety pins  Used for holding/securing bandages.
9. Iodine tincture or spirit:  Used for cleaning wounds and prevent infections.
 Used for treating small wounds or scratches
10. Painkillers  Used to reduce pain
11. Liniment  Used to reduce muscle pain
12. A pair of tongs  Used for holding things when cleaning the wound.
 Used for holding hot objects
13. Antibiotic solution  Used for killing bacteria
14. Antiseptic e.g. methylated  Used for cleaning wounds and killing germs
sprit, Dettol and Eusol
15. Tweezer  Used for removing thorns and insect stings left
behind by bees.
16. Torch  Used as source of light
17. Medical tapes  Used for holding gauze bandage
18. Whistle  Blown to call for help
19. Thermometer  Used for measuring body temperature
20. Splints  Used to support the broken bone
21. First aid manual  It is a sheet of paper or a booklet which contains
guidelines for providing first aid.
22. Clean water  Used for taking painkillers.
 Used for washing hands wounds and equipment.
23. Disposal sterile gloves or  Used for covering hands to prevent direct contact
rubber gloves with victim’s body fluids
 Used for covering hands to avoid infection of
wounds.

MAINTENANCE OF FIRST AID KIT

(i) Replace the used items as soon as possible. E.g. Panadol
(ii) Check the items regularly and replace the expire items

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 (iii) Store it in a clean and dry place.
PROCEDURES OF RENDERING (PROVIDING) FIRST AID TO VARIOUS
VICTIMS
First aid procedures differ depending on the type of accident or illness.
Precaution that should be observed before giving first aid
(i) Do not panic – keep calm, assess the situation and know what to do, yelling and running
away will not help.
(ii) Avoid anyone else being put at risk. For example, the risk of being infected with
casualty’s blood or the risk of suffering an electrical shock
(iii) Make sure it is safe to approach the casualty. For example, trying to help someone in a
big fire could endanger your life, so call for help and keep others away.
(iv) Do not touch a victim with bare hands.
(v) Always wear protective gears such as plastic gloves, masks and eye protector.
(vi) Wash your hands with soap and running water immediately after providing first aid.
NB: Body fluids such as blood, pus, saliva and mucus can spread infectious agents such as
HIV, Corona virus, Ebola virus and Hepatitis B
FIRST AID CAN BE RENDERED TO THE VICTIMS OF
(i) Bruises (viii) Hiccups
(ii) Snake bite (ix) Bleeding
(iii) Insect bites and stings (x) Poisoning
(iv) Electrical shock (xi) Bone fracture
(v) Vomiting (xii) Drowning
(vi) Fainting (xiii) Suffocation
(vii) Muscle cramps

1. BRUISES
Are injuries formed when a person is hit by a blunt object, causing pain, swelling and
discolouration without breaking the skin.
 The discoloration is due to breaking of small blood vessels, causing blood to
collect under the skin.
PROCEDURE FOR PROVIDING FIRST AID TO A BRUISE VICTIM
(i) Ask the casualty how the bruises happened in order to know how serious it is.
(ii) Raise the affected limb if possible and apply firm pressure.
(iii) Apply a cold compress for five to ten minutes to reduce pain and swelling.
(iv) If the casualty has lost consciousness, seek medical help at once.
NB: Cold compress can be from a clean cloth dipped in cold water or a bag of ice cubes.
2. SNAKE BITE
Is an injury caused by a bite from a snake, often resulting in puncture wounds.
 The outcome of snake bites depends on:-
— The type of the snake if it is poisonous (venomous) or not
— The area of the body bitten
— The amount of venom injected
— The health condition of the person
PROCEDURE FOR PROVIDING FIRST AID TO A SNAKE BITE VICTIM
(i) Move a victim to a safe place and let him/her lie down or sit
(ii) Calm the victim down to reduce the spread of venom to vital organs.
(iii) Remove all jewelry and tight fitting cloth to reduce harm if swelling occurs.

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 (iv) Keep the wound at heart level or lower in order to slow down the flow of venom.
(v) Wear gloves and clean the wound using soap and clean water or cotton wool
containing sprit to kill germs.
(vi) Take the victim to a nearby health Centre.
Precautions that should be observed when providing first aid to a victim of a snake bite
(i) Do not cut the bitten area because will cause more opening of the wound.
(ii) Do not tie the bitten area because will cause swelling due to restricted blood flow.
(iii) Do not suck the blood from bitten area it can cause infection to both the victim and
the first aider.
(iv) Do not provide a victim with any food or drinks such as alcohol, coffee and tea
because will accelerate the rate of heart beats thus leading to rapid spread of venom
throughout the body.

3. INSECT BITES
Is an injury caused by a bite from insects.
STINGS
Is a result in an injection of poison or other substances into the skin.
 Stings are caused by scorpions and some insects such as bees, wasps, hornets.
 Most insect bites and stings are more painful but less harmful.
Insect bites and stings are usually characterized by the following symptoms:
(i) Sharp pain
(ii) Mild swelling
(iii) Soreness
(iv) Allergic reactions such as nausea, vomiting, dizziness, confusion, swelling of face,
lips or throat.

PROCEDURES FOR PROVIDING FIRST AID TO A VICTIM OF INSECT BITE

AND STINGS SUCH AS BEE AND WASP STING
(i) Remove the sting by using tweezers
(ii) Wash the stung area with soap and water
(iii) Apply a cold compress to minimize pain and swelling
(iv) Apply baking soda paste or ashes on the bee sting to neutralize the acid.
 Use the ratio of 1 teaspoon of water to 3 teaspoons of baking soda.
(v) If the victim develops allergic reactions seek for medical help.
Precautions that should be observed when providing first aid to a victim of insect bite
 Do not use fingers or sharp objects to remove the sting because will cause the sting to
release more venom into the body.

4. ELECTRIC SHOCK
Is a sudden painful feeling that a person get when electricity passes through his/her body.
 Electric shock is very dangerous because it can cause burns, unconsciousness and
muscle pain. It can also cause failure of the heart and lungs to function and eventually
death.

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PROCEDURES FOR PROVIDING FIRST AID TO A VICTIM OF ELECTRIC
SHOCK
(i) Turn off the source of electricity. If not possible to turn it off, move the victim away
from the source of electricity using a dry non – metallic object such as a dry piece of
wood.
(ii) Prevent shock by laying the victim down and positioning the victim’s head (if
possible) slightly lower than the trunk the legs are raised slightly above.
(iii) Loosen any tight clothing around the neck to ensure there is no obstructions in the
mouth or throat.
(iv) If a victim is not breathing start mouth to mouth resuscitation.
(v) Take the patient to a nearby health Centre for medical help.
Precautions that should be observed when providing first aid to a victim of electrical
shock
(i) Do not touch the victim with your bare hands who is still in contact with electric
current
(ii) If the accident occurred in high voltage wires like in transmission lines, do not get
near the wires until the power is turned off, stay at least at 20 feet away.

5. BLEEDING
Bleeding occurs when there is breakage of the skin due to wounds, scratches or cuts.
 Bleeding can be minor or heavy (excessive bleeding)
PROCEDURES FOR PROVIDING FIRST AID TO A VICTIM OF BLEEDING
(i) Press firmly directly over the wound using a bandage, a pad or a clean cloth.
(ii) Raise the injured part above the level of the heart
(iii) If possible lie the casualty (victim) down with the legs slightly raised
(iv) When bleeding slows down, put a dressing over the area with the bandage.
(v) If bleeding continues, place a second dressing over the first one seek medical help
immediately

NOSE BLEEDING
It occurs due to rupturing of blood vessels in the nasal lining or sometimes due to no apparent
reason.
 Blood vessels in the nasal lining are very delicate, thus may easily rupture after blowing the
nose or sneezing
PROCEDURES FOR PROVIDING FIRST AID TO A VICTIM OF NOSE BLEEDING
(i) Let the person sit with head tipped slightly forward.
(ii) Ask the person to pinch the nose and breathe through the mouth for few minutes.
(iii) If bleeding does not stop, take the victim to hospital.

6. VOMITING
Is to bring back the food from the stomach through the mouth.
 Vomiting is caused by intake of food or drinks contaminated with bacteria, viruses or
fungi, allergies, poisons, excessive eating or some diseases.
 Vomiting is not a disease but it is a symptom of many diseases.

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PROCEDURES FOR PROVIDING FIRST AID TO A VICTIM OF VOMITING
(i) Place the patient in a safe and clean place.
(ii) Let the patient seat or lay down on the side so as to prevent chocking.
(iii) Give the patient plenty of fluids with a mixture of salt, sugar and lemon or ginger juice
to prevent nausea.
(iv) Give the patient a lot of juice or oral rehydration solutions to restore water, mineral
salts and energy.
(v) If vomiting persists, take the victim to hospital for medical help.

7. MUSCLE CRAMPS
Are sudden, involuntary and painful contraction of one or more muscles
 Muscles cramps may be caused by poor coordination of the muscles during exercise,
cold, excessive loss of salts and body fluids due to too much sweating, severe
diarchies or persistent vomiting.
PROCEDURES FOR PROVIDING FIRST AID TO A VICTIM OF MUSCLE
CRAMPS
(i) Massage the affected muscle while stretching the limb until the pain has reduced.
(ii) Give a glass of water especially if you think there is a lack of water in the victim body.
(iii) Get medical help if the cramp persist.

8. HICCUPS
Are sharp, uncontrolled repeated sounds made in throat caused by a sudden movement of the
diaphragm.
 Hiccups are also caused by swallowing large quantities of air or by eating too much.
 Hiccups can be acute or persistent
NB: Acute Hiccups are those which last only a few minutes while Persistent Hiccups are
those which last longer than two hours.
 Persistent hiccups may indicate a more serious health problem.

PROCEDURES FOR PROVIDING FIRST AID TO A VICTIM OF ACUTE HICCUPS

(i) Advising the victim to drink a glass of water in order to stimulate the vagus nerve.
(ii) Advising the victim to hold breathe as long as possible or to breathe into a paper bag
in order to increase carbon dioxide in the blood.
(iii) Give the victim a teaspoon of dry sugar, honey or peanut butter to stimulate the vagus
nerve.
NB: Vagus nerve is a nerve which runs from the brain to the stomach. It helps to stop hiccups
when it stimulated by drinking water, placing dry sugar on the tongue and suckling if the
victim is a baby.
Precaution that should be observed when providing first aid to a victim of hiccups
 Do not breathe into a plastic bag because it may block the air way and cause
suffocation.

9. POISONING
This occurs when a person has taken a poison.
Poison: is any substance that causes harm if it is swallowed, inhaled or absorbed into the
body
Examples of poisons

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  Laboratory chemicals such as
 Kerosene
 Cleaning detergents,
 Pesticides
 Poisonous plants
 Medicines
Signs and symptoms of poisoning
(i) Vomiting
(ii) Difficulty in breathing
(iii) Abdominal pain
(iv) Burns or redness around the mouth and lips
(v) Breath that smells of chemical
(vi) Odour on the victim’s body clothing or on the floor
(vii) Empty medicine bottles or scattered pills.
PROCEDURES FOR PROVIDING FIRST AID TO A VICTIM OF POISONING
(i) Identify which poison is involved.
(ii) If the poison is in the eye, wash the eye using clean lukewarm water and encourage
the victim to blink as much as possible.
(iii) I f the poison is on the skin, remove any contaminated clothing and poor clean water
on the affected area as much as possible.
(iv) If the poison has been swallowed, give a glass of milk or water or both to dilute and
neutralize the poison.
(v) If the poison has been inhaled, move the victim outside where there is plenty of fresh
air. If a person is not breathing, start mouth to mouth resuscitation.
(vi) Take the victim to hospital immediately for medical help.
Precaution that should be observed when providing first aid to a victim of poisoning
(i) Do not induce vomiting if the poison is a corrosive substance such as kerosene,
bleach, detergent, laboratory acid, disinfectant, paint thinner, toilet cleaner,
turpentine as these may corrode (burn) the esophagus.
(ii) Induce vomiting if the poison is non-corrosive like alcohol, aspirin, laxative,
soap, sleeping pills or wax either by putting your finger in the victim’s throat or
by giving the victim with gargle soapy water or raw egg yolk.
10. FAINTING
This occurs when there is low supply of blood to the brain.
 Fainting is caused by a sudden fall in blood pressure, which results to inadequate
blood supply to the brain.
 The brain cells lack oxygen hence collapses.
PROCEDURES FOR PROVIDING FIRST AID TO A VICTIM OF FAINTING
(i) Move the victim to the area with a plenty of air.
(ii) Remove all jewelry, for example bangles, tight clothing such as shoes and socks.
(iii) Lay the victim down with the head lower than the feet
(iv) If a person is not breathing, start mouth to mouth resuscitation.
(v) Take the victim to the hospital if the condition does not improve.
TEST YOURSELF
1. Explain the procedure for providing first aid to a person bitten by a snake.
2. (a) What is muscle cramp?
(b) Mention the causes of muscle cramps

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 (c) Explain the procedures for providing first aid to a person of muscle cramp
3. How will you provide first aid to a bleeding victim?
4. (a) Why it is not healthy advised to induce vomiting to a person who swallowed poison
such as kerosene?
(b) Why it is not healthy advised to use plastic bag to the victim of hiccups?
5. Why it is very important to provide first aid to the victim of electric shock? Give
four reasons.

SAFETY AT HOME AND SCHOOL

Safety
Is a state of being protected from danger or harm or accident
Accident
Is unexpected event that can cause injury and death.
 There are many accidents that occur at our homes as well as at schools that
might endanger our safety.
 Groups of people who at high risk are children, elderly and handicapped
COMMON ACCIDENTS AT HOME AND SCHOOL
The following are common accidents at home and school
(i) Drowning
(ii) Poisoning
(iii) Chocking
(iv) Cuts and scratches
(v) Injury or fractures
(vi) Falls
(vii) Scalds, fires and burns
(viii) Bites and stings
(ix) Electric shock
(x) Bruises
(xi) Bleeding
CAUSES AND WAYS OF PREVENTING ACCIDENTS AT HOME AND
SCHOOL
The following are causes and ways of preventing accident at home and school:
Accident Causes Ways of preventing
1. Bruises  Caused by severe blow  Wear helmet when riding a bicycle
from blunt objects or a motor cycle.
 Do not run carelessly.
 Avoid reaching higher objects by
standing on chairs or table
2. Scalds and  Scalds are caused by  Handle hot objects with care using
burns burns from hot objects, kitchen gloves or a piece of cloth.
chemicals, friction,

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 electricity, radiation or  Handle chemicals and electric
scalding water or appliances with care
steams  Do not allow children to play in the
 Running in the kitchen
laboratory  Store oxidants, flammable and
 Allowing children to explosive of heat.
play in the laboratory  Do not run in the laboratory
3. Fire  Leaving fire or burning  Never leave fire or open flames
candles unattended unattended
 Keeping flammable  Never keep flammable materials
materials like paper, such petrol near fire
clothes or petrol near  Use electric equipment property
the fire  Do not plug too many appliances to
 Connecting to many one socket at a time
appliances to one
socket leading to
overheating
4. Electric  Touching bare wires  Do not touch bare wires
shock  Touching electrical  Do not use electric appliance
equipment with wet with workout cables
hands  Do not insets metal objects into
 Posturing sharp(metal) socket
objects into electric  Never touch electric equipment
sockets with wet hands
 Switch off electric appliances
that are not being used.
5. Snake  Provoking the snake  Avoiding provoking the snake or
bites  Playing around the passing near their shelter
bush or tall grasses  Avoiding in long grasses or
 Walking during the climbing trees
might with bare legs in  Avoiding walking in the dark
the dark with bare legs
6. Stings  Provoking insects by  Avoid provoking insects by
throwing stones at staying away from from their
their shelter shelter.
 Staying/playing near  Cut bushes and tall grasses
the bee hires and wasp around the house or school.
nets.
 Keeping tall graves
and bushes that would
harbor dangerous
animals

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7. Drowning  Playing near the water  Do not go to swimming alone
bodies  Use bridge when crossing rivers
 Going near water and streams
bodies when it is dark  Avoid going near water bodies
 Allowing children to when it is dark.
play near water bodies  Do not allow children to play
 Leaving pools of water near water bodies
at home and schools  Cover or fence all pools of water
uncovered at home or school.
8. Falls  Climbing trees and  Always walk carefully
walls  Avoid playing dangerous games
 Running unnecessarily such as climbing trees and walls
 Leaving the floor wet  Put up signs to indicate where
and stopper with there stair or steps
spitted liquid  Do not run unnecessarily
 Wipe spilled liquids on the floor
immediately
 Do not leave fruits and verge
able feels on the floor
9. Chocking  Talking while eating  Do not talk while eating
 Eating or drinking  Sit upright when eating or
while laying down drinking
 Giving children small  Eat slowly and do not take part in
objects to play with eating competition
 Do not give children small
objects to play with as they add
put them in the mouth

10. Poisoning  Excessive use of  Store medicines and other

medicine (overdose) chemical away from children’s
 Taking medicine reach
without doctor’s  Never sniff or smell chemical
prescription you don’t know
 Exposure to poisonous  Use medicines as prescribed by
fumes or chemicals the doctor
 Taking poisons near  Keeping medicine and poisons
food or drinks away from food or drinks
 Tasting or eating in the  Label all containers clearly
laboratory  Do not taste things in the
laboratory
 Use poisons are directed on the
lables

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 11. Cuts and  Walking barefoot  Store sharp tools in a safe place
scratches outside  Properly dispose broken glasses
 Poor disposing of and empty tins
broken graves and  Do not plant thorny bushes very
empting tins near the house
 Giving sharp objects  Do not give children sharp
to children to play objects to play with
with
 Planting thorny bushes
near the house
12. Bleeding  Cutting or piecing  Handle sharp or piercing objects
with sharp objects with great care.
like knives  Do not run a machine if you
 Accidents from cars don’t know or understand
or machinery instructions
 Don’s play with sharp or
piercing object and put them
away from children’s reach

Things that can affect safety in our environment includes

(a) Motor vehicles
They can cause accidents as when a person is walking on the road or using vehicles.
(b) Electricity
It may cause accident when there are loose wires and connection of too many
appliances to one socket.

(c) Water bodies

When water bodies contain crocodiles or unskilled person, die when swimming

(d) Chemicals, medicines, fuels and poisons

Swallowing chemicals and medications without doctor’s prescription.

(e) Fires
Fire accidents occur when explosives are kept near a fire.

(f) Poisonous animals

They cause danger when they bite.

(g) Cutting tools

When cutting tools are not used properly can cause cuts or tetanus.

(h) Wet and slippery floors

When water spill on floors can make a person fall and get bruises or bone fractures.
(i) Stairs
These can endanger safety if are slippery or stepping on them carelessly.

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 (j) Ladders, stools and chairs.
When these things are not placed on a stable flat surface may cause falls.

