Reading and Writing
use these features automatically
Lesson 1: (Critical Connections)
Explicit and Implicit Claims In
Paragraph
A Fact Claim
- An argumentative thesis which
makes a quantifiable assertion, in
other words, it is an argument (claim)
about a measurable topic (fact)
- A fact claim is not a fact, it is only
claims to be a fact.
Example:
1. Smoking marijuana is less
harmful to one‟s health than
smoking cigarettes.
2. Death penalty does not
deter crime.
3. Violence on television
influences children to
behave violently.
A Value Claim
- It is an argument (claim) about the
moral, aesthetic, or philosophical
topic (value)
- Is arguably statements concerning
the relative merits of something which
is measured subjectively.
Example:
1. Indian food is the best food
of all
2. The Wizard of Oz is the
greatest movie of all time.
A Policy Claim
- An argumentative thesis makes an
assertion about the curse of action
the reader should take; in other
words, it is an argument (claim)
about an actionable topic (policy)
- A policy claim is a statement
regarding the merits of one course of
action as opposed to another action.
Example:
Because it does not deter crime,
because it is inequitably
administered, and because it is
unjust, the death penalty should be
abandoned by the civilian people.
Lesson 2: (Critical Reading
Connections) Context Of Text
Development
Hypertext
- It presents a new ways to read on-
line text that differs from reading
the standard linear text.
- information can be presented in a
semantic network in which multiple
related sections of the text are
connected to each other.
- The features in hypertext supply
flexibility to the reader when
compared to reading linear text as
books. Clearly, some of this
flexibility do not exist in books, but is
not as widely used or exploited.
- Hypertexts permits the readers to
and low interest
rather than requiring readers to
refer manually to them as needed.
- This provides additional control to
the reader in determining the order
that the text is to be read, allows the
reader to read the text as if were
specifically tailored to the readers
background and interest.
- The flexibility promises an
advantage of personalization and
eases the burden of finding
information.
Intertext
- The shaping of a texts meaning by
another.
- It is a literary device that creates
an “interrelationship between texts”
and generates mutually
understanding in separate works.
- Influence the reader and add
layers of depth to a text, based on
the readers prior knowledge and
understanding.
- It is a literary discourse strategy
utilized by writes in novels, poetry,
theather and even non-written text.
Lesson 3: (Critical Reading as
Reasoning) How to evaluate
reading materials
1. Appearance
- Is the first thing that attracts the
readers attention, and it has
something to do with designs.
- The designs is the organization of
color, type, and graphics on the
page-the appearance of the
materials.
- The first function of design is to
capture and focus the intended
readers attention.
- Before a word is read, the
appearance of the printed materials
usually convey strong messages.
- Pages through the materials whose
covers compel the readers to pick
them up.
Appearance Checklist
- Design attract the eye, captures the
interest, and moves the hand to pick
up the material.
- Type and graphics guide the
attention and aid in learning.
- easy-reliable documentation is
designed into materials.
2. Reading Level
- Reading level is typically
expressed as the grade of education
a reader needs to understand the
information.
- One reason to select a reading
level is that understanding decreases
when the topics on term are
unfamiliar.
- Decreases further with high anxiety
- A high reading level does not
indicates that writing is complex and
hard to read
- Simple sentence structure and
common words make understanding
easier for any readers.
Reading Level Checklist
- Reading level is lower than the
ability of most reader
- Reading level is consistent
throughout the material
- Words, sentence, and paragraph
are short
3. Reading Comprehension
- common language that builds on
what the readers already know
improves understanding and increase
compliance.
- cultural factors and culture feelings
t owards content, influences
acceptance of information to.
Content that ignore or runs counter to
the readers experience and
culturally held beliefs invite
disregard.
Comprehension Checklist
- The tone is conversational
- Information starts with what the
readers already know
- Advice and examples fit the
readers experience and cultural
beliefs
- Focus is on the behavior, not facts
- Writing is consistently strong, clear,
and concise
4. Accuracy
- No review would be completed
without an assessment of scientific
accuracy
- consider the authors and reviewers
reliability.
