1.

The essence of the ideologies of Turanism

and Turkism
Turanianism, late 19th- and early 20th-century movement to unite
politically and culturally all the Turkic, Tatar, and Uralic peoples
living in Turkey and across Eurasia from Hungary to the Pacific. Its
name is derived from Tūrān, the Persian word for Turkistan (i.e., the
land to the north of Iran). It was popular mainly among intellectuals
and developed from a now largely discarded (rədd edilmiş) theory of
the common origin of Turkish, Mongol, Tungus, Finnish, Hungarian,
and other languages (the Ural-Altaic languages). In the half-century
before World War I, some Hungarians sought to encourage Pan-
Turanianism as a means of uniting Turks and Hungarians against the
Slavs and Pan-Slavism. The movement was never more than a
sidelight, however, to the more important Pan-Turkism.

The emergence of the ideology of Turkism at the beginning of the

20th century
Peoples of Turkic origin are among the oldest peoples in the world.
They lived in vast areas from northeastern China to Eastern Europe.
At different times of history, up to 115 Turkic states were formed.
However, the state and state institutions of the Turkic peoples, which
existed at different times of history, with the exception of the
Ottoman Empire, which lived for more than 600 years and included
Anatolia, Syria, Palestine, Iraq, Egypt, Bulgaria, Hungary, Serbia,
Macedonia, Albania and other territories in Asia, disintegrated and
became victims of the usurper policy of great states-Russia, China,
Iran, Austria – Hungary.
The Turkish nation, being a large nation, has historically spread over
very large areas, and several Turkish states existed in these areas at
the same time. Thus, separate Turkic peoples with a history of
independent statehood have emerged. It is clear that Turkish
nationalism covers all Turkish peoples as a national ideology. That is,
the goal of this ideology is the unity of Turkish states in a certain
form at the highest level.
However, before this goal, it is necessary to reach national goals at
the level of individual Turkish peoples and states. According to these
goals, three levels of Turkish nationalism are defined. The first level
of Turkism is the solution of national issues in individual Turkic
peoples. That is, at the first level, the goal is for individual Turkic
peoples to have a whole and independent state based on Turkic
national values. This level of our national ideology is appropriately
named after a Turkish nation (or state). For example, "Azerbaijanism"
for Azerbaijani Turks, "Turkeyism" for Turkish Turks, "Turkmenism"
for Turkmen, etc.
The second level of Turkicism includes Turkic peoples who are closer
in terms of certain characteristics (territory, moral values, etc.) and
reflects their certain unity. This level of our national ideology is called
"Oghuzism" for the Oghuz peoples, "Kipchakism" for the Kipchak
peoples, etc. can be called.
The third level of Turkicism covers all Turkic peoples. This level of
Turkish nationalism is called “Turanism” or “all Turkism” (“Pan-
Turkism”). Sometimes the term "Turkism" is used in the sense of the
third level of our national ideology. The goal here is to achieve the
political-cultural unity of all Turkic peoples and to become a center of
power in the world.
At the third level, the first thinker known to history who
fundamentally advanced the ideas of Turkism was I. Gaspiral (1851-
1914).
2.Turkic peoples and their branches
Turkic peoples- any of various peoples whose members speak
languages belonging to the Turkic family within the Altaic language
group. They are historically and linguistically connected with the
Tujue, the name given by the Chinese to the nomadic people who in
the 6th century founded an empire stretching (uzanır) from what is
now Mongolia and the northern frontier of China to the Black Sea.
Their most important cultural link, aside from history and language, is
with Islam, for, with the exception of the Sakha (Yakut) of eastern
Siberia and the Chuvash of the Volga region of Russia, the vast
majority of Turkic peoples are Muslim. In addition to those groups
already mentioned, contemporary peoples who are classified as
Turkic include the Altai, Azerbaijanis, Balkar, Bashkir, Dolgan,
Karachay, Karakalpaks, Kazakhs, Khakass, Kipchak, Kumyk,
Kyrgyz, Nogay, Shor, Tatars, Tofas, Turkmen, Turks, Tyvans
(Tuvans), Uighurs, and Uzbeks.