REVISON QUESTIONS
1. Choose the correct answer from the alternatives given
(i).Elvira is playing in a bush near her home, she is likely to suffer _______
A. bruise C. scalds and burns
B. snake D. electric shock
bite

(ii).Snakes, spiders and bees are dangerous animals because they ______
A. containing C. spread disease
poison D. have sharp teeth
B. eat people
(iii).Insulating electric cables helps to prevent _________
A. current to C. electric shock
flow D. electric supply
B. poison

(iv).Children playing near a deep dam. What danger are they facing?
A. drowning C. scalding
B. poisoning D. snake bite

(v).Wet and slippery floors may cause _____________

A. scalds and burns
B. falling and sprains
C. bleeding
D. insect bites

(i) ____________ are important for cleaning cuts, wounds and prevent
infections.
(a) Antibiotics (c) Medical scissors
(b) Antiseptics (d) Medical tapes

(ii) A sudden involuntary contraction of muscles that is painful and make

muscles temporarily unable to work properly is known as ___________
(a) Shock (c) Muscle cramp
(b) Hiccups (d) Vomiting

(iii) If you accidentally swallow a poison, you are advised to take a glass of milk
because the milk _____________
(a) Induce vomiting
(b) Relieves pain
(c) Neutralizes
poison
(d) Prevents shock

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 WASTE AND WASTE DISPOSAL
WASTES
Are materials that are no longer needed in our environment.
Or are unwanted, unusable materials or substances in our environment
 Wastes are also called trashes, garbage, rubbishes or refuses
Examples of wastes are, food left – overs, broken items, scrap metals, industrial
wastes, human excreta and packaging materials.
 Wastes are mostly as a result of human activities.
TYPES OF WASTE
There are four criteria used to classify wastes.
(a) Basing on the physical states
(b) Basing on living and non-living components.
(c) Basing on the ability to be processed into useful products
(d) Basing on potential to cause harmful effects to humans or environment.

(a) Basing on the physical states

According to physical states, there are four types of wastes, namely:-
(i) Solid wastes
(ii) Liquid wastes
(iii)Gaseous wastes
(iv) Sludge wastes

(i) SOLID WASTES

Are waste materials which are in solid state.
Example of solid wastes
 Household garbage such as vegetable, fruit and garden wastes, bottles, plastics,
papers, broken glasses, empty cans and construction wastes.
Categories of solid wastes
(i) Household wastes such as papers, cans, plastics, broken glassware, batteries from
watches, radios, mobile phones Household garbage such as vegetable, fruit and
garden wastes, bottles, plastics, papers, broken glasses, empty cans, shopping
bags, old utensils, broken chairs and tables.
(ii) Industrial wastes such as packaging materials, metal turnings, scrappers, plastics
and junked automobiles.
(iii)Medical or hospital wastes such as used syringes, used bandages and cotton
wool, used needles, blades, medicines, plastic containers.
(ii) LIQUID WASTE
Are waste materials which are in liquid state.

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Example of liquid wastes
 Urines, waste water from households, industries, agriculture, mining areas and
chemicals from industries,

(iii)GASEOUS WASTES
Are wastes which are in gaseous state.
Example of gaseous wastes
 Smokes, fumes, and gases such as ammonia, carbon dioxide and Sulphur from
industries and from motor vehicles.

(iv) SLUDGE WASTES

These waste are intermediate between liquid and solid states.
Example of sludge wastes
 A mixture of livestock urine and cow dung.
(b) Basing on living and non-living components
According to living and non-living components, wastes can also be classified as:
(i) Biodegradable wastes
(ii) Non – biodegradable wastes
(i) BIODEGRADABLE WASTES
These are wastes that can be decomposed easily by bacteria and fungi.
 These wastes are from living things
 They are also called organic wastes
Example of biodegradable wastes
 Food remains
 Cotton clothes
 Grasses
 Paper and bandages

(ii) NON-BIODEGRADABLE WASTES

These are waste that cannot be easily decomposed by bacteria and fungi.
 Some non – biodegradable wastes remain the soil for long period whereas other
cannot decompose at all.
 Non – biodegradable wastes are also called Inorganic wastes.
Example of non – biodegradable wastes
 Plastic materials  Pieces of glasses
 Metal scraps  Some pesticides
(c) Basing on the ability to be processed into useful products.
Wastes can also be classified as:
(i) Recyclable wastes
(ii) Non – recyclable wastes

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 (i) RECYCLABLE WASTES
Are wastes that can be processed to make useful products.
 They are returned to industries as raw materials and new objects are made
from them.
Example of Recyclable wastes
 Plastic bottles
 Glass
 Paper wastes
(ii) NON – RECYCLABLE WASTES
Are wastes that cannot be processed to make new objects.
Example of non – recyclable wastes
 Hazardous chemical containers
 Used batteries
 Empty aerosol cans
 Mirror
 Bulbs
 Medical wastes
(d) Basing on potential to cause harmful effects to humans or environment
Wastes can also be classified as:
(i) Hazardous wastes
(ii) Non – hazardous wastes
(i) HAZARDOUS WASTES
These are wastes with a potential to cause harmful effects to humans or the
environment.
 They are considered harmful because they may either contain toxic substance
or disease – causing organisms.
Example of hazardous wastes
 Industrial and hospital wastes
NB: Wastes that can transmit infections or cause diseases are referred to as
biohazardous wastes.

(ii) NON – HAZARDOUS WASTES

These are wastes with no potential harmful effects to humans or environment.
 If allowed to accumulate in the environment, they do not cause infections and
diseases.
Example of non – hazardous wastes
 Leaf litters  Wood
 Grasses

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CLASSWORK
1. Classify waste produced at home, school and industry according to living and non
– living components.
2. Classify wastes produced at home, school, hospital and industry according to
physical states.
3. Using relevant examples differentiate between hazardous waste and non –
hazardous waste.
4. State four criteria used to classify waste.
5. What is wastes?
Sources of wastes
The following are places where wastes can be produced:
(i) Households
(ii) Industries
(iii)Hospitals
(iv) Markets
(v) Schools
The table below shows sources, waste generated and their examples
SOURCE WASTE EXAMPLES
GENERATED
Household Sewage Urine, faeces and water
Waste water Water from laundry and bathrooms
Plastics Shopping bags, containers, water and
juice bottles, straws, old utensils and
old toys.
Papers Newspapers, cardboard, old books
and magazines

WASTE DISPOSAL
Waste disposal
Is the way in which we get rid of the materials that are no longer needed.
OR
Waste disposal refers to the collection, transportation, processing, re-use and other
activities that help us to get rid of waste
 This helps to reduce adverse effects of wastes on human health, animal health and the
environment.
Waste Management
Is the application of measures and principles in controlling waste.

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 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF WASTE DISPOSAL
There are three basic principles that can helps us to manage our waste. These are:
(i) Reusing
(ii) Recycling
(iii)Reducing
1. RE-USING
This involves using waste over and over again.
 Instead of throwing the waste away, they can be reused. For example, an empty
margarine container can be used to store salt, glass bottle can be used to keep milk.
2. RECYCLING(RECOVERY)
This involves getting back useful materials from waste.
Some wastes can be changed to other usable products. For example, broken glass can be
melted and used to make new glass bottles or earing and necklaces and newspapers can
be recycled to produce cards, paper
3. REDUCING (REDUCTION)
This is the act of minimizing the amount of waste produced.
 This involves lowering the amount of waste we produce as much as possible. For
example by buying things that lasts longer and according to one’s need, carrying a
woven basket instead of buying plastic bags.

PROPER WAYS OF DISPOSING WASTE (METHODS OF WASTE DISPOSAL)

The following are the proper ways of disposal waste:
(i) Recycling
(ii) Reusing
(iii) Reducing
(iv) Incineration
(v) Pit latrine
(vi) Tipping
(vii) Landfill
(viii) Composting
(i) Recycling
This involves turning waste materials into useful products. For example, used plastic
material are used to make new plastic items, waste paper used to make tissue paper.
(ii) Re-using
This involves using a material more and more again. For example, using an empty
margarine container to keep sugar.
(iii) Reducing
This is the act of minimizing the amount of waste produced.

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  This involves lowering the amount of waste we produce as much as possible. For
example by buying things that lasts longer and according to one’s need, carrying a
woven basket instead of buying plastic bags.
(iv) Incineration
Is the process of burning organic solid wastes until they are completely destroyed into
ashes.
 Incineration can be done at household level (small scale incineration) or in
hospitals, industries and municipals (large scale incineration)
 Hazardous wastes like clinical wastes are burnt inside a facility called an
incinerator
NB: Incinerator – is a facility used to burn hazardous waste materials.
(v) Composting
This is a process of making manure from biodegradable organic waste.
 Example of biodegradable organic wastes include leaves, fruit and vegetable
peels , garden weeds, flowers and kitchen waste, branches of trees and
sawdust.
Ways used to produce compost (manure)
 Dig a hole and throw in all organic waste produced domestically or commercially.
 Compost (manure) can also be produced using a heap instead of a hole. The heap
is watered and turned regularly to encourage decomposition and after a few
weeks, it decomposes into manure, when the compost (manure) is ready the
compost is used to fertilize farmland.
(vi) Landfill
Is a site for the disposal of wastes by burying them under the ground.
 Landfills are specially used for solid waste where waste is compacted and covered
with soil.
Types of landfill
There are two types of landfills, namely:
(i) Open hole in the ground – where waste is dumped and buried.
(ii) Sanitary landfill – is a structure built into the ground where waste is isolated from
the environment using clay or plastic liner.
(vii) Tipping
This is a process whereby the trucks collect waste from the household dustbins and take
them to the dumping site
(viii) Pit latrine
This is made by digging a hole in the ground.
 A wooden or concrete platform with a hole over the pit is built so that people can
use the latrine safely.
 The sewage in the pit latrine is decomposed by bacteria and when it is full, it is
covered with soil and a new latrine is dug.

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 NB: Dumps, landfills and pit latrine are methods of burying waste.
EFFECTS OF POOR WASTE DISPOSAL
Waste is dangerous to everyone in the community, especially when it is poorly disposed
of some of the problems (effects) associated with poor waste disposal are:
(i) Leads to water contamination
Some wastes end up in the water bodies and cause water pollution. For example,
chemical from industries or farms and disease causing organisms once get into water
bodies water get contaminated and becomes harmful for the use by human and other
animals.
(ii) Leads to soil contamination
When some wastes are added into the soil, the soil becomes contaminated or polluted,
hence the soil becomes dangerous to the lives of plants, animals and microorganisms
Wastes that can contaminate soil are like chemicals from industries, contaminated water,
plastic bags,
(iii) Leads to eruption of diseases
Poor waste disposal may cause spread of diseases such as diarchies, cholera, typhoid and
respiratory diseases.
(iv) Leads to air pollution
Decaying waste may give bad smell, burning waste produce harmful gases that pollutes
the air and cause respiratory diseases.
(v) Leads to loss of biodiversity
Because of poor waste disposal, many organisms that are beneficial tend to die, for
example fish, microorganisms.
(vi) Makes the environment not attractive
When wastes are dumped randomly degrade the natural beauty of the environment.
(vii) Leads to occurrence of unnecessarily accidents.
Poor waste disposal may lead to unnecessarily accidents for example, cut by broken
glass, snake bite.
(viii) Attraction of dangerous animals
Waste accumulated for a long time tend to be the habitat of dangerous animals such as
snake, bees, cockroaches, rats, centipede.
(ix) Leads to blockage of drainage channels.
(x) Waste give out bad smell
IMPORTANCE OF PROPER WASTE DISPOSAL
Disposing waste properly is beneficial to our lives and the lives of other organisms are follows.
(i) Prevents eruption of diseases
(ii) Prevents water contamination.
(iii)Helps to avoid soil contamination
(iv) Prevents air pollution
(v) Prevent unnecessarily accidents in the environment

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 (vi) Maintains the natural beauty of the environment
HOW TO REDUCE WASTE
The following are simple ways in which we can reduce waste.
(i) Using cloth instead of paper to wipe surfaces such as windows and furniture
(ii) Buying things that last longer
(iii) Using rechargeable batteries instead of disposable batteries
(iv) Using woven shopping bags instead of plastic or paper bags
(v) Using plastic that can be recycled or re-used
(vi) Buying products made from recycled materials
(vii) Initiate awareness’ campaigns in your community on the proper ways of disposal
waste as most people are not aware of the effects of poor waste disposal
EFFECTS OF POOR WASTE DISPOSAL
(i) Leads to spread of diseases e.g. cholera and respiratory diseases
(ii) Leads to air pollution
(iii) Makes the environment not attractive
(iv) Accumulated waste becomes breeding ground for vectors of diseases
(v) Waste can harm wildlife and domestic animals
The bags if swallowed may block the digestive system of animal
(vi) Waste block the drainage channel and leads to flooding
(vii) Waste pollute the water bodies and affect the life of aquatic animals
(viii) Contaminated water in the soil affect plant growth and kill micro-organisms
(ix) Waste degrade the natural beauty of the environment
(x) Waste give out bad smell.
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. (a) What is waste disposal?
(b) State two ways that are commonly used to dispose wastes at home and school.
(c) Using relevant examples distinguish recycling from reusing as principles of waste
disposal.
2. (a) Explain the advantage of proper waste disposal.
(b) Why is waste disposal a problem to our environment? Give three reasons.
(c) Explain four effects of poor waste disposal.
3. Match the phrase in List A with the corresponding response in List B by writing the
letter of the correct response beside the item number.
LIST A LIST B
(i) Discarded vegetables and dead animals. A. Incineration
(ii) Getting rid of wastes. B. Pit latrine
(iii) Site for dumping waste and covering it with C. Recycling
soil. D. Biohazardous wastes
(iv) Burning of wastes. E. Tipping
(v) Making useful products from wastes. F. Organic matter

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 (vi) Waste a product more than once. G. Waste disposal
(vii) Waste products that can transmit diseases. H. Biodegradable waste
(viii) Wastes collected in litterbins and later I. Landfill
collected by trunks. J. Reuse

4. Choose the correct answer from among the given alternatives and write its letter
(i) Effective way of reducing waste are displayed in each of the following,
EXCEPT___
A. Using recycled materials
B. Using rechargeable batteries
C. Buying new plastic shopping bags every time we go shopping.
D. Using cloth instead of paper to clean windows
(ii) Medical waste is described as ______
A. Biohazardous
B. Reusable materials
C. Biodegradable
D. Recyclable
(iii)Which of the following can be caused by burning plastic waste materials?
A. Bruised skin
B. Joint pains
C. Heart problems
D. Breathing problems
(iv) The following are reasons why waste disposal is a problem EXCEPT__
A. Inadequate litterbins
B. Disposal of waste in wrong areas
C. Enforcing punishments to discourage litters
D. Failure of cleaners to collect waste from public places
(v) Which among the items below does not emit gaseous wastes?
A. Car
B. Chair
C. Incinerator
D. Insecticide spray

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 HEALTH AND IMMUNITY
Health
Is a state of physical, mental and social well – being.
OR
Is a general condition of the body, mind in which a person is free from disease, injury,
damage or pain.
OR
Is a state of being physically, mentally and socially well.
 Health is not merely the absence of diseases.
There are two states of health
(a) Good health
(b) Poor health
Good health
I s a state of the body to be free from diseases, injury or pain
Poor health
Is a state in which a person is often attacked by diseases, pain or injury.
Pathogens
Are organisms which cause diseases.
Example – Bacteria, fungi, protozoa, worms and viruses

IMMUNITY
Is the ability of the body to resist against infection.
Or
Immunity is the ability of the body to defend itself against infectious agents, foreign
cells and cancer cells.
 Immunity is made possible by the immune system.
 The human immune system consists of white blood cells, the lymphatic system,
sleep, thymus, skin and the bone marrow.
 The scientific study of immune system is called immunology
TYPES OF IMMUNITY
There are two types of immunity;
(a) Natural immunity
(b) Artificial immunity
(a) NATURAL IMMUNITY
Is a type of immunity that a person is born with.

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  This immunity is inborn and exists even before the body is exposed to pathogens
and it is permanent.
 It can also result from natural exposure to antigen.
 It is the inherited ability of the body to remain resistant or unaffected by a specific
disease.
ARTIFICIAL IMMUNITY
Is a type of immunity that individual acquire through immunization or vaccination.
 This is a type of immunity that occurs when a person’s immune system is induced
to produce an immune response.
 Artificial immunity is that which an individual acquires during his/her life time.
 It is called artificial immunity because it is not produced naturally by the body
IMMUNIZATION
Is the process of introducing a vaccine into the body of an animal in order to produce
antibodies.
 Immunization is also called vaccination or inoculation.
VACCINE
Is a preparation containing inactivated or weakened disease – causing organisms such as
bacteria or viruses
 Vaccine are introduced in the body either orally or by injection to stimulate the
production of antibodies by the immune system.
Natural or artificial immunity can either be active or passive
Active immunity
This involves inducing the body to produce its own antibodies to fight an infection.
 It take a long time to be activities but provide long-lasting protection. It involves
memory cells which recognize an infection if it recurs.

Passive immunity
Is a type of immunity that is acquired when antibodies are produced by one person and then
transferred to another person.
 This provides instant but short – lived protection.
TYPES OF NATURAL IMMUNITY
Natural immunity can be divided into;
(i) Natural active immunity
(ii) Natural passive immunity
(i) Natural active immunity
Is a type of immunity that develops a result of the body being exposed to pathogens or
toxins.
 After infection, antibodies are produced in the body.
 When the pathogens enter the body they may directly attack the body or produce
poisons called toxins

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  Then the body detects the pathogens or their toxins and produce chemicals
(antibodies) to fight back
ANTIGENS
Are foreign substance that enters the body. E.g. pathogens and their toxins.
TOXINS
Are poisons that produced by the pathogens.
ANTIBODIES
Are chemical substances produced by the body to fight against antigens.
 Antibodies are specific to fight specific antigens.
For example, if a person catches measles, the body develops antibodies against the
measles. In the future the body will produce the same antibodies if it is attacked again
by the measles pathogens.

(ii) Natural passive immunity

Is a type of immunity that develop when a mother passes antibodies to her baby during
pregnancy and breast feeding.
 This immunity lasts for a few weeks or months during which time the baby’s own
immunity develops.
TYPES OF ARTIFICIAL IMMUNITY
There are two types of artificial immunity:
(i) Artificial active immunity
(ii) Artificial passive immunity
(i) Artificial active immunity
Is a type of immunity that is acquired through immunization or vaccination using
vaccines.
 When the person is immunized or Vaccinated using vaccines, the vaccine causes the body
to produce antibodies as if it was being attacked by the real antigens
 Some of the body’s cells that make the immune system response remain as memory cells
which can rapidly reproduce themselves is a real infection occurs.
 This type of immunity is the one that is passed on during the routine immunization of
infants and children. The incidence of disease such as measles, tuberculosis, diphtheria,
whooping cough, tetanus, yellow fever, chicken pox and polio have been greatly reduced
due to vaccination.
Example
When vaccine against measles is injected to the body it produces antibodies rapidly.
(ii) Artificial passive immunity;
Is a type of immunity that is acquired when an individual receives readymade antibodies.
 Such type of antibodies are usually produced by other organism and given to
individual through injection.
Example of artificial passive immunity
 Vaccination against snake bites and tetanus.