Accuracy Checklist
- Information is scientifically accurate
and medically reliable
- Information complies with national
guidelines
- Information is up to date.
Lesson 4: Determining textual
evidence
1. Statement of Conventions
- Example: Zinc is bluish – white,
lustrous metallic element (Zn)
occurring in various ores and
essential in traces for the activity of
many plant and animal enzymes. (A
dictionary definition)
- Commonly accepted (UNIVERSAL
ANSWER)
2. Statement of Fact
- Example: Zinc is one of the elemets
needed by the rice plant in small
amounts.
- can be directly verified by
experience or reliable reports.
- How you experience it
3. Statement of opinion
- Example: A severe case of zinc
deficiency can result in significant
yield reduction or total crop failure.
- to be verified by technical
experimentation, production, study,
etc.)
- Based on a person‟s opinion
4. Statement of Preference
- Preference of the person giving the
statement)
- Example: Zinc is an appropriate
element needed by the plant for an
abundant production of yields.
Lesson 5: Purposeful Writing in the
Disciplines and for professions
Unique Features of and
Requirements in Composing Texts
that are useful across Discipline
1. Literature Review
- A literature review is an evaluative
report of information found in the
literature related to your selected
area of study.
- The review should describe,
summarize, evaluate and clarify the
literature.
2. Book Review
- It is a form of literary criticism in
which a book is analyzed based on
content, style, and merit.
- It can be primary source opinion
piece, summary review or scholarly
review
3. Article Review
- Review Articles are an attempt to
summarize the current state of
understanding on the topic.
- it represents previously published
material, rather that reporting new
facts or analysis.
4. Research Report
- A research report is a typed report
of 6 to 12 pages in length deal with
a topic covered as part of the course
content.
- Your research report consists of
research that you do on the topic as
well as your interpretation of this
information, including the
applicability to your assignment.
5. Project Proposal
- A project Proposal is a detailed
description of a series of activities
aimed at solving a certain problem.
- The project proposal should be
detailed and directed manifestation
of the project design.
6. Position Paper
- It is an essay that represents and
opinion about an issue, typically that
of the author or another specified
entity; such as political party.
- Position papers are published in
academia, in politics, in law and
other domains.
Unique Features of and
requirements in composing
Professional Correspondence
1. Resume
- Resume is a structured, written
summary of a person‟s, education,
employment background, job
qualifications, and other data.
- it is form of advertisement,
designed to help get an interview.
2. Application For College
Admission
- The letter that helps determine
wheter or not you will accept into a
college of your choice is a big feat.
The admission process has
increasingly become more
competitive, No specific letter –
writing approach can promise that
you will get admission
3. Application for employment
- it is a letter written to seek for a
job.
- An application letter for
employment is a typical example of
sales letter since you are selling your
services of your qualification to the
employer.
Christian Living
 Synodality means journeying
together as the people of God. It
indicates a way of listening to each
individual person as a member of the
church to understand how God might
be speaking to all of us.
 Jesus appeared to the apostles on
resurrection: who are they? Peter,
Thomas, Mary Magdalene, Paul
 It is the meaning of the word
„Lucenarium‟. A worship service held
in the late afternoon or evening in
many Western Christian churches.
 It is the coming of the Holy Spirit. The
anointing
 Which Bible text we found the Bread
of Life discourses? John 6:51-58
 During this month of May, we
exercise our devotion to the Blessed
Virgin Mary.
 “The Lord is my shepherd” can be
found in Psalm 23
 How did Jesus exemplify humility to
His apostles? Jesus demonstrated this
when He knelt and washed the feet
of the Apostles. “Know ye what I
have done?” He asked them. “I have
given you an example, that … the
servant is not greater than his lord;
neither he that is sent greater than
he that sent him” (John 13:12, 15–
16).
 It is what we celebrate on the 2nd
Sunday after Easter Sunday. Divine
Mercy Sunday
 During the Mass of the Lord‟s supper
on Holy Thursday we commemorate
the last Supper of Jesus Christ.