Peoples of Turkic origin are among the oldest peoples in the world.
They lived in vast areas from northeastern China to Eastern Europe.
Central Asia, the northwestern region of the Sayan-Altai mountains,
along the Yenisei and Irtis rivers, along the Urals, along the Volga,
Lake Balkhash, and all the surrounding regions of the Caspian Sea
have always been inhabited by Turkic peoples. The emergence of the
Turks as a more or less independent ethnos dates back to the end of
the IV millennium BC and the beginning of the III millennium BC.
By that time, the Turks had been part of the Altai union with the
Mongols and Tungus-manchurs for several thousand years. The
homeland of the Turks, who reached Godhood based on their rich
mythological outlook, was the foothills of the God Mountains in
Central Asia. They gradually began to spread to the South, West and
South-West to the fertile steppes. Chinese historians mention the first
Turkic rulers between 2000 and 1000 BC. So, the history of the Turks
known to us covers a history of 4000 years.
At different times of history, up to 115 Turkic states were formed.
However, the state and state institutions of the Turkic peoples, which
existed at different times of history, with the exception of the
Ottoman Empire, which lived for more than 600 years and included
Anatolia, Syria, Palestine, Iraq, Egypt, Bulgaria, Hungary, Serbia,
Macedonia, Albania and other territories in Asia, disintegrated and
became victims of the usurper policy of great states-Russia, China,
Iran, Austria – Hungary.
The economic and political reasons for the disintegration of the
Turkic peoples can be assessed as follows:
-historically entrenched feudal retail;
-economically weak Turkic states created by force of arms;
-weak joint resistance to large aggressor states;
- rich underground and surface resources of these states and strong
economic, political and military interests against them;
-fragmentation into various religions and sects.
According to language and origin, traditions and cultural differences,
Turks are divided into four branches: 1. Oghuz branch - this includes
Turkish Turks, Azerbaijani Turks living in Iran and Azerbaijan,
Turkmen Turks, Gagauz, Iraqi Kirkuks and Crimean Tatars. 2. The
Uyghur branch - there are Uzbeks, Tuvans, Khakas, Salars, etc. 3.
Kipchak branch - it includes Kazakhs, Karakalpaks, Kyrgyz, Altai,
Tuvan and Nogai; 4. Bulgarian branch - it includes Kazan Tatars,
Bashkirs, Karachays, Karains and others.
It is clear that Turkish nationalism covers all Turkish peoples as a
national ideology. That is, the goal of this ideology is the unity of
Turkish states in a certain form at the highest level.
However, before this goal, it is necessary to reach national goals at
the level of individual Turkish peoples and states.
3.Turkey's domestic and foreign policy during
the Second World War
On the eve of World War II, Turkey was in a state of great economic
stress and growing political crisis. Officially declared policy of state
capitalism, five-year development plans were implemented
inconsistently by the government headed by J. Bayar. The
inconsistency and negative situations existing in the field of economic
policy led to the tension of the political situation in Turkey on the eve
of the Second World War. İsmet İnönü, who became the new
president of the Republic of Turkey after the death of M.K. Atatürk,
forced Prime Minister J. Bayar to resign before the parliamentary
elections in March 1939, and appointed Refik Saydam, who was a
supporter of state capitalism measures, to that position. The gradual
aggravation of the international situation, followed by the start of a
new world war, the expansion of military operations near the borders
of Turkey, necessitated the strong militarization of the country's
economy and the adaptation of all spheres of public life to war
conditions. Although the Turkish leadership remained loyal to the
policy of neutrality declared in the Second World War, it was taking a
line of insurance against potential threats. During this period, it is
possible to divide the policy of militarization in Turkey into two main
stages. The first stage is related to the political activity of Prime
Minister R. Saydam. The second stage of the country's militarization
policy is related to the activities of Şukrü Saracoğlu (from July 1942).
He believed that the "free market" and "free market nature", that is,
the unhindered activity of private capital, will "automatically"
instantly create order and order in the economy, and provide favorable
conditions for the implementation of possible military actions of
Turkey.