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 Advantages of Active immunity
 Provides a long- lasting protection
Disadvantages of Active immunity
 It takes a long time to be activated
Advantages of passive immunity
 Provides instant protection
Disadvantages of passive immunity
 Provides short – lived protection

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE BODY IMMUNITY

(i) Age
(ii) Extreme Stress
(iii) Bad lifestyle
(iv) Incomplete treatments
(v) Damage to the skin
(vi) Lack of proper nutrition
(vii) Lack of vaccination
(viii) Diseases and Genetic disorders
(ix) Attack by pathogen
(i) Lack of vaccination
If a person is not vaccinated against some disease, there is a higher chance of getting
infected. For example, a child who is not vaccinated against measles gets the
infection easily if there is an outbreak. Once a person gets a disease, it is too late to
vaccine against it.
(ii) Genetic disorders
Some people are born with conditions that affect their immunity. For example albinos
have a skin that is less resistance to harmful rays from the sun compared to normal
skin. Hence albinos have a higher risk of getting skin cancer.
(iii) Incomplete treatment
If a sick person does not take a complete dose of treatment for an infection or disease,
this may affect immunity. This is because the disease causing microorganisms are not
completely destroyed and could therefore be re activated easily, causing the infection
or disease to recur.
(iv) Attack by pathogens
Some pathogens such as HIV destroy white blood cells which are important part of
the immune system. This makes the body more susceptible to infections.
(v) Extreme stress
Studies have shown that people under very stressful conditions, often have low
immunity and therefore get infections easily compared to non-stressed people.
(vi) Damage to the skin
The skin acts as a barrier, preventing microorganisms from entering the body. When
the skin is damaged, for example due to severe burns or numerous cuts, this barrier

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 becomes weak. Disease – causing organisms can therefore enter the body more as
easily.
(vii) Poor nutrition
Some nutrients are partly used in manufacturing white blood cells and antibodies
which defend the body against diseases. Therefore improper intake of some nutrients
may result the immunity to be weak.
(viii) Poor personal hygiene
Poor person hygiene and poor environmental sanitation lead to environmental
frequent illness hence over working the immune system.
(ix) Bad life style
Bad lifestyle such as cigarette, smoking, alcoholism, drug abuse and having many
sexual partners may weaken body immunity.
(x) Age
Children under 5 years and people above 60 years have lower immunity to some diseases
such as malaria and flu

(xi) Exposure to harmful chemicals and radiation

Certain type of chemical and radiation affect the body immunity when a person
becomes exposed to them for example x- rays destroy and kill the body cells.

THE NATURAL BODY DEFENCE SYSTEM

The human body has natural defence systems that either prevent microorganisms from entering
the body or combat them when they manage to enter the body. These are:
(i) Skin
(ii) Eyes
(iii) Ears
(iv) Digestive system
(v) Blood
(vi) Respiratory tract
(i) SKIN
Intact skin is a physical barrier against entry of pathogens. Sweat glands in the skin
produce sweat, which contains antibacterial agents that kill bacteria. Sebaceous glands of
the skin produce oily substance called sebum which contains antibacterial agents that
kills bacteria on the skin.
(ii) EYES
Tear glands found in the upper eyelids produce tear. Tears contain enzymes which kill
microorganisms and protect the eyeball from infection. Eye lashes, eyelids and eyebrows
prevent dust particles and other foreign bodies from entering the eyes.
(iii)EARS
The lining of the ear canal produces waxy material which traps bacteria, viruses and
small dust particles.
(iv) DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Salivary glands in the mouth produce saliva, which is a mild antibacterial agent.
Hydrochloric acid produced by the stomach walls also destroys and kills most bacteria

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 taken in with food. Digestive juices produced in the small intestine digest and kill the
bacteria in the intestine.
(v) BLOOD
Blood comprises of lymphocytes and phagocytes. The lymphocytes produce antibodies
that destroy pathogens. The phagocytes engulf microorganisms invading the body, thus
defending the body against disease – causing organisms.
(vi) RESPIRATORY TRACT
Mucous secreting cells in the respiratory tract produce mucus which traps
microorganisms and small dust particles. The respiratory tract such as trachea have hairs
called cilia and mucus which trap and fitter dust and microorganisms.

PERSONAL HYGIENE AND GOOD MANNERS

Personal hygiene
Is the practice of keeping the body, clothes and environment clean in order to maintain good
health.
 Person hygiene skills are primarily emphasized to young people.
 Such skills include body cleanliness, and wearing clean clothes. As the individual grows
personal hygiene responsibilities changes from self – help to helping others and maintaining
their hygiene at family level and the surrounding community.
PRINCIPLES OF PERSONAL HYGIENE
(i) Take bath twice every day.
(ii) Brush teeth at least twice a day. In the morning and before going to bed.
(iii) Always wear clean clothes
(iv) Keep the environment clean. The environment includes bedroom, classroom and school.
(v) Keep nails short and clean.
(vi) Comb hair every day or keep it well plaited.
(vii) Change bedding regularly.
(viii) Wear comfortable and well-fitted clothes
(ix) Do not spit on the ground. Spit onto a tissue paper.
(x) Rinse the mouth with clean and safe water after eating.
(xi) Avoid touching other’s body fluids such as blood, vomiting, urine and saliva with bare
hands.
(xii) Wash hands with soap and clean water after visiting the toilet and before eating.
(xiii) Cover mouth and nose with a clean handkerchief or tissue when coughing or sneezing.
(xiv) Do not share handkerchiefs, towels and clothes, especially underwear.
(xv) Use a clean toilet for relieving yourself.
(xvi) Make sure pets are kept clean. Keep pet litter out of the living room.
(xvii) Avoid picking nose and biting nails
IMPORTANCE OF PERSONAL HYGIENE
(i) It prevents diseases and maintains good health. Personal hygiene keeps away organisms
that causes diseases.

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 (ii) It provides better appearance and prevents body odour.
(iii)It increases self-confidence and enhances social acceptance.
(iv) It brings personal relaxation. After taking bath, someone feels comfortable and relaxed
GOOD MANNERS
Are behaviors that are socially acceptable.
 They include honesty, respect for others, politeness and helpfulness.
 These behaviours are also learnt throughout our lives from a tender age. Personal hygiene
is also part of good social manners.

PRINCIPLES OF GOOD MANNERS

(i) Maintain a good posture when sitting or standing.
(ii) Speak in a clear voice. Do not shout
(iii) Avoid risk behaviour and bad lifestyle. Example smoking, alcoholism and prostitution
(iv) Be respectful when you disagree with someone opinion.
(v) Eat while sitting at a proper place
(vi) Be helpful to other people. If possible give assistance to the needy.
(vii) Admit a mistake and apologies.
(viii) Greet people politely.
 If you were sitting stand up straight and if you were walking or running, then stand
still.
(ix) Express your feelings in a proper manner.
(x) Dress properly according to the occasion and the social norms in your community.
(xi) Say ‘please’ when requesting for something
(xii) Say ‘thank you’ when given something or allowed to do something.
(xiii) Chew when the mouth is closed.
(xiv) Cover the mouth when coughing or yawning.
(xv) Do not talk while eating.
(xvi) Chew at reasonable pace.
(xvii) Do not dominate conversation. Give other people a chance to talk.
(xviii) Welcome visitors warmly. Introduce them to people they do not know.
(xix) Do not use foul language.
(xx) Be punctual when meeting or visiting someone.
(xxi) Give up your seat to an elderly person, handicapped or pregnant and breastfeeding
woman when on a crowded bus or train.
(xxii) Serve yourself reasonable portions of food. Do not waste food.
(xxiii) Avoid criticizing the food prepared by other people.
IMPORTANCE OF GOOD MANNERS
(i) Makes a person more acceptable and respectable in the community.
(ii) Promotes peace of mind. Thus, enabling people to concentrate on their works, studies and
other activities

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(iii) Makes us good role models to other people in the community.
(iv) Prevents one from getting choked while eating.
(v) Maintains personality of an individual in the society.
(vi) One becomes respected by others
(vii) Maintains health of the body and mind
BAD MANNERS
Are behaviors that are not socially acceptable.
For example Theft, telling lies, being rude and cruel, using foul language, fighting etc.
REQUIREMENTS OF PERSONAL HYGIENE AND GOOD MANNERS
The following things can help us to maintain personal hygiene.
Items Uses
(i) Tooth brush and tooth paste  For brushing of teeth
(ii) Soap and clean water  For bathing and washing
(iii) Towels  For drying our body after bathing
and washing hands
(iv) Nail cutter or razor blade  For cutting nails of toes and
fingers
(v) Comb  For combing the hair
(vi) Clean clothes, shoes, shirts 

(vii) Scissors  For cutting long hairs

(viii) Handkerchief  For

(ix) Skin oil 

Requirements of good manners

The following things can help us to maintain good manner.
(i) Be ready to receive advice from parents, teachers, elders and other people in the
community. Good advice helps us to improve ourselves.
(ii) Interact with peers and friends who practice proper personal hygiene and have good
manners.

PERSONAL HYGIENE DURING PUBERTY

PUBERTY
Is the period when a boy or a girl show some changes in the body.
 It is a period when children begin to mature biologically, psychologically and socially
and their bodies become capable of reproduction.

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  Puberty usually occurs between age of 10 to 14 years for girls and 12 to 16 years for
boys.
 During puberty, young girls and boys develop secondary sexual characteristics which
create a distinct difference between males and females. Puberty leads to adolescence.
ADOLESCENCE
Is the transitional period between childhood and adulthood.
 Changes in the body that occur in boys and girls at puberty are called secondary sexual
characteristics.

Secondary sexual characteristics and changes that occur in boys during puberty
The following are features that develop in boys at puberty:
(i) Enlargement of testes and penis.
(ii) Sperm production begins
(iii) Widening of shoulders and chest.
(iv) Development of hair under the armpits and pubic regions.
(v) Growth of beards and facial pimples
(vi) Wet dreams begins
(vii) Development of muscular body.
(viii) Development of deep voice.
(ix) Sweat and oil glands become active leading to changes in body odors.

Secondary sexual characteristics and changes that occur in girls during puberty
The following are features that develop in boys at puberty:
(i) Ovulation and menstruation begin
(ii) Increase in height and weight
(iii) Development of Breasts.
(iv) Wet dreams begins.
(v) Broadening of hips and pelvic bone
(vi) Development of soft and pitched voice.
(vii) Development of hair under the armpits and pubic regions.
(viii) Development of pimples in some girls.
(ix) Sweat and oil glands become more active leading to changes in body adour
WAYS OF MAINTAINING PROPER PERSONAL HYGIENE DURING PUBERTY
The following are important measures in maintaining personal hygiene during puberty.
(i) Bath at least twice per day.
(ii) Wear clean clothes. Avoid wearing many clothes.
(iii) Wear clean and dry under wears.
(iv) Wash under wears regularly.
(v) Shave beards and pubic hairs. This helps to prevent bad odour or infections.
(vi) Clean genital organs thoroughly and dry them by clean towel while bathing.
(vii) Girls should change the sanitary pads regularly when are in periods.
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 (viii) Wash clothes and beddings regularly.
(ix) Avoid sexual intercourse. This causes early pregnancy and transmission of diseases e.g.
HIV.
(x) Avoid peer pressure and emotions. By doing regular exercise, joining subject clubs and
drama.

INFECTIONS AND DISEASES

INFECTION
Is the attack and growth of pathogens in the body of an organism.
Pathogens
Are organisms that cause diseases.
 They include viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozoa
 Pathogens enter the organism’s body through wounds, nose, mouth, genitals, animal
bites and vectors.
 Infection may not necessarily cause diseases. This because the body immunity can attack
pathogens before a disease develops.
 A person may be infected but may not be sick until some signs and symptoms appear.
Signs
Are those things that can be seen or measured.
Example of signs include:
 Blood in the stool
 Skin rashes
 High blood pressure
 High blood sugar
 Vomiting
Symptoms
Are those things that cannot be seen but are only experienced by the patients.
Example of symptoms include:
 Nausea
 Lack of appetite
 Tiredness
 Fever
 Headache
DISEASE
Is a condition that interferes with the health of the body.
 It can be caused by pathogens (infection), Body abnormalities, nutrient deficiencies,
chemicals and radiations from the environment and hereditary factors.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INFECTION AND DISEASES
INFECTION DISEASES
(i) Occurs when the pathogens invade or enter the Occurs few hours or days after infection
body

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(ii) It is not associate with signs and symptoms It occurs when the signs and symptoms occur

TYPES OF DISEASES
There are two main types of diseases, namely:
(a) Non-communicable diseases
(b) Communicable diseases
(a) NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES
Are diseases that cannot be transmitted from one person to another.
 Non – communicable diseases may be caused by nutrient deficiency, environmental
pollutants and genetic defects.
 Non – communicable diseases are also called non – infectious diseases
Example of non – communicable diseases
 Nutritional deficiency diseases, such as kwashiorkor, beriberi, scurvy, night blindness
 Hereditary diseases such as albinism, sickle cell anemia, haemophilia
 Hormonal diseases such as Diabetes mellitus, Diabetes insipidus and cretinism.
 Environmental diseases such as Lung cancer, Asbestosis, Asthma, Coronary (heart) diseases.
(b) COMMUNICABLE DISEASES
Are diseases that can spread from one person to another.
 Communicable diseases are caused by pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, fungi,
protozoans and worms.
 Communicable diseases are also called Infections diseases or contagious diseases.
The Table below shows the pathogens and their associated communicable diseases;
PATHOGEN DISEASES
Viruses Measles, chickenpox, Ebola, rabies, polio, mumps, smallpox, common
cold, influenza, AIDS and genital herpes.
Bacteria Tetanus, cholera, plague, leprosy, typhoid, diphtheria, tuberculosis
(TB).
Protozoa Malaria, amoebic dysentery, sleeping sickness,
Fungi Ringworm, candidiasis, athlete’s foot.
Worms Elephantiasis, ascariasis, taeniasis, schistosomiasis (bilharzia)
TYPES OF COMMUNICABLE DISEASES
Communicable diseases may be;
(i) Epidemic
(ii) Pandemic
(iii)Endemic
(i) PANDEMIC DISEASE
Is a communicable disease that becomes wide spread in a large geographical area such as a
continent or the whole world.
Example of pandemic diseases
 AIDS
 Influenza.

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(ii) EPIDEMIC DISEASE
Is a communicable disease that spreads quickly and affects a large number of people in a short
period of time at a given locality.
Example of epidemic diseases
 Cholera
 Meningitis
 Plague.
 Rift valley fever (RVF)
 Tuberculosis
(iii)ENDEMIC DISEASES
Is a communicable disease that occur regularly in a particular place or in a given area constantly.
Example of endemic disease
 Malaria
 Bilharzia
 Tuberculosis
 Gonorrhea
 Syphilis
 Typhoid
(iv) SPORADIC DISEASE
Is a communicable disease that occurs occasionally and at random intervals.
Example of sporadic diseases
 Ebola
 Rift valley fever

DISEASE TRANSMISSION
Is the spread of an infection from person to person or from vector to person.
Ways of diseases transmission
The pathogens or diseases can be spread or transmitted from one person to another through the
following ways:
(i) Through droplets
(ii) Through contaminated water and food
(iii)Through sexual intercourse
(iv) Through contact
(v) Through vector
(vi) Through blood
1. Through droplet
Secretions from an infected person are transferred from the nose or mouth onto the surfaces or
hands by droplets produced when sneezing, spitting, coughing or speaking. Example of diseases
spread by droplets are tuberculosis, COVID – 19 and flu or influenza.
2. Through contact
Some diseases such as scabies and measles may be spread from one individual to another
through direct or indirect contact with infected skin, clothing, combs or dressings.

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 3. Through sexual intercourse
Some pathogens can be transmitted from an infected person to another through sexual
intercourse. Examples are pathogens causing infections and diseases such as gonorrhea, syphilis,
HIV/AIDS, Hepatitis B, genital herpes.
4. Through contaminated food and water
Some diseases like cholera, typhoid, amoebic dysentery and schistosomiasis are transmitted
through contaminated water and food. Water and food can be contaminated by pathogens
discharged in faeces, flies.
5. Through air
When a person sneezes or coughs without covering the mouth the pathogens are released into the
air. If another person inhales that air, he/she will carry the pathogens into his/her body. Example
of diseases transmitted through air are Tuberculosis, Influenza, whooping cough, chicken pox,
Measles, common cold.
6. Through blood
Some infections occur when infected blood from an infected person enters the body of another
person. This can be through transfusing infected blood, sharing sharp instruments like needles,
razor blades, and scissors. Example of the diseases transmitted through blood are AID, Hepatitis
B and Hepatitis C.
7. Through vectors
Some pathogens are transmitted by organisms such as snails, Housefly, Mosquitoes, Tsetse fly, Rats,
Lice fleas. Example of diseases transmitted by vectors are malaria, sleeping sickness, dengue fever
and plague.
VECTORS
Are organisms that carry pathogens.
The table below shows pathogens and their corresponding vectors
VECTOR PATHOGEN DISEASE
Female anopheles mosquito Plasmodium Malaria
Tsetse fly Trypanosoma Sleeping sickness
Housefly Amoeba Dysentery
Housefly Vibrio cholerae Cholera
Snail Schistosoma Bilharzia

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COMMON INFECTIONS AND DISEASES
The following are example of diseases and infections that are common in Tanzania and other
countries in Africa.
 Tuberculosis
 Typhoid
 Cholera
 Malaria
 Bilharzia
 Plague
 Meningitis
THE CAUSES, SYMPTOMS, MODE OF TRANSMISSION AND EFFECTS OF COMMON
INFECTIONS AND DISEASES

1. TUBERCULOSIS (TB)
Is a communicable and highly infectious disease
Causes
 It is caused by a bacterium called Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
Mode of Transmission
Tuberculosis can be transmitted through:
(i) Droplets when coughing or sneezing
(ii) Breathing infected air when an infected person coughs or sneezes.
(iii)Breastfeeding with infected milk
Signs and symptoms of tuberculosis
(i) Prolonged cough
(ii) Blood stained sputum
(iii) Night sweats
(iv) Fever
(v) Weight loss
(vi) Poor appetite( lack of appetite)
(vii) Lack of energy
NB: Sputum is a slippery fluid that comes out when one coughs.
Effects of tuberculosis
(i) Lugh damage
(ii) Kidney damage
(iii)Bone infection
(iv) Hunch back
(v) Damage to the immune system

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 (vi) Death
Prevention/control measures of tuberculosis
(i) Vaccination
(ii) Patients should cover nose and mouth when coughing or sneezing
(iii)Avoid-crowded areas
(iv) Isolation of the patient from other family members
(v) Medical treatment.
QUESTION
A middle man is regularly visiting the local traditional healer suspecting he has been bewitched.
He has prolonged cough and is emitting stained sputum whenever he coughs. He cannot eat
properly because he has poor appetite and suffers weight loss. He is surprised that he sweats a lot
during the night.
(a) Name the possible disease a man is suffering from.
(b) What is the cause and how is it transmitted?
(c) What are the prevention method? Any three

2. TYPHOID
Causes
 It is caused by bacteria called salmonella typhi that mostly affect the intestine and stomach of
the human being
Mode of Transmission of typhoid
The following are ways through which typhoid is transmitted or spread:
(i) Through eating contaminated food
(ii) Through drinking contaminated water or juices
(iii)Through vectors such as houseflies
(iv) Poor sanitation
Signs and symptoms of typhoid
Typhoid is characterized by the following signs and symptoms
(i) Diarrhea
(ii) Vomiting
(iii)Mild fever
(iv) Abdominal pain
(v) Headache
(vi) Constipation (passing out hard stool)
Effects of typhoid
Typhoid may cause the following problems
(i) Body weakness
(ii) Abdominal pain
(iii)Kidney and bladder infection which result into kidney failure
Prevention/Control measures of typhoid
Typhoid can be controlled or prevented by:
(i) Drinking clean and safe water
(ii) Washing hands before eating and after visiting toilet
(iii) Handling and preparing food in a hygienic condition
(iv) Eating properly cooked food

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 (v) Disposing faeces properly
(vi) Covering food to prevent flies from reaching the food
(vii) Washing by using clean water Foods which are not cooked.
(viii) Proper community sanitation and general cleanliness
(ix) Medical treatment. Typhoid can be treated by using antibiotics such as chloramphenicol.