 The fourth Sunday in the Easter
season is called: Good Shepherd
Sunday
 The Hebrew word „Amen‟ means? “To
be reliable” and “to be trusted”
 During Good Friday celebration, we
had the commemoration of the
Crucifixion of Jesus Christ
 „Paschal‟ comes from the word “ of
or relating to Easter or to Passover”
derives from late Latin Paschalis
 The tradition we observed after the
Easter vigil is what we called the
Paschal Vigil or the Great Vigil of
Easter (Holy Saturday).
 “Christ” means anointed one
 After sixth Sunday in Easter season is
the Ascension of the Lord
 What Mystery of Jesus Christ do we
celebrate at Easter? The mystery of
Christ risen from the dead.
 These are ways to live our lives
during this season of Easter and
throughout our lives:
- Celebrate the whole octave
- Lean into Sunday Feast
- Pray a Novena
- Throw a Pentecost party
- Fasting Days
UCSP
Lesson 1: Enculturation and
Socialization
Social Interactions
- According to sociologist and
anthropologists, one self emerges by
social interactions.
- take forms of socialization and
enculturation.
- not episodic but lifetime, and hence
“womb-to-tomb” experiences.
Socialization
- is a lifelong social experience by which
develop their human potential and learn
culture.
- always takes place in specific contexts.
- culturally specific
- In some academic fields, socialization
refers to the deliberate shaping of the
individual.
Goals of Socialization
1. Teaches impulses control and helps
individuals develop a conscience
2. Teaches individuals how to prepare
for and perform certain roles.
3. Cultivates shared sources of meaning
and value.
Enculturation
- is a process by which people learn the
requirements of their surrounding culture
and acquire the values and behaviors
appropriate or necessary in that culture.
- influences that limit, direct or shape the
individual.
- if successful, it will result in competence
in the language, values and rituals.
MEAD AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF
SOCIAL MIND (SELF)
Self
- is a sociological concept
- it develops through social interactions
(According to George Herbert Mead).
Feral Children
- raised by animals and lived in extreme
social isolation.
“I/Me”
- reinforces the purely sociological facets
of the self.
George Herbert Mead
- proposed four stage process of the
development of the self
- he believe that the self is not something
inborn rather evolve at the moment of
interaction
Imitation
- mimicking the behaviors and actions of
significant others around them.
Play
- comes first in the child‟s development
- child learns to become both subject and
object and begins to become able to
build a self.
- the child takes different roles he or she
observes in “adult” society, and plays
them out to gain an understanding of the
different social roles.
Game
- organization begins and definite
personalities start to emerge.
- must take role to everyone in the game.
The generalized others
- individual understands what kind of
behavior is expected or appropriate in
different social settings.
Mead 3 stages
1. Imitation stage – imitates gestures and
sounds
2. Play stage – child assumes the rules of
others
3. Game stage – learn that people also
behave the way they do.
Identity formation
- development of an individual‟s distinct
personality which is regarded as a
persisting entity in a particular stage of
life by which a person is recognized or
known.
Self concept
- the sum of a being‟s knowledge and
understanding of his or herself.
- Components: Physical, Psychological
and social attributes.
Self consciousness
- awareness of one‟s self.
Cultural Identity
- one‟s feeling of identity or affliation
with a group or culture.
Ethnic Identity
- Identification with a certain ethnicity
usually on the basis of a pressured
common.
National Identity
- ethnical and philosophical concept
whereby all humans are divided into
groups called nations
Religious Identity
- set of beliefs and practices generally
held by an individual involving
adherence to codified beliefs and rituals
and the study of ancestral or cultural
traditions, writing, history, and
mythodology, as well as faith and
mysteric experience.
Master Identity
- gives order to the operation of the
other identities individually or
collectively.
Norm
- is a rule that guides the behavior of
members of a society or group.
-important part of the cultural capital
that each of us possesses and embodies.
- essence of social order
- Proscriptive (stating what we should not
do). Prescriptive (stating what we should
do:
William Graham Sumnee coined the
term:
1. Mores – refer to a norms that are
widely observed and have great moral
significance.