The transfer of the Turkish economy to a military base covered all
production areas. In a short period of time, an army was created in the
country, which included approximately 500,000 people. Soldiers
serving in the army were completely removed from ordinary
production work. Compulsory military service was introduced in
Turkey from May 1940, and the length of service in the army was
increased. It was in May 1940 that the All-Union Council of National
Economy adopted the law on martial law. According to this law, all
civilian power in places where martial law was declared was
transferred into the hands of the military and police. The military
leadership of the country was given emergency powers. On
November 25, 1940, the Turkish government imposed a state of
emergency in the provinces of Istanbul, Edirne, Kırklareli, Tekirdag,
Çanakkale and Kocaeli in accordance with this law. The state of
emergency, which was inevitable and necessary, remained in force
during the Second World War. The total volume of financial
resources directed to military purposes has increased to an extent
incomparable to previous times.In addition, during the war years,
Turkey received approximately 1 billion liras of financial resources
from England, the United States and Germany in order to develop the
military field. The economy of Turkey, which had taken a neutral
position in the Second World War, experienced shocks, major
obstacles appeared in the country's foreign trade relations and the
already settled distribution of material and labor resources. Despite
the noticeable increase in production, towards the beginning of the
war, Turkish industry could provide only a part of the national
demand for the most important types of products, as before.As a result
of the sharp decrease in the male population in the villages of Turkey,
the significant increase in government taxes necessary for military
needs, the decrease of machinery, spare parts, and the flow of fuel
necessary for agriculture to the villages, and the violation of
established rules for the exchange and export of state of emergency in
the provinces of Istanbul, Edirne, Kırklareli, Tekirdag, Çanakkale and
Kocaeli in accordance with this law. The state of emergency, which
was inevitable and necessary, remained in force during the Second
World War. The total volume of financial resources directed to
military purposes has increased to an extent incomparable to previous
times.In addition, during the war years, Turkey received
approximately 1 billion liras of financial resources from England, the
United States and Germany in order to develop the military field. The
economy of Turkey, which had taken a neutral position in the Second
World War, experienced shocks, major obstacles appeared in the
country's foreign trade relations and the already settled distribution of
material and labor resources. Despite the noticeable increase in
production, towards the beginning of the war, Turkish industry could
provide only a part of the national demand for the most important
types of products, as before. On January 24, 1940, the Parliament
adopted the "Law on National Defense". The law consisted of 76
articles and was divided into 6 parts. The first part of the "National
Defense Law" deals with the rights granted to the Turkish government
- the Council of Ministers. The scope of state entrepreneurship in
Turkish villages has expanded considerably. On January 23, 1943, the
Society for the import of agricultural tools and equipment was
established in order to equip entrepreneurs in the village with
machines and other necessary equipment. In July 1944, this institution
was transformed into the Society for Mechanization of Rural
Farming. The Turkish government was trying to help the trade
progress in the country in accordance with the wartime requirements.
According to the government's decision of April 3, 1940, the old
import-export unions were reorganized and several new unions were
created. Merchants (as well as companies) were forced to unite in
such unions. Trade unions received large financial assistance from the
government. Turkish industry was experiencing a complex and
contradictory period of development. Due to the lack of cement, the
construction of many civil facilities (schools, hospitals, residential
buildings) was stopped. The construction of military-strategic roads in
the country had expanded significantly. According to the
government's decision of April 3, 1940, the old import-export unions
were reorganized and several new unions were created. Merchants (as
well as companies) were forced to unite in such unions. Trade unions
received large financial assistance from the government. Turkish
industry was experiencing a complex and contradictory period of
development. Due to the lack of cement, the construction of many
civil facilities (schools, hospitals, residential buildings) was stopped.
The construction of military-strategic roads in the country had
expanded significantly. In 1939-1945, 1,650 kilometers of new roads
were built, 1,400 kilometers of old highways were repaired, Erzincan-
Erzurum, Diyarbakir-Sirt, Zonguldak-Chorlu railway lines were built.