3. CHOLERA
Causes
 It is caused by bacteria called vibrio cholerae.
Mode of Transmission of cholera
The following are ways through which Cholera is transmitted
(i) Through eating contaminated food
(ii) Through drinking contaminated water
(iii)Poor sanitation
(iv) Through vectors such as houseflies
Signs and symptoms of cholera
A patient of cholera shows the following signs and symptoms:
(i) Sunken eyes
(ii) Severe watery diarrhoea
(iii) Vomiting which looks like rice water
(iv) General body weakness
(v) Loss of weight
(vi) Wrinkled skin
(vii) Weak pulse
(viii) Muscle cramps
Effects of cholera
Cholera causes the following problems
(i) Body weakness
(ii) Dehydration (Lack of water in the body)
(iii)Weight loss
(iv) Kidney failure
(v) Death
Prevention/control
Cholera can be prevented or controlled through observing the following
(i) Washing hands after visiting the toilet
(ii) Boiling or treating drinking water
(iii) Washing hands with soap before eating
(iv) Wash fruit and vegetables
(v) Eating hot food
(vi) Proper sanitation
(vii) Improve personal hygiene
(viii) Prepare the food in a hygienic way.

QUESTION
A group of students from Bidii secondary had a study visit to Bugando Hospital. They noticed a
patient with sunken eyes, severe diarrhea, vomiting, weak pulse, wrinkled skin and muscle

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cramps. The laboratory procedure also revealed the presence of comma shaped bacterium in the
patient’s stool.
(a) What could be the possible disease the patient was suffering from?
(b) What is the cause of the disease and how it is transmitted?
(c) Suggest four (4) preventive measures of the disease you have in (a) above
4. MALARIA
Is a communicable diseases
Causes of malaria
Malaria is caused by protozoa called plasmodium.
Mode of Transmission of malaria
The following are ways through which malaria (plasmodium) can be transmitted:
(i) Through vectors such as female anopheles mosquitoes
(ii) Through blood transfusion
Signs and symptoms of malaria
(i) Pain in the joints
(ii) Chills
(iii) Fever
(iv) Sweating
(v) Nausea and vomiting
(vi) Headache
(vii) Abdominal pain
(viii) Lack of appetite
Effects of malaria
(i) Anaemia (decreased red blood cells in the blood)
(ii) Kidney failure
(iii)Liver damage
(iv) Brain damage leading to mental problems
(v) Death
Prevention/control measures of Malaria
Control and preventive measures of malaria aim at eradicating female anopheles mosquitoes or
preventing mosquito bites as follow
(i) Spraying oil in breeding sites
(ii) Cutting long grasses around the house
(iii) Draining stagnant water
(iv) Sleeping under treated mosquito nets
(v) Applying mosquito repellants
(vi) Using windows with mosquito-proof wire meshes
(vii) Wearing clothes that cover the whole body during the night studying

5. CORONAVIRUS DISEASE (COVID- 19)

Is a pandemic disease caused by the corona viruses that can trigger respiratory tract infection
which may lead to severe acute respiratory syndrome.
Cause of COVID- 19
It is caused by corona virus -19

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Mode of transmission of COVID-19
COVID-19 can be transmitted through:
 Inhaling droplets from an infected person. A person becomes infected through inhaling
droplets from the nose or mouth which are expelled when infected person coughs,
sneezes or speaks.
 Shaking hands with infected person. A person becomes infected when shakes hands with
infected person.
 Touching contaminated objects and surfaces. A person can becomes infected by touching
objects such as tables, doorknobs then touching his/her eyes, nose or mouth.
Sign and symptoms of COVID-19
(i) Fever
(ii) Headaches
(iii) Dry cough
(iv) Tiredness
(v) Shortness of breath
(vi) Joint aches and pain
(vii) Loss of smell or taste
(viii) Abdominal pain
(ix) Diarrhoea
(x) Vomiting
Note: Infected person may be asymptomatic
Asymptomatic (Pre –symptomatic) – means somebody that does not have symptoms.
Effects of COVID-19
(i) Lung damage
(ii) Blood clotting
(iii)Death
Prevention/Control measures of COVID-19
(i) Use hand sanitizers as often as possible
(ii) Wear masks when going to public places
(iii) Keep social distance. Stay at least 1 meter away from others.
(iv) Isolation of patients
(v) Avoid overcrowded places (avoid unnecessary gatherings).
(vi) Frequently wash your hands thoroughly with soap and clean running water.
(vii) Avoid touching your eyes, mouth and nose.

6. BILHARZIA/SCHISTOSOMIASIS
Is a parasitic worm disease.
Causes of bilharzia
It is caused by a flatworm called Schistosoma haematobium or blood flukes
Mode of Transmission of bilharzia
The following is the main way through which bilharzia can be transmitted:
 Through water snails
 Through drinking contaminated water. When the infected person urinates or defeacates
into water bodies, releases eggs into water.

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Signs and symptoms of bilharzia
Bilharzia is characterized with the following signs and symptoms
(i) Abdominal pain
(ii) Blood stained faeces or urine
(iii) Diarrhea
(iv) Fever
(v) Enlarged liver and spleen
(vi) Tiredness
(vii) Headache
(viii) Coughing
(ix) Painful urination
(x) Itching in the urinary bladder and in the rectum.
Effects of Bilharzia
(i) Swollen (enlarged) liver and spleen
(ii) Intestinal damage
(iii) Bladder damage
(iv) Brain damage
(v) Anaemia
(vi) Liver damage
(vii) Spleen damage
(viii) Lung damage
(ix) Spinal cord inflammation(damage)
(x) Paralysis or seizures
Prevention/ Control measures of Bilharzia
(i) Killing water snails with chemicals
(ii) Avoiding swimming in untreated stagnant water
(iii) Wearing protective shoes in water logged areas
(iv) Proper disposal of sewage
(v) Draining stagnant water
(vi) Proper use of toilets and avoiding urinating in water bodies
(vii) Medical treatment
7. PLAGUE
Causes
It is caused by bacteria called Yersinia pastis.
 This bacteria attack lymph nodes and therefore affect the activity of immune system
Mode of Transmission of Plague
 Plague is transmitted by fleas found on rats. A person is infected when bitten by infected
fleas
Signs and symptoms of Plague
(i) Inflammation (swollen) of lymph nodes
(ii) High fever
(iii)Internal bleeding
(iv) Body aches
(v) Coughing
(vi) Shortness of breath

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 Effects of plague
(i) Destruction of immune system through attacking white blood cells
(ii) Skin discoloration
(iii)Severe pain
(iv) Anaemia
(v) Pneumonia
(vi) Death
Prevention/control of plague
(i) Eliminating rats and fleas
(ii) Keeping house clean
(iii)Leftovers should be kept in tight vessels to discourage rat in houses
(iv) Vaccination
(v) Seek immediate medical treatment
8. MENINGITIS
Is the inflammation of membranes (meninges) which cover brain and spinal cord due to bacteria
attack.
Causes of meningitis
It is caused by bacteria called Meningococcus sp
Mode of Transmission of Meningitis
 Meningitis spreads through droplets (air) when sneezing, coughing or kissing.
Signs and symptoms of Meningitis
(i) Stiff neck
(ii) Seizures of fits
(iii) Delirium (Confusion)
(iv) Severe headache
(v) Sudden high fever
(vi) Nausea
(vii) Respiratory tract infection (Pneumonia)
(viii) Coma (Loss of consciousness for a long time)
Note: Coma – is a state caused by serious illness or injury where a person is unconscious for
a long time.
Effects of Meningitis
(i) Brain damage
(ii) Deafness (Loss of hearing)
(iii) Poor coordination of movements
(iv) Learning disabilities
(v) Paralysis
(vi) Death
(vii) It lead to seizures and mental problem in which people become scared of light and loud
noises
Prevention of Meningitis
(i) Isolating the infected person from others.

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 (ii) Vaccination
(iii)Maintaining healthy habits like not smoking and avoiding cigarette smokes
(iv) Getting plenty of rest
(v) Seek immediate medical treatment
9. SCABIES
Cause
 It is caused by microscopic mites
Mode of transmission of scabies
 Scabies spread by skin to skin contact.
 Through sharing clothing, towels and beddings
Signs and symptoms of scabies
(i) Intense itching
(ii) Rashes and burrows on the skin
(iii)Sores on the skin
Effects of scabies
(i) Persistent skin rashes
(ii) Damaged skin
(iii)Leads to secondary infections
Prevention/control measures of scabies
(i) Good personal hygiene
(ii) Wash contaminated clothes in hot water and dry them in the sun
(iii)Avoiding sharing personal items such as towels, clothes or bedding
(iv) Seek immediate medical treatment
10. RABIES
Causes
 Caused by rabies virus
Mode of transmission of rabies
Rabies is transmitted through
(i) Scratches or bites from infected cats, dogs, jackals, humans or other animal
(ii) Organ transplants from infected people
(iii)Direct contact of eyes, nose, and mouth with saliva of an infected animal
Signs and symptoms of rabies
(i) Fever
(ii) Pain at the site of bites
(iii) Difficulty swallowing
(iv) Restlessness
(v) Muscles spasms
(vi) Convulsions
(vii) Loss of feeling
(viii) Drooling

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 (ix) Foaming at the mouth
Effects of rabies
(i) Damage to the nervous system
(ii) Brain damage
(iii)Paralysis
(iv) Death
Prevention/control measures of rabies
(i) Pets should be taken care
(ii) Stay away from suspicious pets
(iii)When bitten by a dog or other animals report immediately to a nearby health care facility
(iv) Vaccination
(v) Seek immediate medical treatment

STIs, STDs, and HIV/AIDS

The Definition of abbreviations
STIs stands for sexually Transmitted Infections
STDs stands for Sexually Transmitted Diseases
 These infections and diseases are called sexually transmitted because they are spread
from one person to another mainly through unprotected sexual intercourse with an
infected person.
STIs and STDs also can be transmitted:-
 Through blood transfusion
 Through sharing items like towels
 From a mother to the child
Note: Not all STIs turn into STDs
 HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus. It’s a virus that causes AIDS
through breaking down or destroying the immune system of the body.
 AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome people with AIDS get
infections and diseases more easily because their immune system is weakened.
Common STIs and STDs
The following are common STs and STDs
(i) Syphilis
(ii) Gonorrhea
(iii) Chlamydia
(iv) Hepatitis B
(v) Genital herpes
(vi) Trichomonas’s
(vii) Candidiasis
(viii) AIDS

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1. GONORRHEA
This is an STD caused by bacterium called Neisseria gonorrhoea. It affects parts of the body
such as penis, vagina, anus, urethra and threat
Cause of gonorrhea
The causative agent of gonorrhoea is Neisseria gonorrhea
Mode of transmission of gonorrhoea
Gonorrhoea can be spread from one person to another:
(i) Through sexual intercourse
(ii) Through sharing personal items such as towels, underwear and swimsuits
(iii)From the infected mother to the child during birth.
Signs and symptoms of gonorrhoea
(i) Pain urination
(ii) Yellowish discharge with foul smell from penis or vagina
(iii) Abdominal pain
(iv) Itching in the genital parts
(v) Sore throat
(vi) Irregular menstruation
(vii) Retention of urine in males
(viii) Rashes (sores) all over the body
Effects of gonorrhoea
If gonorrhea remains untreated for a longtime, it may cause the following problems
(i) Infertility (failure of a person to have children)
(ii) Swollen and painful joints
(iii)Heart problems
(iv) Pain around pelvic area for women
Prevention/ Control measures of gonorrhoea
(i) Abstaining from sexual intercourse
(ii) Avoiding sharing personal items such as towel, underwear, swimsuits, razor blades
(iii)Seek immediate medical treatment

2. SYPHILIS
This is a STD caused by bacteria called Treponema pallidum which infects the vagina, anus,
penis, lips and mouth.
Cause of syphilis
The causative agent of Syphilis is Treponema pallidum
Mode of Transmission of Syphilis
Syphilis can be spread from one person to another through the following ways:-
(i) Sexual intercourse
(ii) Blood transfusion
(iii) From the infected pregnant woman to the baby (fetus) during pregnancy
(iv) Some bad practices such as oral sex and anal intercourse
Signs and symptoms of Syphilis
Syphilis goes through several stages after infection. Each stage has its own signs and symptoms
as explained below:
Primary stage
This is the first stage that occurs between 3-4 weeks after infection

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  Signs and symptoms seen during stage one
(i) Painless sore on sex organs like penis, vagina
(ii) A sore called chancre on a part of the body which lasts for three to six weeks
Note: Chancre is open, wet and painless and usually occurs on the vagina, penis, anus, breasts,
lips or mouth
Secondary stage
This is the second stage that occurs between 8-14 weeks after infection.
 Signs and symptoms observed during this stage
(i) Fever
(ii) Skin rashes especially on the palms or soles of feet
(iii) Swollen joint and joint pain
(iv) Muscles pain
(v) Loss of appetite
(vi) Loss of weight
(vii) Raised bumps on the skin
(viii) Swollen lymph nodes.
 The signs and symptoms explained above may come and go for two years

Late stage
This is the third stage that occurs 2 years after infection
 At this stage the individual is no longer infections
 If the diseases is treated it can be cured but if not, the diseases remain in the body for a
long time (up to 20years)
 At this stage, the effects of syphilis are noticed such as brain damage, heart damage, poor
eye sight and blindness bone changes and lastly death.
Effects of Syphilis
If syphilis is left untreated for many years the following problems result;-
(i) Brain damage
(ii) Nervous system damage
(iii) Heart damage
(iv) Poor sight and blindness due to eye damage
(v) Bone changes/ Bone damage
(vi) Stillbirth babies
(vii) Mental retardation for babies
(viii) Hearing problems
(ix) Death
Prevention/Control of syphilis
(i) Abstain from sexual intercourse
(ii) Use screened blood for transfusion
(iii)Testing and treating pregnant women
(iv) Avoid contact with skin sores especially with infected people
(v) Avoid sharing of pants, towels or razor blades
(vi) Medical treatment

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3. CHLAMYDIA
This is an STD Caused bacteria called Chlamydia trachomatis
Mode of transmission of chlamydia
Chlamydia is spread through:
(i) Sexual intercourse
(ii) Infection from mother to child at birth
Signs and symptoms of chlamydia
(i) Bleeding from the vagina after sexual intercourse
(ii) Lower abdominal pain
(iii)Pain during urination
(iv) Smelly discharge from the penis or vagina
Effects of chlamydia
(i) Infertility
(ii) Complications in reproductive system for both males and females
(iii) Chronic pelvic pain
(iv) Blindness
(v) Giving birth to premature babies
(vi) Ectopic pregnancy
(vii) Infected babies develop health problems like infection in the eyes, ears and lungs.

4. HEPATITIS B
This is an STD that is caused by the virus called Hepatitis B virus that attacks the liver
Mode of transmission of hepatitis B
Hepatitis B is Transmitted through;-
(i) Sexual intercourse/sexual contact
(ii) Blood transfusion
(iii)Sharing sharp instruments like needles, syringes and razor blades
Signs and symptoms of hepatitis B
(i) Tiredness
(ii) Fever
(iii) Jaundice ( yellowish skin and eyes)
(iv) Dark tea colored urine
(v) Abdominal pain
(vi) Nausea and vomiting
(vii) Itching all over the body
(viii) Pale-colored stool
Effects of hepatitis B
(i) Liver damage
(ii) Liver cancer
(iii) Death
Prevention/control measures of hepatitis B
(i) Abstaining from sexual intercourse
(ii) Vaccination
(iii) Avoiding sharing sharp tools like needles and razor
(iv) Use screened blood for transfusion
(v) Seek immediate medical treatment

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 5. GENITAL HERPES
This is an STD caused by the virus called Herpes simplex. It affects areas like lining of the
mouth, vagina, penis and anus and eyes.
Cause of genital herpes
The causative agent of genital herpes is Herpes simplex

Mode of transmission of genital herpes

Genital herpes can from one person to another through;-
(i) Sexual intercourse
(ii) Touching affected body parts or contaminated objects like razor blades and underwear
Signs and symptoms of genital herpes
(i) Recurrent fever
(ii) Ulcers or blisters around the penis or vagina
(iii)Pain in or around the sex organs
(iv) Headache
(v) Itching and failure to urinate when sores swell and block the urethra
Effects of genital herpes
(i) Recurrent painful ulcers
(ii) Death of babies born to infected mother
(iii)Leads to Stillbirth for pregnant woman
Prevention/control of genital herpes
There is no cure for genital herpes, but can be prevented by
(i) Abstain from sexual intercourse
(ii) Avoiding sharing personal items like razor blades and underwear
(iii)Medical treatment for both partners even if one has no symptoms

6. TRICHOMONIASIS
This is an STD that mostly affects the vagina in women and urethra in men.
Cause of Trichomoniasis
It is caused by a protozoan called Trichomonas vaginalis

Mode of Transmission of Trichomoniasis

(i) Sexual intercourse with infected person
(ii) Sharing personal items such as towel, underwear and swimsuits

Signs and symptoms of Trichomoniasis

The following are signs and symptoms shown by women
(i) Frothy, smelly yellow green discharge from the vagina
(ii) Vaginal itching
(iii)Pain when urinating
Note: Men usually do not show signs and symptoms. However some men may have temporary
irritation inside the penis, mild discharge and slight burning after urination.