2. Folkways - refer to norms for routine
and casual interactions.
Values
- Culturally defined standards that
people use to decide what is desirable,
good, and beautiful, and that serve as
broad guidelines for social living.
Four aspects of the sociological concept
of value
1. values exist at different levels of
generality or abstraction
2. values tend to be hierarchically
arranged
3. values are explicit and implicit in
varying degrees
4. values often are in conflict with one
another
Normal
- act of abiding with the rules
Normative
- refers to what we perceived as normal,
or what we think should be normal,
regardless of whether it actually is.
Values
- are culturally defined standards that
people use to decide what is desirable,
good and beautiful, and that serve as
broad guidelines for social living.
Four Aspects of Sociological concept of
value:
1. Values exist at different levels of
generality or abstraction
2. Values tend to be hierarchically
arranged
3. Values are explicit and implicit in
varying degrees4
4. Values often are in conflict with one
another
Four basic Filipino Values
1. Emotional closeness and security in a
family.
2. Approval from authority and of
society.
3. Economic and social betterment
4. Patience, endurance, and suffering
Hiya
- The main sections against diverging
from these values are the concepts of
hiya.
- “Sense of shame” and “amor propio”
or “self esteem”
Status and Role
- are important concepts in socialization
because the behavior of young members
of society are controlled by assigning
them certain status which they will enact.
Status
- is part of our social identity and helps
define our relationships with others.
- refers to social position that a person
holds
- a person‟s status can either be
ascribed or achieved.
- person‟s status at a given time.
Ascribed Status
- is a social position a person receives at
birth or takes on involuntarily later in life.
- Examples: son, a Filipino, a teenager,
and a widower.
- are matters about which we have little
or no choice at all.
Achieved Status
- refers to a social position a person
takes on voluntarily that reflects personal
identity and effort.
- Example: honor students, boxing
champion, nurse, software writer and
thief.
Role
- refers to the behavior expected of
someone who holds a particular status
Role Set
- identify a number of roles attached to
a single status.
Role Strain
- conflict among the roles connected to
two or more statuses.
- results from the competing demands of
two or more roles vie for our time and
energy.
Interactionist Social Theory
- (the symbolic interactionism discussed
previously), the concept is crucial.
- definition of “ role” predates the
functionalist one.
- a role in this concept, is not fixed or
prescribed or ascribed, but something
that is constantly negotiated between
individuals in a tentative, creative way.
Role Manipulation
- through impression management has
bearing on the formation of a person‟s
self identity.
- there are a variety of social
implications within impression
management.
Impression Management
- is a concept to be taken very seriously.
- it has power and influence to create a
favorable public opinion of a particular
person.
- It can break a person in regards to
social standings, and it can repair a
damaged persona
- has the ability to dictate a person‟s
position in society.
Lesson 2: Conformity and Deviance
Conformity and Deviance are twin
processes that flow from the
enculturation and socialization processes.
Deviance
- behavior that violates expected rules
and norms.
- Traditionally, deviance is defines as
“violations of the norms”.
- Deviance is looked at in terms of group
processes, definitions, and judgments and
not just as unusual individuals or personal
acts.
- Normally seen as form of aberration,
something that deviates from the course
of things and social expectations.
- Always evaluated in the negative sense
and always disadvantageous.
Conformity
- compliances with standards, rules, or
laws.
- is the anticipated behavior to follow
Cesare Lombroso
- Italian criminologist working in the
1870s
- arguing that criminal types could be
identified by a collection of anatomical
features.
- He investigated the appearance and
physical characteristics of convicted
criminals, such as the shape of their skull
and forehead, jaw size, and arm length,
and concluded that criminals displayed
signs of atavism.
Basic Assumption and Interpretation of
Each Theoretical Perspective on Deviance
Paradigms
1. Structural Functionalism
- Basic Assumption: Deviance promotes
unity, serves as a moral compass, and
provides opportunities where there are
none.
- Basis of Interpretation: Deviance
performs important functions in the
overall operations of society. Its ubiquity
(everywhere-ness) and persistence
through time are testaments to its
relevance.