During the war, a number of industrial enterprises were built and put
into use in Turkey. The commissioned enterprises served mainly
military purposes. The leading role in the creation of those industrial
facilities belonged to the state. S. Saracoglu, who became the prime
minister in July 1942, openly declared the two main principles of the
government's economic policy: the complete freedom of the private
market and keeping the prices of goods sold to the countries
participating in the war at a maximally high level. During the war, the
Turkish leadership paid special attention to the development of
foreign trade. The Turkish leadership tried to benefit from the military
and financial aid of the developed, large Western countries for the
country's interests. At the end of 1941, the US government extended
the operation of the lend-lease law to Turkey. In turn, in 1942,
Germany gave a loan of 100 million marks to Turkey for the purchase
of weapons and military materials. In 1943, Britain presented arms
worth 20 million pounds to Turkey. On November 11, 1942, the
Parliament adopted the "Law on Property Tax". During the war,
Turkey had the opportunity to pay off some of its old debts to foreign
countries. Thus, in 1943, the last debts left from the period of Ottoman
rule were returned to foreign countries. The Turkish government took
care to strengthen the army, which is the main guarantor of the
country's security, by all means.1939-1945 was also an important test
moment for Turkey. The Turkish leadership, which took a neutral
position in the war, eliminated the threat of a massive collapse of the
country's material and spiritual wealth thanks to a far-sighted
domestic and foreign policy. One of the most interesting events of the
Second World War is that Turkey, surrounded by warring states,
almost at the center of the theater of military operations, did not
participate in hostilities until the end of the war. This caused the
discontent of the neighboring Soviet Union, which had taken on the
brunt of the war. On the eve of the Second World War - in 1938,
M.K.Atatürk died and I. Inonu was elected president. In order to
ensure Turkey's security, he based M.K. Atatürk's policy of neutrality
in his activities. A month after the start of the Second World War,
Turkey signed an agreement on partnership and mutual assistance
with England and France, and it maintained an Anglo-French position
until France was invaded by Germany. Knowing that these states had
negotiated with the USSR before the war, Turkey tried to conclude a
mutual aid agreement with the Soviet Union in September 1939. It
was for this purpose that Turkish Foreign Minister S. Saracoglu was
sent to Moscow.
Soviet leaders also began insisting on Turkey's joining the war in
order to reduce their burden on the western front and thereby weaken
Turkey. On October 19-30, 1943, this was discussed at the meeting of
foreign ministers of the USA, USSR and England in Moscow. This
issue was widely discussed at the Tehran conference of the allies. On
December 4-6, 1943, a conference was held in Cairo with the
participation of F.Roosevelt, U.Churchill and I.Inonu, foreign
ministers of the allied states. On August 2, Turkey broke off
diplomatic relations with Germany. From this period, Turkey again
began to lean towards the United States, Britain and France. In 1945,
on February 23, Turkey, under pressure from the anti-fascist bloc,
declared war on Germany and Japan, but did not join active
hostilities, but deployed formal war tactics. Declaring war on
Germany and Japan enabled Turkey to join the anti-fascist bloc and
become one of the founders of the United Nations.
4.Struggle against the occupation policy of
Soviet Russia in Central Asia
On June 22, 1941, the Great Patriotic War of the peoples of the USSR
began with the attack of the German armies on the USSR.
Hitler's Germany had several plans for the USSR. According to the
Barbarossa plan, the war should be finished within 3 months, the
Germans should capture the territories up to the Urals and move the
people living there from the Urals to the East. Crimean Tatars were
also to be removed from their territories, and Crimea was to be used
as a strategic springboard. In 1927-1929, many shortcomings in the
process of transition to collectivization had a negative impact on the
situation in the village. In addition, the situation was aggravated by
the presence of drought and hunger.