Effects of Trichomoniasis
If not treated earlier, Trichomoniasis may result the following problems
(i) It cause babies to be born with low birth weight

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 (ii) It cause premature births
Prevention/control measures of Trichomoniasis
(i) Abstain from sexual intercourse
(ii) Avoid unsafe sexual intercourse
(iii)Avoid sharing of personal items like towels, underwear and swimsuits
(iv) Medical treatment for both partners even if one has no symptoms

7. CANDIDIASIS
This is an STD caused by fungus called Candida sp
Mode of Transmission of Candidiasis
Candidiasis can be spread from one person to another through;-
(i) Unprotected sexual intercourse
(ii) Sharing personal items such as towels, underwear and swimsuits
(iii)Poor personal hygiene
Signs and symptoms of Candidiasis
(i) Thick white discharge from the vagina
(ii) Vaginal itching
(iii) Thick white patches in the mouth
(iv) Inflammation of the glans of the penis
(v) Skin rashes
Effects of Candidiasis
 Infection of the blood stream
Prevention/control measures of Candidiasis
(i) Abstain from sexual intercourse
(ii) Avoid sexual contact with infected people
(iii)Do not share personal items such as towels, underwear and swimsuits
(iv) Improve personal hygiene
(v) Medical treatment
QUESTIONS
1. Explain the meaning of sexually transmitted diseases
2. Outline the causes, symptoms and effects of the following infections and diseases
(a) Syphilis
(b) Gonorrhoea
(c) Candidiasis
(d) Hepatitis B

HIV/AIDS
HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus.
 This is a virus (retrovirus) that causes the immune system to lose its efficiency, thus
causing AIDS.
 HIV is found usually in blood, however sometimes can be found in other body fluids like
milk, Vaginal secretions, saliva and semen. Sweat, saliva and tears have very low amount
of the virus, unless they contain blood.
 HIV attacks and kills the type of white blood cells called T-helper cells which are essential
for immunity. After being infected with HIV, a person can remain asymptomatic for

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 years. The multiplication of HIV in the blood leads to massive destruction of helper-T
cells. This weakens the immune system and the person develops opportunistic diseases.
OPPORTUNISTIC DISEASES
Are diseases that occur when the body immune system of an individual is weakened.
 Example of opportunistic diseases are:
(i) Tuberculosis (TB)
(ii) Severe diarrhoea
(iii) Skin cancer
(iv) Skin rashes
(v) Pneumonia
(vi) Kaposi’s sarcoma

AIDS stands for Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome.

 People with AIDS are vulnerable to infections and diseases because their immune system
is weakened.
 AIDS occurs when HIV positive individual develops symptoms. AIDS is the final stage of
HIV infection.

Transmission of HIV
HIV can be spread through the following ways:-
(i) Sexual intercourse
(ii) Blood transfusion from infected donor)
(iii) Sharing sharp instruments like razor blades, needles syringes piercing pins
(iv) Organ transplantation
(v) From an infected mother to the baby during pregnancy, birth or breastfeeding
(vi) Using unsterilized instruments during surgery, circumcision or delivery.
(vii) Sharing personal items like toothbrushes, shaving blades or nail cutters with an infected
person.
Note: HIV is not spread by casual contact such as hugging, shaking hands or touching unless
both people have open wounds.

Symptoms and signs of HIV/AIDS

The signs and symptoms of HIV/AIDS are divided into four stages as explained below;

(a) Primary stage (window stage)

This stage is accompanied with flu-like illness. It occurs one to two months after infection.
 At this stage, the HIV increases rapidly in the body.
 At this stage, HIV test is negative and a person looks health.
 At primary stage, the HIV infected person may experience some of the following
symptoms:-
(i) Sore throat
(ii) Pain in the muscles and joints
(iii) Mild fever
(iv) Tiredness
(v) Swelling of lymph nodes

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 (vi) Rashes
(vii) Headache
 The above symptoms will last for one to two weeks.
(b) Asymptomatic stage
At this stage a person shows no signs or symptoms. A person looks healthy and HIV test is
positive
(c) Symptomatic stage
This stage is characterized by severe damage to the immune system.
 At this stage, a person’s health starts to become weak and some symptoms of AIDS are
visible
Signs and symptoms experienced at symptomatic stage
(i) Persistent fever (Fever that comes and go)
(ii) Skin rashes
(iii)Sores in the mouth that come and go
(iv) Tiredness and feeling un well
(v) Infection in the airway that comes and go e.g. Pneumonia and TB
(vi) Weight loss
 Later the person’s body immunity decreases very much, therefore the person gets diseases
which would normally be fought off by the immune called opportunistic infection.
 At this stage, the opportunistic infection can be treated and heal.
(d) Full brown AIDS
This is the last stage of HIV infection
 At this stage, a person is said to suffer from AIDS
Signs and symptoms of AIDS
(i) Loss of body weight
(ii) Persistent fever that lasts longer than a month
(iii) Coughing for more than a month
(iv) Diarrhoea lasting longer than a month
(v) Swollen lymph nodes in the neck and armpits
(vi) Itchy rashes on the skin
(vii) Shortness of breath
(viii) Genital rashes
(ix) Vomiting
(x) Painful sores in the mouth
(xi) Loss of memory
(xii) Confusion
(xiii) Inability to see
(xiv) Feeling of pins and needles (numbness) in the hands and feet.
(xv) Shingles (painful skin rash, also called herpes zoster)
Effects of HIV/AIDS to a person
(i) Chest infections such as pneumonia and tuberculosis
(ii) Brain infections leading to mental confusion
(iii)Stomach or gut infection leading to severe diarrhoea
(iv) Skin cancer called Kaposi’s sarcoma
(v) Death
(vi) Stigmatization

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Effects of HIV/AIDS to the community
HIV/AIDS has affected people in the developing world to a large extent. A part from the painful
illness and death, HIV/AIDS has the following effects to the community.
(i) Reduced labour and production force
(ii) Increased number of orphans, thus adding a burden to relatives and the society.
(iii)Families and government spend a lot of money to treat patients with HIV and AIDS
(iv) Increased poverty
(v) Reduces life expectancy
Prevention/control of HIV/AIDS
HIV/AIDS has no cure, but can be prevented or controlled through the following ways;-
(i) Abstain from sexual intercourse
(ii) Be faithful to only one sexual partner
(iii) Use a condom during sexual intercourse
(iv) Use sterilized instruments during surgery and delivery
(v) Wear disposable gloves when touching people’s body fluids
(vi) Use only screened blood and organs for transfusion and transplantation respectively
(vii) Avoid sharing tooth brushes and sharp instruments like razor blades, needles.
(viii) Give the anti-retroviral drugs (ARVs) to the PLWHA so as to slow down the
progression of the disease.
(ix) Avoid risky behaviors that may put you in a danger of being infected e.g. Going to the
night club alone or with the group of opposite sex, haring many sex partners, having bad
peer groups drug abuse.
(x) Avoid alcohol as it may affect your decision making ability, hence dragging you into
unsafe sex.
(xi) Avoid smoking as it accelerates the speed of HIV infection.

Questions
1. What are opportunistic infections?
2. Explain how HIV is transmitted
3. Explain seven ways through which HIV can be prevented

MANEGEMENT OF STIs, HIV AND AIDS

RISKY SITUATIONS, BEHAVIOURS AND PRACTICES

Risky behaviours: Are those behaviours that puts someone in danger of getting infected with
STDs and HIV. E.g. alcoholism, rape, drug abuse
Risky situations, practices: Are any situations or practices that puts someone in danger of
getting infected with STDs and HIV.
Examples of risky situations, behaviors and practices that put us at a greater risk of being
infected with STIs, STDs and HIV
(i) Having many sexual partners
(ii) Transfusion using unscreened blood
(iii) Sharing personal items such as towels, underwear, swimsuits and toothbrushes
(iv) Sharing sharp instruments like razor blades, needles syringes.
(v) Staying alone in isolated places or walking alone during the night. This increases the
chance of being raped

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 (vi) Staying in secluded places with members of opposite sex or strangers
(vii) Using unsterilized instruments during circumcision delivery and surgery
(viii) Having bad mannered friends or immoral friends. These pressure us into bad behaviors
(ix) Having unprotected sexual intercourse.
(x) Failing to report sexual abuse or rape
(xi) Using alcohol as it impairers our decision making ability hence dragging us into unsafe
sex.
(xii) Drug abuse. Drug abusers tend to share syringes and needles
(xiii) Accepting favours and gifts such as money, clothes and mobile phones from members
of the opposite sex. These people may expect sexual favours in retain.
Ways of avoiding or preventing risky situations, risky behaviors and practices
(i) Abstain from sexual intercourse before marriage.
(ii) Be faithful to one sexual partner after marriage or use a condom
(iii) Use only screened blood for transfusion
(iv) Avoid sharing personal items such as towels, underwear swimsuits and toothbrushes.
(v) Avoid sharing sharp tools like needles and razor blades
(vi) Never walk or stay alone in isolated places during night.
(vii) Avoid staying in isolated places with the company of opposite sex or strangers
(viii) Avoid taking alcohol.
(ix) Avoid taking all forms of recreational drugs
(x) Keep good company and avoid immoral friends
(xi) Do not accept gifts or favours from members of the opposite sex
(xii) Report all cases of sexual abuse, for example rape to a trusted person and to the police
(xiii) Avoid risky places such as bars, night clubs and casinos.
Necessary skills for avoiding risky behaviors, practices and situations
It can be difficult to avoid risky situations, behaviors and practices without having some skills.
The following are the necessary skills needed to avoid risky situations, behaviours and practices
(i) Quickly recognize the risky situations
(ii) Occupy yourself with positive activities
(iii)Be confident and strong
(iv) Learn to assert yourself

(i) Quickly recognize the risky situations

Survey the environment you are in and identify any risks. For example, be alert when a friend of
opposite sex insists that you should go to his/her room when you are alone or you should talk in
isolated place or accept a drink from a person you don’t know. Also learn the environment to see
if there is any danger like bhang smokers drunkards and take action.
(ii) Be confident and strong
Do not easily get influenced if a person pressures you. Feel sure about yourself and believe that
you can do something yourself successfully. Avoid risk situations or practices by having a few
number of friends who are well mannered, avoid watching sex movies or staying with bad
mannered friends.
(iii)Occupy yourself with positive activities.
Do not stay idol, engage yourself in activities such as sports, gardening, jogging and reading.
This will relax your mind, improve your health and prevent you from engaging yourself in risky
situation, behaviors and practices.

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(iv) Learn to assert yourself.
Listen to the requester without interrupting and say a firm “NO” even if it means to lose a friend
or service. If the requester does not want to accept your answer, tell him/her that you will not
change your mind. You do not need to explain any reason, just say no.

Importance of curative health care for STIs, STDs or HIV/ADS and opportunistic diseases
AIDS has neither a vaccine nor cure so far, However, opportunistic diseases associated with it
and some STDs can be treated and cured. Therefore people who suspect that they have STIs,
STDs or HIV/AIDS should seek medical care as soon as possible for the following reasons.
(i) Early testing and treatment help to treat or slow down the development of the infection or
disease in its early stages.
(ii) Proper treatment can save life and prevent long-term effects such as infertility
(iii) Health care professionals can give appropriate counselling on how to manage the
infections and diseases and how to avoid re-infection.
(iv) Testing gives peace of mind. It can confirm whether one is infected or not, instead of
worrying and guessing what the problem could be.
(v) Proper health care reduces the chances of infecting other people
(vi) If you are found HIV positive, at some stage you will be given with Anti-Retro Viral
Drugs (ARVs) so as to slow down the advancement of the condition
(vii) Treating opportunistic diseases relieves suffering and pain and prolongs life.
(viii) Healthcare professionals can give appropriate guidance on how to enhance good health
practices in order to prevent further infections and damages. These practices may include:
proper nutrition, abstaining from sexual intercourse and doing regular exercise.

PLWHA stands for People Living with HIV and AIDS

CARE AND SUPPORT FOR PEOPLE LIVING WITH HIV/AIDS (PLWHA)

People living with HIV and AIDS can live healthy lives for a long time if they get proper care
and support. But also people with HIV/AIDS are normally very weak and helpless, therefore we
should give them special care and support as follows;
(i) Giving them a balanced diet
(ii) Allowing them to rest when they feel unwell
(iii) Taking them to the health center as soon as they start development signs of illness.
(iv) Keeping their rooms and environment clean
(v) Make them as comfortable as possible by keeping their beddings clean and dry.
(vi) Try to relieve any pain they may be feeling by giving them pain relievers (pain killers)
(vii) Spend time with them, don’t leave them alone for a long time
(viii) Behaving in loving way towards them and not judgmental
(ix) Listening to them and helping them when they have problems
(x) Providing them with ARVs which help to slow down the progression of the condition
(xi) Counselling them to stop behaviors1 that could worsen their condition, for example
taking drugs or having many sexual partners
(xii) Keeping their bodies, clothing and bedding clean.
(xiii) Avoid discriminating or stigmatizing them

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Stigmatization/discrimination
Is the habit of disrespecting, calling bad names or using bad language to people living with HIV
and AIDS (PLWHA).
Ways in which PLWHA are discriminated
The following are various ways through which PLWHA are discriminate
(i) Branding them with bad names such as walking corpse
(ii) Denying them work opportunities
(iii) Denying them education or health services
(iv) Chasing them away from home
(v) Staying away from them
(vi) Refusing to share utensils or rooms with them
(vii) Not involving them in decision making
(viii) Hiding them from the public
Importance of providing care and support to PLWHA
(i) It saves life
(ii) It bring hope and encouragement to PLWHA
(iii) It reduces depression and self-dislike
(iv) It promotes good health
(v) It gives peace of mind
(vi) It reduces fear of death and gives long life
(vii) It gives strength to work and comfort
The effects of discrimination /stigmatization to PLWHA
(i) Leads to depression
(ii) Leads to loneliness
(iii)Leads to loss of hope
(iv) Leads to poor health
(v) Leads to hastened death
(vi) Leads to poor performance at work and school
Precautions to be taken when handling people living with HIV/AIDS
When handling people living with HIV/AIDS we must take precautions so as to avoid being
infected. These precautions include.
(i) Avoid touching the body fluids of the patient such as blood, stool and urine with bare
hands.
(ii) Wear disposal gloves when handling faeces, urine, vomiting or blood from PLWHA
(iii) Wear gloves or the plastic bag when cleaning a sick person or his/her clothes or
beddings
(iv) Do not share sharp tools like needles, razor blades
(v) Keep the clothes and beddings with blood, diarrhea or body fluids away from other
washings
(vi) Keep the clothes and beddings with blood, diarrhea or body fluids away from other
washings.
(vii) Keep any wound clean and covered.

BASIC QUESTIONS
1. (a) Explain the meaning of HIV, AIDS, STIs and STDs

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 (b) Explain the causes, mode of transmission, symptoms, effects and preventive and
control measures of HIV/AIDS, STIs and STDs (Gonorrhea, Syphilis, Candidiasis,
Trichomoniasis, Genital herpes, Hepatitis B and Chlamydia).
2. (a) With examples explain the meaning of risky behaviours
(b) Explain ways of avoiding/preventing risky situations, risky behaviours and practices
(c) Demonstrate necessary skills for avoiding risky behaviours
(d) Explain the importance of curative health care for STIs and opportunistic diseases.
 Early health care seeking habit
 The importance of early medical testing and treatment
3. (a) Explain the importance of providing care and support to PLWHA in the family
community and at school.
(b) Explain the effects of discrimination and stigma to PLWHA to individual, family
and society.

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4. CELL STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION.
-By the end of this topic you should be able to
 Explain the meaning of the cell
 Mention the characteristics of the cell
 Describe the types of cell
 Explain the function of different parts of plant and animal cells
 Draw and label plant and animal cells
 Outline the similarities and differentiation and formation of tissues, organs and body
system
 Different cells, tissues, organs and body system.
THE CONCEPT OF CELL
The short history about discovery of a cell
 The cell was first named and discovered by an English biologist called Robert Hooke
in 1665 when he was observing a piece of cork under the microscope he had made.
 Robert Hooke noticed that the cork was made up by many box- like units which were
packed together to form a structure like a honeycomb. He called these units cells.
 Hooke observed many other living materials and noted that they were also made up of
cells.
MEANING OF CELL
Cell: Is the basic unit of life.
OR
Cell: is a structural and functional unit of life in living organisms.
All living things are made up of one or more cells.
Unicellular organisms
Are organisms which are made up of one cell.
 Example: bacteria and protozoans
Multicellular organisms
Are organisms which are made up of many cells.
 Example: animals, plants and fungi
The characteristics of the cell
Characteristics of the cell include the following:
(i) Cells are microscopic.
(ii) Cells are capable of growing and developing
(iii)Cells can reproduce and increase in number
(iv) Cells can move e.g. white blood cell and unicellular organisms such as bacteria
(v) Cells are capable of detecting changes in the environment and respond to the changes.
The cell theory
The cell theories were proposed by two scientists namely Schleiden, a Belgian botanist, in 1838
and Schwann, German Zoologist, in 1839.
The following are observations noted down by the two biologists after careful study of cells
(i) New cells only come from pre-existing cells.
(ii) Cells contain structures called organelles.
(iii)All living things are composed of one or more cells.

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 (iv) Cells carry hereditary information which is passed from one generation to another.
(v) There is a relationship between structure and function of a cell.
(vi) Cells are the building blocks of living things and life exists only in cells.

TYPES OF CELLS
There are two main types of cells, namely:
(i) Prokaryotic cells
(ii) Eukaryotic cells

PROKARYOTIC CELLS
Are cells with no membrane-bound nucleus.
Example: Bacteria cell
Prokaryotic organisms: are single-celled organisms
 Prokaryotic organisms are also called prokaryotes
Example: bacteria and blue-green bacteria
Characteristics of prokaryotic cells.
(i) They have no true nuclei.
(ii) They lack membrane- bound organelles such as mitochondria
(iii)They are smaller in size than eukaryotic cells.
(iv) They have few cell organelles
THE DIAGRAM OF PROKARYOTIC CELL

EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Are cells whose nuclei are bounded by nuclear membrane.
 Example: plant cells, animal cells, fungi cells, protoctists cells
Eukaryotic organisms: are organisms which contain eukaryotic cells
 Eukaryotic organisms are also called eukaryotes
 Example: protoctists, fungi, plants and animal cells
Characteristics of eukaryotic cells
(i) They have true nuclei
(ii) They have a membrane-bound nucleus called nuclear envelope.

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 (iii) They are bigger and more complex than prokaryotic cells
(iv) They contain specialized membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria
(v) They have many organelles
(vi) They are larger in size than prokaryotic cells
THE DIAGRAM OF EUKARYOTIC CELL

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

PROKARYOTIC CELL EUKARYOTIC CELL
It lacks true nucleus It has true nucleus
It lack membrane-bound organelles It has membrane-bound organelles
It is smaller in size It is larger in size
It has few cell organelles It has many cell organelles
It is found in bacteria and blue-green bacteria It is found in animals, plants, fungi and protoctists

Types of eukaryotic cells

There are two main types of eukaryotic cells, namely:
(i) Animal cells
(ii) Plant cells
Other types of eukaryotic cells include:
 Fungi cells
 Protoctists cells such as amoeba cells, euglena cells
ANIMAL CELLS
Are cells which found in animals

Characteristics of animal cell

(i) It has irregular shape
(ii) It lacks cell wall
(iii)It is nucleus located at the centre
(iv) It store food in form glycogen
(v) It lacks chloroplasts
ORGANELLE
Is a specialized cellular structure or part that perform a specific function.
Example of organelles

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  Nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, chloroplasts
Parts/organelles of animal cell
Animal cell has the following organelles:
(i) Nucleus
(ii) Cytoplasm
(iii) Mitochondria
(iv) Cell membrane
(v) Ribosome
(vi) Golgi bodies
A diagram of animal cell as seen under a light microscope

PLANT CELLS
Are cells which found in plants
Characteristics of plant cell
(i) It has cell wall
(ii) It has chloroplast
(iii) It has a large permanent vacuole
(iv) It store food in form of starch
(v) It is large in size
Parts/organelles of a plant cell
Plant cell has the following organelles:
(i) Nucleus
(ii) Cellulose cell wall
(iii) Cell membrane
(iv) Mitochondria
(v) Cytoplasm
(vi) Ribosome
(vii) Golgi bodies
(viii) Cell sap vacuole

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 A diagram of plant cell as seen under a light microscope

SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES OF PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

Similarities between animal cell and plant cell
(i) Both have cell membranes
(ii) Both contain cytoplasm
(iii)Both have nucleus
(iv) Both have mitochondria
(v) Both have Golgi bodies
(vi) Both have ribosomes
Differences between plant cell and animal cells
Plant cell Animal cell
(i) Has definite (regular) shape Has no definite shape
(ii) Has chloroplasts Has no chloroplasts
(iii)Has large permanent vacuole Has small temporary vacuole
(iv) Has cell wall Has no cell wall
(v) The nucleus is located periphery The nucleus is centrally located
(vi) Centrioles usually absent Centrioles present

Note: Animal cell and plant cell have common three main structures or organelles, namely:
(i) Nucleus
(ii) Cell membrane
(iii) cytoplasm
FUNCTIONS OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS
1. NUCLEUS
Is a dark spherical body which is surrounded by double membrane called a nuclear membrane
 Nucleus is the largest organelle of the cell
 The nucleus and cytoplasm form the protoplasm.
 The nucleus is made of a viscous fluid called nucleoplasm.