2. Historical Conflict
- Basic Assumptions: Deviance is a result
of unequal distribution of social
desirables and life changes. Historically
speaking, deviant individuals and their
unique insights are responsible for the
development of society in its modern
forms
- Basis of Interpretation: Deviance, in the
form of conflicts, is a form of civic action.
It aims to rectify the unfair and unjust
syndromes of social inequality. It is
justified by the virtue of change it
desires to achieve.
3. Critical Interpretivism
- Basic Assumptions: Deviance is a result
of the exercise of power. Symbols and
ideas are manipulated by powerful
people in society in order to protect their
economic and political interest.
- Basis Interpretation: What are deviant
or not are but standards set by powerful
individuals and institutions. By conforming
to these standards, we are helping these
entities maintain their priviledged
positions in society.
Structural Strain theory
- Robert Merton (1957) offered a “side
by side” formulation of conformity and
deviance.
- This theory traces the origins of
deviance to the tensions that are caused
by the gap between cultural goals and
the means people have available to
achieve those goals.
Deviance, according to Merton, results
from this situation-when individuals set
themselves to reach societal goals
despite the absence of conventional
means to achieve them.
Five Categories according to Merton:
1. Conformist
- people who believe in both the
established cultural goals of society, as
well as the normative means for
attaining those goals. They follow the
rules of society.
2. Ritualist
- individuals who do not believe in the
established cultural goals of society, but
they do believe in and abide by the
means for attaining those goals.
3. Innovators
- individuals that accept the cultural
goals of society but reject the
conventional methods of attaining those
goals.
- These people usually have a blatant
disregard for the conventional methods
that have been established in attaining
wealth. These are generally those we
regard as criminals.
4. Retreatists
- individuals who reject both the cultural
goals and the accepted means of
attaining those goals.
-They simply avoid both the goals and
the goals and means established by
society without replacing those norms
with their own countercultural forces.
5. Rebels
- not only rejects both the established
cultural goals and the accepted means
of attaining those goals; they also
substitute new goals and new means of
attaining these goals.
Labeling Theory
- This refers to a theory of social
behaviour which states that the
behaviour of human beings is influenced
significantly by the way other members
in society label them. It has been used to
explain a variety of social behaviour
among groups, including deviant criminal
behaviour.
Social Control Theory
- developed by Travis Hirschi
- is a type of functionalist theory
suggest that deviance occurs when a
person‟s or group‟s attachment to social
bond is weakened.
- According to this view, people care
about what others think of them and
conform to social expectations because
of their attachments to others and what
others expect of them.
Society, as noted above has ways and
means to assure conformity. It provides
mechanisms, rules, rewards, and
consequences in cases where conformity
is lacking or weak. These measures of
social control, so to speak, are both
pervasive and invasive that individuals
rarely discern their presence and seldom
do they realize that their conformity is a
result of these pressures.
Institution, both basic and complex, are
part of the control structures. Our
families, parents, and significant others
are the first to orient us with the rules of
society. These “lessons of life” are
reinforced by the school (in the form of
education), the church (in the form of
religion and morals), the legal
frameworks of the state (in the form of
citizenship) and the media (in the form of
movies and print media). Effective
socialization makes conformity an
internally driven motivation, while
externally driven conformity always
engages the mechanisms of social
control. Society, in this context, exist
inside each social actor in the form of
internalized life lessons, and outside
each social actor in the form of social
control.
Lesson 3: Social Groups
Social Aggregates
- a simple collection of people who
happened to be together in a particular
place but do not significantly interact or
identify with one another.
Social Categories
- are people who share a common
characteristics (such as gender or
occupation) but do not necessarily
interact of identify with one another.
Social Group
- can be defined as a collection of
people who regularly interact with one
another on the basis of shared
expectations concerning behavior and
who share sense of common identity.
Categories of Groups based on some
Standards:
* Primary Group
- is a small social group whose members
share close, personal, and enduring
relationships.
- are marked by the members concern
for on another and shared activities and
culture.
- Ex: Family, childhood friends, and higly
influential social groups.
* Secondary Group
- can be large or small; common interests
bind the members together more than
their relationships.
- typically found at work and school.
* Reference Group
- a group which we compare ourselves.
- we use reference groups in order to
guide our behavior and attitudes and
help us to identify social norms.
- also called “identity association group”
- classified as in-groups or out-groups.
Lesson 4: Kinship, Marriage, and The
House Hold
Kinship
- A social institution that refers to
relations formed between members of
society.
- The different forms of socially
accepted relations among us people
develop through blood or consanguineal
relationships, marriage, adoption, and
other culturally accepted rituals.
Consanguineal Kinship
- considered as the most basic and
general form of relationships.
- achieved by birth or blood affinity.
- The relationship existing between
parents and their children, between
siblings, and between nieces/nephews
and aunts/uncles.
Descent
- Refers to the origin or background of a
person in terms of family or nationality.
- Biological relationship
Principles of Descent
Lineage
- refers to the line where one‟s descent is
traced. (patrilineal, matrilineal, or both)
- Anthropologists developed diagrams to
clearly explain and illustrate the
different consanguineal relationships.
Unilineal Descent
- Usually traced through a single line of
ancestors either from the patrilineal
(male) or matrilineal (female) descent,
but not both.
- The two basic forms of this are:
patrilineal and matrilineal descent
Patrilineal Descent
- Affiliates a person with a group of
relatives through his/her father. - Both
males and females belong to the kin
group of their father but they do not
belong to their mother‟s kin group.
- Only males pass on their family identity
to their children.
Matrilineal Descent
- Unilineal descent that is traced through
female line.
- Both male and female offsprings are
considered member of their mother‟s
matrilineal descent group but only the
daughters can pass on the family line to
their offspring.
- Affiliates a person with a group of
relatives through his/her mother.
Bilateral Descent
- Descent is traced through the study of
both parents‟ ancestors.
Kinship by Blood
- Consanguineal kinship or kinship based
on blood is considered as the most basic
and general form of relations.
- Relationship is achieved by birth or
blood affinity.
- Relationship existing between parents
and their children, between siblings, and
between nieces/nephews, aunts/uncle.
Kinship by Marriage
- “Affinal kinship”
- Type of relations develop when
marriage occurs.
- When marriage takes place new forms
of social relations are developed.
Marriage
- An important social institution wherein
two persons, a man and a woman, enter
into family.
- The partners make a public, official
and permanent declaration of their union
as lifetime couples.
Marriage Across Cultures
- Different societies have different sets
of cultural practices, norms, and rules
pertaining to marriage.
- They have their own developed
traditions, customs, rules and norms that
determine how marriage will be done.
Endogamy
- compulsory marriage in their own
village, community, ethnic, social or
religious group.

Monogamy
- came from the Greek words monos and
gamos which literally mean “one union”
- a marriage or partnering custom where
an individual has only one male or
female partner or mate.
Polygamy
– practice of having more than one
partner or sexual mate.
* Polygyny – man has multiple female
partners or mates
* Polyandry – woman has multiple male
partners and mates.
Post-marital Residency Rules
* Neolocal form of residence – settle
independently and build a home of their
own.
1. Patrilocal rule of residence occurs
when married couples stay in the house
of the husband‟s relatives or near the
husbands kin.
2. Matrilocal rule of residence happens
when the couples live with the wife‟s
relatives or near the wife‟s kin.
3. Biolocal residence – happens when the
newlywed couple stay with the husband‟s
relatives and the wife‟s kin alternately.
Marriage across Cultures
* Referred Marriage – practice when
partner is found through other people
like friends and relatives who act as
matchmakers. * Arranged Marriage –
“fixed marriage” - parents, community
leaders, religious officials determine the
marital partner of an individual.
* Arranged Marriage
1. Child Marriage – parents arrange for
the marriage of their child long before
the marriage takes place.
2. Exchange Marriage – there is a
reciprocal exchange of spouses between
two countries, tribes, or groups.