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Functions of nucleus
The following are the functions of the nucleus:
(i) Nucleus controls all activities of the cell.
(ii) Determines the cell’s size, shape and function.
(iii)Determines hereditary characteristics of a cell.
(iv) The nucleus contains chromosomes which carry genetic material.
(v) It contains nucleolus which manufactures ribosomes.
(vi) Determines the chemical processes that take place in cell.

2. CYTOPLASM
Is a transparent jelly-like fluid in which chemical reactions take place.
 It contains up to 90% water and dissolved substances such as carbondioxide, oxygen,
proteins, sugars and minerals.
 The movement of cytoplasm is known as cytoplasmic stream
Functions of cytoplasm
(i) It is a place where chemical reactions take place
(ii) It is a site where cell organelles such as nucleus, vacuoles are suspended. (It is a medium
in which cell organelles are found)
(iii)It store useful substance such as starch, glycogen, fat droplets, proteins, sugars and
minerals.

3. CELL MEMBRANE
Is a semi-permeable membrane made of protein and oil.
 Cell membrane is also known as plasma membrane or plasmalemma.
 It has pore or microscopic holes to allow in and out movement of materials of the cell.
 The cell membrane is the living part of the cell.
Functions of cell membrane
(i) Cell membrane controls the movement of materials in and out of the cell.
(ii) Cell membrane encloses the contents of the cell.
(iii)It allows cell to communicate with another cells.

Question: Why Cell membrane is said to be selective permeable membrane?

Answer: Cell membrane is said to be selective permeable membrane because it allows selective
movement of substances into and out of the cell.

4. CELL WALL
Is a rigid outer layer that surrounds the cell membrane in plants, fungal, algae and bacterial cells.
 Animal cell has no cell wall
 The cell wall in plant cell is made up of cellulose.
 The cell wall is non-living part of the cell.
Functions of the cell wall
(i) It gives the cell its shape.
(ii) It is freely permeable to all kinds of molecules.
(iii)It supports and protects the cell.
(iv) It provides mechanical support for plant body in herbaceous plants.

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 (v) It prevents the cell from bursting.
(vi) It allows gases, water and substances to go through.
Differences between cell wall and cell membrane
Cell wall Cell membrane
It is a non–living structure of a cell It is a living structure of a cell
It is made up of cellulose It is made up of lipoprotein
It is freely permeable It is selectively permeable

5. VACUOLE
Is a fluid-filled space surrounded by a membrane called tonoplast.
 Animal cells have small and temporary vacuoles. In animal cells, vacuoles are small
droplets of fluid in the cytoplasm variable in size and position
 Plants cells have a large and permanent vacuoles that usually occupies the central part of
the cell. Vacuole in plant cell is made up of the fluid called sap hence the name cell sap
vacuole
 The cell sap may contain salts, sugar and pigments dissolved in water.
 The outward pressure of the vacuole on the cell wall makes the plant cells firm, giving
strength and resilience to the tissues.
Functions of vacuole
(i) It is responsible for food storage and osmoregulation.
(ii) It excretes and secretes waste from the cell.
(iii)It stores substances such as sugar, minerals and wastes
(iv) It maintains the shape of a plant cell

6. MITOCHONDRION ( plural: Mitochondria)

Is a sausage –shaped (oval- shaped) organelle bounded by double membrane.
 The outer membrane is smooth but the inner membrane is folded to form cristae.
 Mitochondria are known as “power houses of the cells” because they are used to
produce energy for the cells.
Function of mitochondria
(i) To produce energy for activities of the cell.
(ii) It is a site where respiration process takes place
DIAGRAM OF MITOCHONDRION

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7. CHLOROPLAST
Is an oval-shaped organelle that contain the green pigment known as chlorophyll
 Chloroplasts are found in plant cells and algae cells.
 Each chloroplast is enclosed by a double membrane, the outer and inner membranes
 They consist of layers of membranes known as lamellae suspended in an aqueous
matrix called stroma.
 Chloroplast is an organelle in which photosynthesis takes place, producing sugars
from carbon dioxide and water using light energy trapped by chlorophyll.
Functions of chloroplast
 It is a site where photosynthesis process takes place.
DIAGRAM OF CHLOROPLAST

CHLOROPHYLL
Is a green pigment in chloroplasts of green plants
 It is found in the grana of the chloroplast
Function of chlorophyll
 Used to absorb sunlight needed for photosynthesis.
8. RIBOSOMES
Are small spherical structures attached to the endoplasmic reticulum
 Ribosomes are manufactured in the nucleolus. Some ribosomes are found scattered in
the cytoplasm and on the surface of the nuclear membrane.
Function of ribosome
 It is a site where protein synthesis takes place.
9. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Is a network of interconnected channels running throughout the cytoplasm.
Function of endoplasmic reticulum
 Serves as a network of pathways through which materials are transported from one part
of the cell to another

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Types of endoplasmic reticulum
There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum, namely:
(a) Rough endoplasmic reticulum
(b) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(a) Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Is the endoplasmic reticulum which is covered with ribosomes
Function of rough endoplasmic reticulum
 Transports protein synthesized in the ribosomes
Diagram of rough endoplasmic reticulum

(b) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Is the endoplasmic reticulum with no ribosomes
Function of smooth endoplasmic reticulum
 Transports lipids within the cell
Diagram of smooth endoplasmic reticulum

10. GOLGI BODIES

Are stacks of flattened, membrane-bound sacs.
 Golgi bodies are also called Golgi apparatus
Functions of Golgi bodies
(i) They form lysosomes
(ii) They produce materials for making plant cell walls.
(iii)They replenish the cell membrane
(iv) They process many secretory substances such as mucus

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 (v) They add carbohydrates component to the protein packaging of the finished products
before leaving the cells.
(vi) They produce a substance, which makes the cuticle of insects
Diagram of Golgi body

THE CELL DIFFERENTIATION

Cell differentiation
Is the process by which cells are specialized to perform a particular function
OR
Is the process in which a cell changes from simple to complex form and become more
specialized to perform a specific function.
 Cell differentiation is also called division of labour.
Importance of cell differentiation
(i) It leads to division of labour
(ii) It helps the body to carry out all life processes at the same time
(iii)It makes the cell to perform a particular function.

SPECIALIZED ANIMAL CELLS

The following are common examples of specialized animal cells:-
1. WHITE BLOOD CELLS
These cells can change their shape in order to engulf and destroy harmful microorganisms.
 White blood cell is a cell which moves and feeds like amoeba
 Some white blood cells contain digestive enzymes which destroy the microorganisms
Function of white blood cell
 Used in body defence against infections
Diagram of white blood cell

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2. RED BLOOD CELLS
These cells lack nuclei and are biconcave in shape
 Lack of nucleus in the red blood cells provides a large surface area for transporting
oxygen in the body
Function of red blood cell
 Used to transport oxygen from the lungs to various body parts
Adaptation of red blood cell to its function
(i) It lacks nucleus at maturity to increase the surface area for transporting oxygen in the
body.
(ii) It has hemoglobin which carries oxygen to different parts of the body.
Diagram of red blood cell

4. SPERM CELL
This cell fertilize the female egg in order for reproduction to take place
 Sperm cell is a motile cell
Function of sperm cell
 Used in sexual reproduction to fertilize the egg
Adaptation of the sperm cell to its function
(i) It has a long tail that enables it to swim to the egg
(ii) It has numerous mitochondria for energy supply needed for swimming
(iii)It has a pointed head with acrosome which enables it to penetrate the egg.
Diagram of sperm cell

5. NERVE CELL
Is a longest cell in the human body
 It is thread-like structure
Function of nerve cell
 It carries and conducts nerve impulses from one part of the body to another

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Adaptation of nerve cell to its function
(i) It is long to ensure the impulse is transmitted to a long distance of the body.
(ii) It has numerous mitochondria for energy supply

Diagram of nerve cell

6. Egg cell
This cell is bigger in size with a lot of cytoplasm.
 The outer layer of this cell can produce chemicals to prevent any more sperms from
entering the egg after fertilization.
 It is also called ovum
Function of egg cell
(i) It fuses with the sperm cell to form a zygote
(ii) It develops into embryo after fertilization
(iii)It carries the maternal genetic material
Adaptations of egg cell to its function
(i) The outer layer of this cell can produce chemicals to prevent any more sperms from
entering the egg after fertilization.
(ii) It is large in size with a lot of cytoplasm to carry genetic materials and enough food
reserve for developing zygote

DIAGRAM OF EGG CELL

7. MUSCLE CELL
Is a cell with strong contractile ability
 Muscle cells contract and relax to bring about movement

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Function of muscle cell
 Brings about movement by contracting and relaxing
Adaptation of muscle cell to perform its function
(i) It has numerous mitochondria for energy supply
(ii) It is multinucleated to increase coordination
DIAGRAM OF MUSCLE CELL

SPECIALIZED PLANT CELLS

The following are common example of specialized plant cells;-
(i) ROOT HAIR CELLS
These cells absorb water and mineral salts from the soil
 They are elongated and have thin membrane to increase the surface area for absorption of
water and nutrients from the soil.
Function of root hair cell
 Absorbs water and mineral salts from the soil
Adaptation of root hair cell to perform its function
(ii) It is elongated to increase the surface area for absorption of water and nutrients from the soil.
(iii)It has thin membrane to increase the surface area for absorption of water and nutrients from
the soil
(iv) It has root hairs to increase the surface area for absorption of water and mineral salts from the
soil

Diagram of root hair cell

(ii) GUARD CELL

Is a cell surrounded by stomata
 The inner walls of guard cell are thicker than the outer walls

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 Stomata are tiny pores found on the leaf used for gaseous exchange and water loss
 When the guard cells expand, the stoma opens and when they contract the stoma closes
Function of guard cell
 Controls opening and closing of stomata to allow gaseous exchange
DIAGRAM OF GUARD CELL

(iii) PALISADE CELLS

Are plant cells that contain a lot of chloroplasts
 Palisade cells are found at the top of the plant leaves.
Function of palisade cells
 Used to carry out photosynthesis
Adaptation of palisade cells to perform its function
(i) They have large number of chloroplasts for carrying out photosynthesis
(ii) They contain chlorophyll to trap sunlight energy during photosynthesis
Diagram of palisade cell

FORMATION OF TISSUE, ORGAN AND BODY SYSTEM

 Cells in multicellular organism can be organized into tissues
 Tissues can be organized into organs
 Organs can be organized into organ system (body system)
 Organ system (body system) can be organized into organism

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The following below is the organization showing the correct order from simplest to the most
complex
Organelles CellsTissuesOrgansOrgan systemOrganism

TISSUE
Is a group of cells that perform the same function
Example of tissues
Animal tissues Plant tissues
 Bones  Xylem
 Muscles  Phloem
 Blood  Epidermis
 Nerve  Cork

Note:
Xylem is a plant tissue used to transport water and mineral salts from the roots to the upper plant
parts.
Phloem is a plant tissue used to transport manufactured food from the leaves to the other plant
parts.

ORGAN
Is a group of different tissues that perform a certain function.
Example of organs
Animal organs Plant organs
 Heart  Stem
 Eye  Roots
 Brain  Flowers
 Liver  Leaves
 Kidney  Fruits

Note: The following are types of animal organs:

(i) Respiratory organs e.g. lungs, trachea
(ii) Digestive organs e.g. mouth, stomach
(iii)Reproductive organs e.g. testes, ovaries, vagina, penis
(iv) Sense organs e.g. eyes, Nose, Tongue, ears and skin
(v) Circulatory organs e.g. Heart
(vi) Excretory organs e.g. Kidneys, Liver, Skin
ORGAN SYSTEM
Is a group of specialized organs that work together to perform a certain function.

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Examples of systems
Animal system Plant system
 Respiratory system  Root system
 Digestive system  Vascular system
 Reproductive system  Reproductive system
 Hormonal system  Shoot system
 Skeletal system
 Nervous system

ORGANISM
Is a combination of several systems working together
Example of organisms
 Human being
 Cow
 Frog
 All green plants e.g. maize plant, bean plant
Revision questions
1. (a) Name three main parts of any cell
(b) Mention one function of each of the three parts
(c) Give one example of each of the following in the human body
(i) The longest cell
(ii) A motile cell
(iii)A cell with strong contractile ability
(iv) A cell which moves and feeds like amoeba
2. Figure 3 represents four different cell types A, B, C and D

(a) Identify cells A, B, C and D

(b) Each of the above cell is specialized in performing a specific function
(i) State the function(s) of each cell
(ii) For each cell, list the adaptations which enable it to perform its function
(iii)Name a cell which is required by cell B in order for it to perform its function

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 (iv) Explain how cell B and the cell you have named in 7 b (iii) accomplish their
function
3. Name the parts of the cell described in each of the following statements.
(i) The semi-permeable membrane that encloses the cytoplasm of a cell
(ii) A large cellular organelle that contains hereditary information
(iii)The site of respiration in the cell
(iv) A jelly-like mixture consisting mostly of water, located between the cell membrane
and the nucleus
(v) A part that protects, supports and gives shape to plant cells
4. (a) Distinguish between:
(i) Prokaryotic cell and eukaryotic cell
(ii) An organ and tissue
(b) Draw a diagram of an animal cell and label the parts which perform the following functions
(i) Site for energy production
(ii) Controls all the functions (activities) of the cell
(iii)Where organelles are suspended
(iv) Allows passage of some substances in and out of the cell
5. (a) Using examples of plant and animal cells, explain the meaning of cell differentiation
(b) Give three reasons, explain why cell differentiation is very important?
(c) Describe the functions of any three specialized cells in plants
6. Study the figure below and answer the following questions

(a) Label the parts shown by letters A to E

(b) State the functions of the parts labelled A to E
7. (a) What are the differences between cell wall and cell membrane?
(b) Mention two structures that are found in plant but not in animal cell
8. (a) Explain what will if the following are removed from plant and animal cell
(i) Nucleus
(ii) Cell wall
(iii)Chloroplast
(iv) Mitochondria
(b) The following terms are arranged in alphabetical order. Rearrange them into an
appropriate biological sequence, starting with lowest level:
CellOrganOrganismSystemTissue

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 (c) Draw and label the following:
(i) An animal cell as seen under the light microscope
(ii) A prokaryotic cell
9. (a)What are the similarities and differences between cat cell and onion cell
(b) State the function(s) performed by the following organelles in plant and animal cells
(i) Rough endoplasmic reticulum
(ii) Lysosome
(iii)Vacuole
(iv) Cytoplasm
(v) Chloroplast
(c) Mention four characteristics of a cell

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 5. CLASSIFICATION OF LIVINGTHINGS
By the end of this topic, you should be able to;-
 Explain the concept of classification
 Group living things according to their similarities and differences
 Explain the importance of classifying living things
 Outline types of classification system and their differences
 Explain merits and demerits of each type of classification system
 Mention the major groups of living things
 Outline ranks of classification
 carry out practical activities to group organisms into their respective major groups
 Explain general and distinctive features of viruses
 Describe the structure of viruses
 Outline advantages and disadvantage of viruses
 Explain general and distinctive features of the kingdom monera
 Describe structures of the representative organisms of the kingdom Monera
 Outline the advantages and disadvantages of bacteria
 Outline the characteristics of pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria
 Explain general and distinctive features of the kingdom protoctista
 Mention phyla of the kingdom protoctista
 Describe the structure and disadvantages of Amoeba, Euglena, Paramecium and
plasmodium

THE CONCEPT OF CLASSIFICATION

Meaning of classification
Classification – is the process of grouping organisms based on their similarities and differences
 Classification is a branch of biology that deals with the grouping of living organisms
according to their structures, way of life and origin.
 Organisms that are similar are placed in the same group. These similarities can be in
terms of their evolutionary relationship or the way they carry out life processes such as
feeding and reproduction.
 The study of classification is called taxonomy
 A person who studies taxonomy is called a taxonomist.
Importance of classification
Classification of living things is very important because
(i) It makes the study of living things more easier
(ii) It helps to know the characteristics of different living organisms

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 (iii) It makes communication among biologists in the world easier
(iv) It helps to prevent confusion among biologists in the world as most organisms are given
scientific names which are known all over the world
(v) It helps us to understand how organisms are related in terms of evolutionary history
(vi) It enables man to identify and name every organism
(vii) It enables scientists to make predictions about characteristic of different organisms. For
example eagle and chicken are both birds, therefore if we know what the heart of a
chicken looks like we can predict what the heart of an eagle looks like even if we have
not seen it.
(viii) It brings together living organisms with similar characteristics but separate those with
different features.
TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION
There are two main types of classification systems namely;-
(i) Artificial classification
(ii) Natural classification
ARTIFICIAL CLASSIFICAION
Is a system of classifying organisms based on few observable features of an organism.
 Artificial classification is based on easy, external and simple characteristics of an
organisms for example, the presence of legs or wings. Based on this, bees, birds and bat
would be grouped together. Snakes, earthworms and snails would also be grouped
together because they do not have legs or wings.
 Artificial classification also involves classifying organisms according to their size, how
they move, where they live or what they eat.
QUESTION
You have been provide with the following living things: Bird, Bat, Bee, Snake, Snail, Earthworm
(a) Classify them based on the following features:
(i) Size
(ii) How they move
(iii)Where they live
(iv) Presence of legs or absence of legs
(v) Presence of wing or absence of wings
(b) How many organisms did you get for each feature?
ADVANTAGES/MERITS OF ARTIFICIAL CLASSIFICATION
(i) It is easy to use. This is because it involves only one or few observable features
(ii) Takes short time to classify organisms
(iii)It is very stable. This means that, it does not change as a result of any new information
(iv) It can be done by anybody. This is because it does not need much knowledge
(v) It is less expensive. This is because it uses few observable features to group the
organisms
(vi) It does not require high knowledge to classify living organism
DISADVANTAGES/DEMERITS OF ARTIFICIAL CLASSIFICATION
(i) Closely related organisms are placed into different groups eg human being and bat

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 (ii) Unrelated organisms are placed in the same groups e.g. birds and bat
(iii)It is less accurate, because it uses only few observable characteristics
(iv) It creates confusion among biologists from different parts of the world
(v) It provides us with limited information about the organisms
(vi) It depends much on the views of an individual or a society and not scientific evidence.
NATURAL CLASSIFICATION
Is a system of classifying organisms based on many features
OR
Is the type of classification, which based on the evolutionary trend or sequence.
 In the natural system of classification organisms are grouped based on many features in
common particularly those related to evolutionary relationship.
 In this system, characters that show homology or similarity of origin must be
distinguished from those that exhibit analogy or similarity of use.

HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURES
Are structures that perform different functions but have similar ancestral origin
Example of homologous structure
 Fore limbs of a man and the wings of a bird.
 Therefore, animals that are closely related in many ways are placed in the same
natural group.
ANALOGY
Refers to similarity in functions between organs, which evolved from different ancestry origin.
 The fossil records show that bat wings and bird wings evolved independently from
walking forelimbs of different ancestors.
 Such anatomical signs of evolution are called analogous structures.
ANALOGOUS STRUCTURES
Are structures that perform similar functions but have different ancestral origin.
Examples of analogous structures
 Wings of birds and insects
MERITS/ADVANTAGES OF NATURAL CLASSIFICATION
(i) Biologically related organisms are grouped together
(ii) It is more accurate because it involves scientific research to gather enough information.
(iii)It is flexible and allows addition of new features when discovered
(iv) It allows us to predict about newly found organisms.
(v) It avoids confusion among biologists, since it is based on international standards.
DEMERITS/DISADVANGES OF NATURAL CLASSIFICATION
(i) It is very expensive. This is because it involves scientific research, experiments and high
classification skills
(ii) It is time consuming. This is because it uses many features in grouping organisms
(iii)It is difficult to be conducted. This is because it needs much knowledge and skills to be
conducted, therefore, it cannot be done by anybody.

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 (iv) It is not stable. This is because it can change any time due to addition of newly
discovered features or information

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ARTIFICIAL AND NATURAL CLASSIFICATION

ARTIFICIAL CLASSIFICATION NATURAL CLASSIFICATION
(i) It does not consume much time It consumes much time
(ii) It is stable It is not stable
(iii) It is less expensive It is expensive
(iv) It requires simple skills and knowledge to It requires advanced scientific skills and
be done knowledge
(v) It is less accurate It is more accurate
(vi) It is based on individual’s interest It is based on international standards
(vii) It is easy to be conducted It is difficult to be conducted

QN, Explain the following observations.

i. Artificial classification can be done by any body
ii. Artificial classification is less accurate
iii. Artificial classification is easy to use
iv. Artificial classification does not bring confusion
v. Artificial classification is stable

RANKS OF CLASSIFICATION OR TAXA OF CLASSIFICATION

These are the levels or groups of classification to which organisms are assigned according to the
principles of taxonomy
 They are also called hierarchies of classification, unit of classification or taxa (taxon in
singular form).
 In classification of living things, there are seven ranks or taxonomic units which
arranged hierarchically in descending order (from the highest to the lowest rank) or in
ascending order (from lowest to the highest rank):
The following are seven ranks or taxonomic units of classification arranged in
descending order:
(i) Kingdom
(ii) Phylum/division
(iii) Class
(iv) Order
(v) Family
(vi) Genus
(vii) Species
QUESTION
Write down seven ranks of classification arranged in ascending order

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Kingdom
Is the largest (highest) group or rank of classification.
 It is a group of closely related phyla or divisions
 Kingdom is subdivided into phyla or divisions
 Example: kingdom Animalia, kingdom plantae
Phylum/Division (Plural: Phyla)
Is a closely related classes
 In kingdom plantae, phylum is called division
 Phylum/division is subdivided into classes
Class
Is a group of closely related orders
 Class is subdivided into orders
Order
Is a group of closely families
 For example, large animals that adopted to feed on fresh of other animals, e.g. dogs,
lions, cats, leopards are grouped under the order carnivore
 An orders is subdivided into families
Family
Is a group of closely related genera
 For example, involves, foxes, jackals and dogs belong to the family Canidae.
 A family is subdivided into genera
Genus (Plural: Genera)
Is a group of closely related species
 For example, Domestic dogs and wolves belong to different species but have many
similar features hence belong to the same genus called canis
 A genus is subdivided into species
Species
Is a group of closely related organisms that can interbreed freely and produce a fertile offspring
 It is the smallest (lowest) rank (taxon) of classification than all groups (taxa),
 It is a basic unit of classification taxa.
 A species cannot be subdivided into other groups
 For example, All human being belong to the same species called Homo sapiens
Characteristics of species
Members of the same species are characterized by the following features:
(i) They have many features in common (they share many features and look much alike).
(ii) They should interbreed freely and produce a fertile offspring
(iii)They should be distinct and different from other organisms

Note: Usually members of the same species can interbreed to produce fertile offspring of two
different species cannot interbreed freely. If they interbreed, they do not produce fertile

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offspring. This is because of differences in genetic make-up, behaviour, geographical location
and morphological features such as variation in size of sexual organs.
 For example, a donkey and a horse can interbreed to produce a mule which is not fertile
offspring. A mule is neither a donkey nor a horse and cannot reproduce.
Therefore:
(i) Species +species =Genus
(ii) Genus +Genus =Family
(iii)Family + family=Order
(iv) Order + order =Class
(v) Class + class=Phylum/division
(vi) Phylum/division + phylum/division=Kingdom

NOMENCLATURE
Is a system of assigning or giving names to living organisms.
 Nomenclature is also known as naming of living organism
 Any well-known organisms on the earth has a name in various language.
 These names are called Common names or local names.
Common names
Are those names that are only familiar to the users of a certain language and not known all the
world.
 Common names or local names bring confusion among scientists in the world because
they are only familiar to the users of a certain language and not known all the world.
Therefore, in order to avoid confusion among scientists, a biologist called Carolus Linnaeus
(1707-1778) introduced a system of giving scientific names to organism, the system is known as
Binomial Nomenclature. Linnaeus is referred to as a father of classification
BINOMIAL NOMEMCLATURE
Is a system of naming living organisms using two names, which are generic and specific name.
OR
Is a scientific process of naming living organisms by using two names, which are genus and
species name.
 The first part of the name represent the genus in which organism belongs and it is called
generic name
 The second part of the name represents the species in which organism belongs and it is
called specific name
 The two names (generic and specific name) form a scientific name or the name of a
species
Importance (advantages) of scientific names (Binomial nomenclature)
The following are the advantages of using scientific names over common names:
(i) Prevents confusion among scientists. This is because they are known all over the world.
(ii) Makes the communication among biologists all over the world easier
(iii)Make scientists all over the world to understand each other
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Rules of writing scientific names (Binomial Nomenclature)
The following rules are observed when writing scientific name:
(i) The generic name should be written first followed by specific name
(ii) The generic name should start with capital letter, while specific name should be written
in small letters.
(iii)In published documents such as books, scientific name should be written in italics e.g.
Panther leo.
(iv) If handwritten, scientific name should be underlined separately. E.g. Panthera leo
(v) All scientific names should be written in Latin language otherwise should be Latinised.
Importance (reasons) of using Latin language in scientific naming (scientific names)
(i) Makes scientists all over the world to understand each other
(ii) Latin names prevent confusion among scientists

Example of how scientific names are written in documents

Common name Genus (Generic name) Species (specific name) Scientific name
(i) Domestic cat Felis Catus Felis catus
(ii) Common frog Rana Temporaria Rana temporaria
(iii) Leopard Panthera Pardus Panthera pardus
(iv) Lion Panthera Leo Panthera leo
(v) Onion Allium Cepa Allium cepa
(vi) Garlic Allium Sativum Allium sativum
(vii) Coconut palm Cocos Nucifera Cocos nucifera
(viii) Mango tree Mangifera Indica Mangifera indica
(ix) Pea plant Pisum Sativum Pisum sativum
(x) Mimosa plant Mimosa Pudica Mimosa pudica
(xi) Rat Rattus Rattus Rattus rattus
(xii) Housefly Musca Domestica Musca domestica
(xiii) Human being Homo Sapiens Homo sapiens
Question 1: The scientific name Lantana camara refers to a green herbaceous plant. Other
related plants include: Lantana trifoliate and Vitex rifoliate.
(a) From the list, identify the plants belonging to the same genus.
(b) From the name Lantana camara, which name represents:
(i) Genus name
(ii) Species name
Question 2: (a) Define the term binomial nomenclature
(b) Name the main taxonomic units used in classification
(c) State at least four rules used in binomial nomenclature
Question 3: (a) VITEX is a genus of a tree found on Mt. Kilimanjaro. The specific name has
been Latinised to KENIESIS. Write the scientific name of the tree.

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 (b) Explain why it is important to use scientific names of organisms in Biology
rather than common names.
Differences between scientific names and common (local) names
Scientific names Common (local) names
They are known all over the world They are only familiar to the users of the a
certain language
They are written following the rules No rule of writing them
Do not bring confusion Brings confusion

MAJOR GROUPS OF LIVING THINGS

The major groups of living things are the kingdoms.
There are five (5) major groups (kingdoms) into which all living things are grouped, namely;-
(i) Kingdom Monera
(ii) Kingdom protoctista
(iii)Kingdom Fungi
(iv) Kingdom Plantae
(v) Kingdom Animalia
Viruses however remain unclassified because they possess both features of living and non-living
things.
 Kingdom Animalia includes all animals such as Monkeys, hyenas, buffaloes, insects,
birds, worm etc.
 Kingdom plantae include all plants such as potato plant, maize plant, mango trees,
shrubs, moss plant, fern plant etc.
 Kingdom Fungi includes all fungi such as mushroom, bread moulds, pin moulds, yeast
etc.
 Kingdom protoctista includes all protoctista such as amoeba, paramecium, trypanosome,
Euglena, plasmodium.
 Kingdom Monera includes all bacteria such as salmonella typhi, Treponema pallidum,
Neisseria gonorrhoea etc.

Most of organisms in kingdom Monera and protoctista together with viruses are very small to be
seen by naked eyes, they are only seen by using a microscope, hence they are microscopic and
they are called microorganisms.

VIRUSES
A virus: is an extremely small fragment of nuclei acid (DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein
coat.
 It is smaller than a living cell. Virus is not a cell
 The study of viruses is called virology

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 Example of viruses
 Bacteriophage
 HIV
 Tobacco mosaic virus
 Influenza virus
Note: Viruses do not belong to any of the five major kingdom of living things because they
possess the features which place them as living and non-organisms.
Question: Why virus is not classified among Kingdoms of living organisms?
Answer: Because, virus shows features of both living things and non-living things. It shows
features of non-living things when outside the host cell and shows features of living things when
inside the host cell.

Features (characteristics) that describe viruses as living things

(i) They reproduce when inside the host cell
(ii) They possess genetic materials either RNA or DNA
(iii)They grow, excrete, feed and respire when inside the host cell
(iv) They are specific to host like other parasites
(v) They are capable of attacking other organisms and infect them.
Features (characteristics) that describe viruses as non-living things
(i) They cannot reproduce when outside the host cell
(ii) They crystallize in the absence of a living host
(iii)They cannot grow, excrete, feed or respire when outside the host cell
(iv) They do not have a nucleus, cytoplasm or cell organelles
GENERAL STRUCTURE OF VIRUSES
Viruses are composed of strands of genetic materials (DNA or RNA), which forms a core
A core is enclosed by a protein coat called capsid as in bacteriophage. DNA or RNA are of
different size and shape
(i) RNA or DNA which may be single stranded or double stranded. They form a structure
called core.
(ii) Core is a structure which is composed of genetic materials and enclosed by capsid
(iii)Capsid (protein coat) is a protein shell that encloses genetic material in a virus
 It is a protective coat that surrounding the core.
 Capsid are made up of identical repeating units known as cashmeres.
(iv) A nucleocapsid is a combined structure of core and capsid.
(v) Envelope is an additional layer of lipoprotein layer around the capsid.

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Diagrams of Human Immunodefiency Virus (HIV)

Diagrams of Corona virus

Diagrams of Bacteriophage

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 The table below showing examples of viruses and the diseases they cause to living
organisms
Virus Disease
Polio virus Polio
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome)
Influenza virus Influenza
Tobacco mosaic virus Tobacco mosaic disease
Measles virus Measles
Chicken pox virus Chicken pox
Corona virus Corona Virus disease (COVID- 19)
Herpes simplex Genital herpes
Hepatitis B virus Hepatitis B

General and distinctive features of viruses

(i) They are host specific. This means, a certain virus only attacks a specific host.
(ii) They contains only one type of nucleic acid either DNA or RNA and not both.
(iii) They cannot reproduce on their own. This because, they exist in a dormant state while
outside the host cell. They must attack a host cell and use the materials in that cell to
reproduce. This is called obligate parasitism.
(iv) They do not have a nucleus, cytoplasm or cell organelles.
(v) They are considered to be non-living. This because, they lack biochemical characteristics
of living thing. They never grow, feed, excrete or respire while outside the host cell.
(vi) Most of viruses are infectious. This means, they can cause diseases to their hosts.
NB: A virus which attacks and kills bacteria is called a bacteriophage.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF VIRUSES
Advantages of viruses
(i) Used to make vaccines. For example, measles viruses are inactivated and used to
vaccinate people against measles disease and polio viruses are inactivated and used to
vaccinated people against polio disease.
(ii) Used in the study of cellular and molecular biology. Viruses are used by scientists to
manipulate and investigate the functions of cells
(iii) Help to control bacterial infections and diseases. E.g. bacteriophage

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 (iv) Used in genetic engineering. In genetic engineering viruses are used as vectors to
transfer genes from one organisms to another for improving or treating the defective
genes.
(v) Used in medical research.
(vi) Some bacteria are used in biological control to eradicate pests such as insects
(vii) Used in military as biological weapons to kill enemies
Disadvantages of viruses
(i) They attack and cause diseases to plants. For example, Tobacco mosaic disease, tomato
mosaic disease and cassava mosaic disease.
(ii) Viruses attack and cause infections and diseases to animals. For example polio, AIDS,
measles, small pox, yellow fever, Hepatitis B, Covid 19, influenza etc.
(iii)Viruses destroy living cells in humans hence weaken the body immunity
(iv) Viral diseases are difficult to cure. This is because viruses keep on altering themselves
often. For example there are many different viruses that cause common cold and
influenza. This makes it difficult to cure for these infections.
(v) Pathogenic viruses reproduce very fast, leading to large-scale epidemics

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. (a) Why a virus does not belong to any of the five kingdoms of living things
(b) Explain why viruses are considered as both living and non-living things
(c) What are the two components of a virus?
2. Describe the structure of a bacteriophage
3. (a) Mention five examples of the diseases caused by viruses
(b) A virus that attacks and kills bacteria is called?
4. Explain the economic importance of viruses
5. (a) What are viruses?
(b) List any two general and distinctive features of viruses
(c) Mention two advantages and three disadvantages of viruses
6. (a) Describe the structures of viruses
(b) Do you consider viruses to be living or non-living? Explain

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 KINGDOM MONERA
Kingdom Monera: this kingdom is made up of bacteria and blue- green algae.
 They are the most ancient and smallest organisms with a cellular structure. They occupy
many environments such as soil, dust, water and in the bodies of plants and animals
 The scientific study of bacteria is knowns as bacteriology.
Common members of Kingdom Monera are bacteria such as:
 Vibrio cholerae
 Salmonella typhi
 Neisseria gonorrhea
 Mycobacterium tuberculosis
 Treponema pallidum
General and distinctive features of Kingdom Monera (bacteria)
(i) They are unicellular. This means, they are made up of a single cell
(ii) They are prokaryotic. This means that, their cell nuclei lack nuclear membranes
(iii) They reproduce asexually by binary fission or through spores. Binary fission is a form of
asexual reproduction where by an organism splits into two equal halves.
(iv) They have slimy outer layer. This layer protects them from parasites such as viruses and
predators such as protozoa
(v) Some are free-living while others are parasites or saprophytes.
(vi) Free living bacteria have flagella for movement
(vii) Some bacteria occur singly while others occur in clusters known as colonies.
(viii) They occur in various shapes. They occur in spiral shape, comma or vibrio shape, rod
shape, spherical shape and corkscrew shape.

THE STRUCTURE OF BACTERIA

Structurally bacteria are made up of:
(i) Flagella (singular flagellum) for locomotion

(ii) Circular DNA suspended in the cytoplasm without being enclosed by the nuclear

membrane.

(iii)Slime capsule (slimy layer) for protection

(iv) Cell wall which is made up of protein and lipids but not cellulose to enclose the cell

membrane

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 (v) Cytoplasm for storage of food and other chemicals

(vi) Plasma membrane to enclose the cytoplasm

A GENERALIZED STRUCTURE OF BACTERIUM

SHAPES OF BACTERIA
Bacteria are classified into five groups according to their shapes. These groups are:
(a) Rod shaped bacteria called bacilli (singular: bacillus)
(b) Spherical shaped bacteria called cocci (singular: coccus)
(c) Spiral shaped bacteria called spirilla (singular: spirillum)
(d) Comma shaped bacteria called vibrio (singular: vibrion)
(e) Corkscrew shaped bacteria called spirochaetes
(a) Bacilli
These are rod-shaped bacteria
 They can exist as a single cell or in chain.