3. Diplomatic Marriage – marriage
established between two royal or
political families.
4. Modern Marriage – the child‟s
parents, with the consent of the child will
choose whom he or she will marry.
Parents have say in their child‟s choice.
Kinship by Rituals
* Compadrazgo
– godparenthood
- ritualized form of forging co-
parenthood or family.
- originated in the medieval Catholic
Church in Europe
- Done through the Catholic rituals of
Baptism, confirmation and marriage.
- usually present in Latin American
countries and Catholic countries like the
Philippines.
Family and the House Hold
Family
– considered as the basic unit of social
organization.
- constitutes a single household that
interrelates with each other and
performs the social roles of a husband,
wife, mother, father, brother, and sister.
Kingsley Davis
- Family is group of individuals wherein
the relationship is based on
consanguinity and kinship.
Talcott Parsons
- Family is a factory that develops and
produces human personalities.
Bronislaw Malinowski
- Family is an institution that passes down
the cultural traditions of a society to the
next generation.
* Household can either be a one-person
household or a multi person household.
* One-person household
- Arrangement in which one person
makes provision for his or her own food
or other essentials for living without
combining with any other person.
Multi-person household
- A group of two or more persons living
together who make common provision for
food or other essentials for living.
Nuclear family
- is a type of family that is made up of a
group of people who are united by
social ties and is usually made up of two
adults and their socially recognized
children.
Extended family
- is a type of family whose members go
beyond the nuclear family made up of
parents and their offspring.
Blended family
- Type of family where the parents have
a child or children from previous marital
relationships but all the members stay
and congregate to form a new family
unit.
- sometimes called step family,
reconstituted family, or a complex
family.
Political Dynasty
– exists when two or more individuals
who are related within the second
degree of consanguinity hold elected
government positions.
- a series of rulers of a country who all
belong to the same family.
Political Alliances
– Political parties tend to align and
forge cooperation with other stronger
parties to ensure victory in the elections.
- By creating alliances, politicians
receive more funds, resources and
support from the ruling party.
Lesson 5: Political Organization
Bands and Tribes
- simplest political system.
- are often perceived to be
“acephalous” or without a well-defined
system of leadership
Band
- Formed by several families living
together
- Power Structure: Less Hierarchical –
family members are equal
* Status
- Elders are accorded respect
-Women have higher influence
(pedestrian-foragers)
- Men (more leadership roles)
Livelihoods: hunting, pastoralist-
agricultural
Informal Leadership
- is accorded to members who possess
certain skills and knowledge such as the
gift of memory, hunting or healing
SKILLS; or those other special ability.
Tribe
- Acephalous political system
-Complexity: more elaborate way of
organizing to settle conflicts
❑ Pantribal associations –come in the
form of councils or tribal elders
❑ Village headman – leader of a tribe
❑ Does not have absolute power
❑ Derives authority from having senior
position
❑ Egalitarian – families and groups are
politically and economically equal
❑ Contact with modern societies led to
the eventual collapse of tribal systems.
❑ Unable to maintain traditional
political systems.
Chiefdoms
- Formal leadership exists
- Authority: members of selected family
- Composed of a number of communities
ruled by a permanent paramount chief
coming from this elite family.
- Power is inherited
- Social structure: hierarchical
- Social status is affected by marriage,
age and sex.
❑ Simple chiefdom – central village or
community ruled by a single family
❑ Complex chiefdom – highly structured
and hierarchical political system
characterized by a class system.
❑ Tributary system
Nations and States
State
- A political unit consisting of a
government that has sovereignty
presiding over a group of people and a
well-defined territory and has the
highest form of political organization.
The task of organizing a political
community requires the existence of
leaders. Leaders, in order to be
effective, need to possess authority that
is considered legitimate by the members
of the community.
Authority
– the power to make binding decisions
and issue commands.
Legitimacy
– originated from the Latin word
legitimate, meaning “to declare lawful,”
and is broadly defined as rightfulness.

Weber and the Types of Legitimate
Authority
Traditional Authority
– Legitimacy is derived from well-
established customs, habits, and social
structures
Traditional Authority
- Examples are those exercised by
elders in a tribe or an indigenous
people‟s group as well as by monarchs
who have inherited their power and
authority
Charismatic Authority
- Combination of the features of transfer
and reciprocity, where the economic
exchange involves the collection of
goods from members, the pooling of
these goods, and then the redistribution
of these goods among the same
members.
Market
- refers to a bigger setting where buyers
or sellers simultaneously trade or
exchange goods or services.
Market Transactions
- In a market exchange, at least two
people should be involved: one who has
a product and another who has the
money. Using a system of barters and
bargaining, the two individuals agree
upon a specific price for a specific
quantity of the product.
markets exist because on the economic
activities done by the state.
- As such, we could easily conclude that
markets and states are dependent on
each other.
- This interaction between states and
markets opens up the field of
international political economy.
International Political Economy
- is the study of interactions between
markets and politics; the influence of
markets on politics and the influence of
policy on markets.
- prepares you to understand the
structures, hierarchies, and power
dynamics that regulate finance and
trade.
Types of State According to Market
Roles

– emanates from the charisma of the
individual.
- is based on the presumed special and
extraordinary characteristics or qualities
possessed by a certain individual
Rational-legal/Buraucratic authority
- From formal rules promulgated by the
state through its fundamental and
implementing laws.
- Leaders can rightfully wield authority if
they obtain their positions according to
established procedures such as elections
or through appointment.
- Among the three types of authority, it
has the highest degree of stability.
Lesson 6: Economic Institutions
* Vital component of society- Because it
is involved in the production, distribution,
and purchasing of goods and services
that are essential for survival.
(Functionalist Perspective)
* Economic institutions are established by
the ruling class in order to benefit their
group at the expense of the ordinary
laborers. (Conflict Perspective)
Nonmarket Institutions
* No exchange of cash for provisions of
goods and rendered services.
* Reciprocity
* Transfer
* Redistribution
Reciprocity
- voluntary giving or taking of objects
without the use of money in the hopes
that, in the future, they could be given
back.
- Exchange of goods or labor.
Transfer
- entails a redistribution of income that is
not matched by actual exchange of
goods and services. - -- Example:
Donation, Financial Assistance, Farm
Subsidies
Redistribution
All forms of market exchange would Laissez-Faire State
require the following: - Laissez-faire is derived from French
❑ a medium of exchange, words that mean “to leave alone.”
According to this principle, the economy
❑ a rate at which products are
functions best when the government does
exchanged for money, and
not intervene through regulations,
❑ parties who are involved in the
subsidies, privileges, and other types of
exchange(i.e., buyers or sellers).
intervention.
Money
Interventionist or Developmental State
- It consists of objects that serve as
- a state that intervenes in the market
means of exchange for goods and
and sets the direction and pace of
services.
economic development. To bring about
economic development, developmental
Prices
states implement policies, such as
- It is the amount required or agreed
subsidies, protection of tariffs and local
upon by the exchanging parties. It is the
industries.
amount of money used in exchange for a
certain product.
Welfare State
- Plays an important role in the
Elements of Market Transactions
achievement and protection of the
economic and social wellbeing of its
Supply
citizens. In contrast to the developmental
- It refers to the quantity of goods or
state, the welfare state‟s involvement is
services that are available to sell at a
aimed at achieving a good quality of
given price and period of time.
life for the citizens, rather than merely
driving economic development.
Demand
- It refers to the quantity of goods or
services that consumers are willing to
purchase at a given price and time
period.
Two Major Economic Systems:
1. Capitalism
- private actors own and control
property in accord with their interests,
and demand and supply freely set prices
in markets in a way that can serve the
best interests of society.
- The essential feature of capitalism is
the motive to make a profit.
2. Socialism
- the means of production are
collectively owned, usually by the
government.
- The most important goal of socialism is
not the pursuit of personal profit but
rather work for the collective good: the
needs of society are considered more
important than the needs of the
individual.
States and Markets
- The state need to foster economic
growth to provide a good standard of
living to its citizens. At the same time