Example of rod- shaped bacteria or bacilli

(i) Salmonella typhi which causes typhoid
(ii) Escherichia coli – cause cramping, diarrhoea and urinary tract infection
(iii)Bacillus anthracis – causes anthrax
(iv) Mycobacterium tuberculosis which causes tuberculosis
(v) Clostridium tetani that causes tetanus

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 Diagram of rod shaped bacteria (Bacilli)

(b) Cocci(singular coccus)

These bacteria are spherical in shape
 The spherical bacteria can be in a single cell (single cocci), a pair of cells
(diplococcus), a cluster of cells (staphilococcus), a chain of cells (streptococcus).
Example of spherical shaped bacteria
 Neisseria gonorrhoea (an example of a diplococcus) – cause gonorrhoea
 Streptococcus pneumoniae (an example of a diplococcus) – cause pneumonia
disease
 Streptococcus pyogenes (an example of streptococcus) – cause sore throat
 Streptococcus aureus (an example of staphilococcus) – cause boils
Diagram of cocci shaped bacteria

(c) Spirilla (singular: spirillum)

These are spiral shaped bacteria or resemble a corkscrew
Example of spiral shaped bacteria
(i) Treponema pallidum – causes syphilis
(ii) Campylobacter jejuni – causes diarrhea in children
Diagram of spiral shaped bacteria

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 (d) Vibrio (plural vibrion)
These are comma shaped bacteria
Examples of comma shaped bacteria
Vibrio cholerae – causes cholera
Diagram of comma shaped bacteria (vibrio)

(e) Spirochaetes (singular: spirochaete)

These are corkscrew shaped bacteria
Example of corkscrew shaped bacteria
Borrelia sp. – causes Lyme disease and relapsing fever
Diagram of corkscrew shaped bacteria

TYPES OF BACTERIA
There are two types of bacteria, namely
(i) Pathogenic bacteria
(ii) Non- pathogenic bacteria
PATHOGENIC BACTERIA
These are bacteria that cause infections and diseases.
 They live in the bodies of plants or animals from which they get their nutrients and cause
diseases to the organisms.
 Example of diseases caused by pathogenic bacteria
 Tuberculosis
 Cholera
 Syphilis
 Gonorrhoea
 Typhoid
 Tetanus
CHARACTERISTICS OF PATHOGENIS BACTERIA
Pathogenic bacteria have the following features that facilitate the spread of disease and infections
(i) They have fimbriae or Pilli.
Fimbriae (Pilli): are hair- like structures on the surface of some bacteria

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 Function of fimbriae
 Used for attachment to the host.
(ii) They have flagella
 Flagella- are tail like structures that help pathogenic bacteria to move to the site
where they can survive
Function of flagella
 Used as locomotary structures for movement.
(iii)They produce toxic substances.
 The toxins produced by pathogenic bacteria harm the host cells and tissues and lead
to severe vomiting, diarrhoea, fever and muscle fatigue.
(iv) They have ability to reproduce rapidly and destroy the host cells in a short period
(v) They have ability to release biofilm that resist certain types of medicines

NON-PATHOGENIC BACTERIA
These are harmless bacteria even when they are in body of animal or plant.
 Such bacteria are beneficial to plants, animals and the environment.
Examples of non- pathogenic bacteria
 Rhizobium sp: Bacteria found in the roots nodules of leguminous plants that convert
atmospheric nitrogen to nitrates in the soil.
 Escherichia coli: Bacteria found in the human gut that manufacture vitamins K and B12
CHARACTERISTICS OF NON-PATHIGENIC BACTERIA
(i) They do not produce any toxic materials
(ii) They are autotrophs
(iii)They are found in leguminous plants that help to convert atmospheric nitrogen to nitrates
(iv) They produce lactic acid that is used to give flavor to dairy foods like cheese and
yoghourt
(v) They are found in the human gut helping to manufacture vitamins K and B12.
(vi) They are found in the stomach of ruminants helping to secrete cellulose enzymes that
help to digest cellulose
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Give at least four differences between pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria.
2. Give the function of the following structures
(a) Fimbriae
(b) Flagella
3. Name three species of harm bacteria
4. Why are bacteria classified as kingdom Monera

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ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF KINGDOM MONERA (BACTERIA)
This includes the advantages and disadvantages of bacteria.
Advantages (merits) of kingdom Monera (bacteria)
(i) Used in genetic engineering.
Some bacteria are used in genetic engineering to produce hormones such as insulin and human
growth hormones.
(ii) Used as source of oxygen in the atmosphere.
Some bacteria such as autotrophic bacteria release oxygen in the atmosphere through the process
of photosynthesis. Oxygen released by autotrophic bacteria is important in respiration process.
(iii) Used in production of antibiotics
Some bacteria are used to produce antibiotics, which are used to treat bacterial infections
(iv) Used as decomposers hence add soil fertility
Some bacteria such as saprophytic bacteria are used to decompose (break down) the dead bodies
of plants and animals to release important elements such nitrogen, carbon and phosphorous
which are very essential to plants growth and development.
(v) Used as environment cleaner hence used to clean the environment
Some bacteria such as saprophytic bacteria clean the environment by decomposing and
neutralizing harmful substances. Saprophytic bacteria feed on substances that are harmful to the
environment and in the process neutralize them, thereby making the environment clean. For
example they are used to neutralize petroleum wastes from petroleum industries, dyes and
pesticides.
(vi) Bacteria in the gut of ruminants are used in cellulose digestion
Bacteria living in the gut of ruminants such as cow, goat, rabbit, and zebra are used to produce
cellulase enzyme which is used to digest cellulose which forms a large part of the diet of
ruminants.
(vii) Some bacteria are used in production of vitamins K and B12 in the humans
Bacteria living in the human gut are used to synthesize vitamins K and B12 which are very
important for the health of human beings.
(viii) Bacteria are used in fermentation process.
Some bacteria are used in fermentation process to produce yoghurt, alcohol, cheese and vinegar
in the industries.
(ix) Nitrogen fixing bacteria are used to convert atmospheric nitrogen to nitrates
Bacteria living in the root nodules of leguminous plants called rhizobium bacteria are used to
convert atmospheric nitrogen to nitrates which used to promote healthy growth and development
of plants.
DISADVANTAGES (DEMERITS) OF KINGDOM MONERA (BACTERIA).
(i) Some bacteria cause infections and diseases to animals.
Most of common infections and diseases such as typhoid, cholera, tuberculosis, tetanus and
gonorrhea are caused by bacteria.

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 (ii) Some bacteria cause infections and diseases to plants
Most of common plant diseases such as leaf spot in cotton is caused by pathogenic bacteria
called Xanthomonas campestris, fire blight on pea and apple caused by Erwinia amylovora.
Bacterial diseases in crops cause reduction of in yield hence loss to farmers
(iii)Some bacteria cause food spoilage.
Some bacteria cause food decay by decomposing stored food and making it unsuitable for health.

(iv) Denitrifying bacteria reduces nutrients in the soil.

Some bacteria living in the soil called denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates from the soil to
nitrogen hence reduce plant nutrients from the soil

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Mention three examples of beneficial bacteria
2. With the aid of diagram, describe a generalized structure of a bacterium
3. What are the economic importance of bacteria
4. (a) List the different shapes of bacteria
(b) Draw the shapes you have named in 4 (a) above.
(c) State the locomotary structure of bacteria
5. Give the scientific names of the bacteria that cause the following diseases
(a) Tuberculosis
(b) Typhoid
(c) Tetanus
(d) cholera
6. explain ways in which organisms in Kingdom Monera are:
(a) useful to man
(b) harmful to man
7. explain the economic importance of bacteria in the following fields:
(a) Agriculture
(b) Medicine
(c) Industries
(d) Lab
8. (a) Give three difference between virus and bacteria
(b) Write down four differences between pathogenic bacteria and non-pathogenic
bacteria
(c) With the aid of a well labelled diagram, describe the structure of bacteria and give
three advantages and disadvantages of bacteria in daily life.

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 KINGDOM PROTOCTISTA
Kingdom Protoctista: this kingdom comprises all protoctists or protozoans such as amoeba,
euglena, plasmodium, paramecium and Trypanosoma.
Example of common representative members (protozoans) of kingdom protoctista
 Plasmodium
 Paramecium
 Amoeba
 Euglena
 Trypanosoma
GENERAL AND DISINCTIVE FEATURES OF KINGDOM PROTOCTISTA
Members of Kingdom Protoctista have the following characteristics:
(i) They are eukaryotic. This means that, their cells have true nuclei
(ii) Most of them are unicellular while few are multicellular.
(iii) Most live in or near water or in moist places
(iv) Some are autotrophic while others are heterotrophic. Autotrophic protoctists are able to
manufacture their own food while heterotrophic protoctists obtain their nutrients from
other organisms
(v) Some are mobile while others are sessile
(vi) Some reproduce asexually while others reproduce sexually. But some reproduce both
sexually and asexually
(vii) Most of them they have locomotary structures for movement.
Example of protoctists and their appropriate locomotary structures:
Organism (Protoctists) Locomotary structure used
(i) Amoeba Pseudopodia
(ii) Euglena Flagellum
(iii)Paramecium Cilia
(iv) Plasmodium No locomotary structure
(v) Trypanosoma Flagellum

PHYLA OF KINDOM PROTOCTISTA

Kingdom protoctista is subdivided into several phyla, namely
(i) Phylum Rhizopoda e.g. Amoeba
(ii) Phylum Euglenophyta e.g. Euglena
(iii)Phylum Ciliophora e.g. Paramecium
(iv) Phylum Apicomplexa e.g. Plasmodium
(v) Phylum Zoomastigina e.g. Trypanosoma

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1. PHYLUM RHIZOPODA
This phylum comprises free living and parasitic unicellular organisms called amoeba
Example of representative members of phylum Rhizopoda
 Parasitic Entamoeba histolytica
 Free living amoeba living in sea water, fresh water and in the soil such as green algae,
red algae and brown algae.
CHARACTERISTICS OF AMOEBA
(i) Most are free living while others are parasitic.
(ii) Free living amoeba feed on plants and animals matter
(iii) They have pseudopodia which are used for both locomotion and feeding
Pseudopodia (means false limbs): These are projections which help amoeba to move
and capture food.
(iv) They have contractile vacuoles which regulates the amount of water in the fresh water
amoeba.
(v) They form temporary vacuole (food vacuoles) to hold and digest food particles
(vi) They excrete waste products such as urea and ammonia by simple diffusion
(vii) They constantly change shape (have no permanent shape)
(viii) They are unicellular organisms (single celled organisms)
(ix) They reproduce asexually by binary fission
(x) They exchange oxygen and carbondioxide gas by diffusion
(xi) They have two layers of cytoplasm: a viscous layer called ectoplasm and a more fluid
internal layer called endoplasm.
(xii) They reproduce by binary fission
STRUCTURE OF AMOEBA
Amoeba is a single celled organism (unicellular organism) which contains the following
structures:
(i) Cell membrane to protect the inner parts of the amoeba
(ii) Contractile vacuole to control amount of water in the organism.
(iii)Temporary food vacuole to hold and digest food particles
(iv) Pseudopodium for both locomotion and feeding.
(v) Nucleus takes active part in reproduction and conducts the functions of the cell body.
(vi) Cytoplasm divided into two layers namely ectoplasm and endoplasm.
Function of Ectoplasm
 Helps amoeba to maintain its body shape
 Helps amoeba in producing pseudopodia
Function of endoplasm
 Serves as the site of the cellular processes.
 Helps amoeba in producing pseudopodia
 Site where organelles such nucleus, contractile vacuole and food vacuoles are
located

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 A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF AMOEBA

Advantages of Amoeba
(i) Used in laboratories to study cell structure and function.
(ii) Amoeba kill and feed on harmful bacteria that would cause diseases.
(iii)Used as food by other organisms in water
Disadvantages of Amoeba
 Amoeba because diseases e.g. Entamoeba histolytica causes amoebic dysentery in human
being Entamoeba gingivalis causes teeth and gum diseases (dental diseases).
2. PHYLUM EUGLENOPHYTA
This phylum consists unicellular autotrophic organisms.
 Most of members in this phylum are aquatic. They live in fresh water and marine water
 Euglena sp. cause green scum that often appears on stagnant water
Examples of organisms found in phylum Euglenophyta
 Euglena gracilis

CHARACTERISTICS OF EUGLENA
(i) They are unicellular.
(ii) They are eukaryotic cells.
(iii) They have eyespots for detection of light intensity.
(iv) They have chloroplasts contain chlorophyll for photosynthesis.
(v) They live in fresh and marine water.
(vi) They have flagella for movement.
(vii) They reproduce asexually.
(viii) They possess both plant and animal characteristics. The plant characteristic is
possession of chloroplasts contain chlorophyll for photosynthesis. The animal
characteristic includes ability to move using a flagellum, an eye spot for light
intensity detection and gullet for ingesting food
(ix) They have pellicle which offers protection and allows euglena to change shape.
Pellicle is an outer cover which surrounds the cytoplasm of euglena since they lack
cell wall.

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STRUCTURE OF EUGLENA
Euglena is a single celled organism (unicellular organism) made up of the following structures:
(i) Pellicle to offer protection and allow euglena to change shape
(ii) Eyespot to detect light intensity
(iii) Contractile vacuole to control amount of water in the organism.
(iv) Gullet to ingest food
(v) Flagellum for locomotion.
(vi) Chloroplasts which contain chlorophyll for photosynthesis
(vii) Nucleus to control body activities and processes such as asexual reproduction.
A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF EUGLENA

ADVANTAGES OF EUGLENA
(i) Euglena are used to treat sewage. This is because of their unique capacity to change from
being autotrophic to heterotrophic.
(ii) Euglena are used as source of food to fish and other aquatic animals e.g. Phytoplankton
euglena
(iii)Euglena are used to produce oxygen gas. Oxygen produced by euglena through
photosynthesis is used by aquatic animals for respiration and for sewage treatment.
DISADVANTAGES OF EUGLENA
 Euglena blooms and produce toxins which kill fish and other aquatic organisms.

3. PHYLUM CILIOPHORA
This phylum consists of unicellular heterotrophic organisms which contain short projections
called cilia.
 Most of members in this phylum are found in aquatic habitats (live in water)
 Members of this phylum are also called ciliates because they have cilia for movement.
Examples of organisms found in phylum Ciliophora
 Paramecium.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF PARAMECIUM (PHYLUM CILIOPHORA)
(i) They are unicellular and slipper-shaped.
(ii) They are heterotrophs.
(iii) They have cilia for movement and for collecting food.
(iv) They possess two nuclei, the micronucleus and macronucleus. The micronucleus is
smaller and used in asexual reproduction while macronucleus (mega nucleus) is larger
and controls body activities and processes.
(v) The body of paramecium is covered (enclosed) by pellicle (a stiff but elastic membrane)
(vi) They have oral groove to ingest food.
(vii) They have two contractile vacuoles to regulate amount of water in the cytoplasm
(viii) They reproduce either asexually or sexually depending on the environmental
conditions. Asexual reproduction takes place when enough nutrients are available while
sexual reproduction takes place under conditions of starvation.
(ix) They have anal pore to egest undigested food
(x) They have food vacuole which hold and digest food particles.
(xi) They feed on bacteria and other microorganisms
STRUCTURE OF PARAMECIUM
Paramecium is a single celled organism (unicellular organism) made up of the following
structures:
(i) Pellicle to enclose and offer paramecium protection
(ii) Contractile vacuole to control amount of water in the cytoplasm by removing excess
water.
(iii) Oral groove to ingest food particles such as bacteria
(iv) Cilia for movement and to create a feeding current.
(v) Macronucleus to control body activities and processes
(vi) Micronucleus used in asexual reproduction.
(vii) Food vacuole formed to hold (store) and digest food particles.
(viii) Anal pore to eliminate undigested food materials
A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF PARAMECIUM

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ADVANTAGES OF PARAMECIUM
(i) They are used as food by small water animals.
(ii) They help to clean up small particles of debris in water as well as feeding on small
animals.
DISADVANTAGES OF PARAMECIUM
(i) Paramecium called Balantidium coli cause disease. They invade and destroys the lining
of the intestine , causing a disease called balantidiasis
(ii) They delay decomposition of sewage by feeding bacteria which decompose sewage.
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. (a) In which ways are Euglena similar to and yet different from paramecium?
(b) List two features showing that paramecium belong to Kingdom Protoctista?
(c) Explain any three characteristics of paramecium

4. PHYLUM APICOMPLEXA
This phylum consists of unicellular and parasitic organisms.
Example of organisms found in phylum Apicomplexa
 Plasmodium sp
CHARACTERISTICS OF PLASMODIUM
(i) They are unicellular.
(ii) They are parasite with a complex life cycles involving the host and the vector.
(iii)They have no structures for movement
(iv) They reproduce sexually in the host and sexually by multiple fission in the vector.
(v) When plasmodium enters the human body, it attacks the red blood cells and liver
cells.
(vi) They are eukaryotes.
Effects of plasmodium
 Plasmodium parasite causes malaria. Malaria can lead to inflammation and rapture
of the spleen and miscarriages. It can also cause anaemia due the destruction of red
blood cells and severe malaria cause death.
DIAGRAM OF PLASMODIUM

Advantages of plasmodium
 Used by scientists in the laboratories for research.
Disadvantages of plasmodium
 They cause malaria to human beings

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5. PHYLUM ZOOMASTIGINA
This phylum consists unicellular flagellate protozoans.
 Generally members of this phylum are found in the intestine, but can also found in the
blood or in the heart, for example Trypanosoma
DIAGRAM OF TRYPANOSOMA

CHARACTERISTICS OF TRYPANOSOMA
(i) They are unicellular, slender, elongated and dorsal ventrally flattened in shape.
(ii) They are heterotrophic
(iii) They are parasites in wild animals, domesticated animals and human beings.
(iv) Have a mass of mitochondrion in a structure called kinetoplast
(v) The body is covered with a thin, elastic and firm pellicle
(vi) Most of them reproduce asexually by binary fission while inside the host
(vii) Some have an undulating membrane for locomotion
DISADVANTAGES OF TRYPANOSOMA
 Trypanosoma brucei is the causative agent of the disease called trypanosomiasis or
sleeping sickness.
 This disease affects mostly African countries. It can be transmitted through bites of a
vector called tsetse fly or through blood contact from an infected individual.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF KINGDOM PROTOCTISTA

This includes both advantages and disadvantages of Kingdom Protoctista
ADVANTAGES (MERITS) OF KINGDOM PROTOCTISTA
(i) They release oxygen gas to the atmosphere.
Photosynthetic protoctists such as euglena and algae release oxygen gas during photosynthesis.
Oxygen gas produced is used by aquatic organisms in breathing process
(ii) They are used in medical research.
Most of protoctists are used by scientists in medical research, this is because they can be grown
in large numbers under controlled condition without occupying large area.

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 (iii) They are used as fertilizer
Some protoctists such as Brown algae (sea weeds) have been used as fertilizer because they
contain high amount of potassium and other nutrients. These nutrients are useful for plant
growth.
(iv) They produce alignic acid used to manufacture ice cream.
Some protoctists such as algae produce alignic acid which is used in production of ice creams,
cosmetics, car polishes and paints.
(v) They are source of food for many aquatic organisms.
Some protoctists such as euglena are eaten by aquatic organisms such as fish as food.
(vi) They are used in sewage treatment.
Some protoctists such as Euglena are used in sewage treatment this is because of their unique
capacity to change from being autotrophic to heterotrophic.
(vii) They are used in laboratories to study cell structure and function
Some protoctists such as amoeba are used by scientists in the laboratories in studying cell
structure and function.
DISADVANTAGES (DEMERITS) OF KINGDOM PROTOCTISTA
 They cause diseases to human being and other animals.
Parasitic protoctists attack and cause disease to animals for example plasmodium cause malaria
to human and Entamoeba histolytica cause amoebic dysentery, sleeping sickness, tooth decay
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Match the item in List A with the correct item in List B by writing the letter of the correct
response from List B below the number of the corresponding item in List A in the table
provided.
LIST A LIST B

(i) Protoctists that moves by means of temporary projections called A. Flagellum

pseudopodia. B. Bacterium
(ii) The only Kingdom of Prokaryotic organisms. C. Monera
(iii) An organism that cause malaria D. Amoeba
(iv) The structures that a paramecium uses for movement. E. Virus
(v) A disease-causing particle that consists of nucleic acid and a protein F. Cilia
coat. G. Plasmodium
(vi) The structure the euglena sp. Uses for movement. H. Eukaryotes
(vii) An organism whose cells do not contain nucleus or membrane-
bound organelles

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2. (a)Describe the characteristics of Trypanosoma
(b) Distinguish between Apicomplexa and other protoctists
3. Draw a well labelled diagram of a paramecium
4. How are euglena beneficial to the environment?
5. How does amoeba
(a) Move?
(b) Feed?
(c) Reproduce?
6. Explain the effects of the following organisms to humans
(a) Amoeba
(b) Plasmodium
(c) Trypanosoma
7. Study the diagrams below and answer the following questions.

(a) Give the common names for organisms X and Y

(b) State the phyla in which organism X and Y belong
(c) Give two advantages of organism X
(d) Name the parts labelled A – F in organism X and parts labelled H – L in organism Y.
8. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of Kingdom Protoctista

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