In the management plan of the Caucasus, Azerbaijan was the main
focus (in terms of both oil and strategic position). It was planned to
create "Greater Turkestan" (Grossturkestan) dependent on Germany
in Central Asia. Plans were also made for the seizure and exploitation
of the natural resources of the Volga, the Urals and Siberia. Thus, all
Turkish regions were included in the occupation plans of Nazi
Germany. Other peoples from the first days of the war Turkic peoples
were also mobilized to the army. The Crimean Tatars also had to be
removed from the territories where they lived, and Crimea was to be
used as a strategic plasdarm. From the first days of the war, the Turkic
peoples, like the Dughar peoples, were mobilized in the army. At the
same time, hundreds of people applied to go to the front voluntarily.
The creation of national divisions in the Central Asian republics
began in August 1942. First, the 87th Turkmen, 90th Uzbek divisions,
and the 162nd Central Asian Rifle Division were created.
During the Great Patriotic War, representatives of the Turkic peoples
fought with special sacrifice on the front lines together with other
peoples, and many of them were awarded orders and medals for their
bravery in battles. Uzbek soldiers were particularly active in the
battles for the Dnieper. Uzbek military units actively participated in
the Kursk operations. Representatives of the Turkic peoples also
actively participated in the partisan movement, the resistance
movement for the liberation of Europe. Kazakhs also participated in
the partisan groups of the North Caucasus. Turkmen soldiers were
distinguished by their special dedication on the fronts of the Great
Patriotic War. They fought in battles for Stalingrad and other fronts.
During the war, almost all Turkish regions were reliable providers of
the front line. In the first days of the war, according to the instructions
of the leadership of the USSR, the factories and plants existing in the
western regions of the country were moved to the East, especially to
Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan,
as well as to the Volga and Siberia. The demand for oil had increased
dramatically. For this purpose, work was being done to increase oil
extraction and processing in Azerbaijan, as well as in the new oil
regions of Volga and Turkmenistan. However, as it is known, the
front line in the North Caucasus and along the Volga passed near the
oil regions, and in Turkmenistan, work was just beginning. Therefore,
Azerbaijan was the main supplier of oil products to the front,
primarily gasoline and kerosene, especially aviation gasoline. Thus,
during the war years, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, as well as the Turkic republics of the
Volga, Ural, and Siberia of the Russian Federation became the main
core of the country's economy, the production of military
equipment,ammunition, clothing, food, and raw materials.
5.Deportation policy of the USSR against
Turkic peoples during the Second World War
One of the issues that should be paid special attention to when talking
about the years of World War II is the issue of deportation. It is
known from the available documents about the deportation that some
of the deported peoples were accused of collaborating with Hitler's
army and the local authorities created by the German invaders.
Akhiska Turks were also accused of high migration, smuggling, and
cooperation with Turkish intelligence agencies.On November 2, 1943,
the Karachays, and on March 8, 1944, the Balkars were deported to
Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan by the decision of the State Defense
Committee of the USSR (non-Turkish Kalmyks, Chechens, and
Ingush were also deported). Each family could carry 500 kg of cargo.
But 20 minutes were given to "gather". Simultaneously with the
deportation, the autonomy of both peoples was abolished, the
territories of their residence were divided between Georgia, the
Stavropol region and the Kabardino Assr, the names of their
settlements were changed. These peoples, whose state institutions
(autonomies) were abolished, were deprived even of ordinary civil
rights and freedoms. Their rights to national self-determination were
taken away, and their ability to live their native language and culture
was limited. In 1944, on may 18, Crimean Tatars were deported to
Uzbekistan. In 1944, on the night of November 15-16, Akhiska Turks
living in the southern regions of Georgia, Akhiska, Adigey, Aspinza,
Akhalkalek and Bogdanovka, were loaded onto freight trains and
exiled to the steppes of Central Asia and Kazakhstan for a day
without any explanation by the decision of the USSR State Defense
Committee. In 1957, the deported peoples were acquitted. Crimean
Tatars and Ahishkha Turks were not given the right of repatriation.
Other deported peoples returned and regained their statehood.
Crimean Tatars and Ahishkha Turks fought for their return for a long
time. In 1989, the law "On the right of repatriation of people deported
during the Second World War" was adopted. Despite the difficulties,
part of the Crimean Tatars returned to Crimea. They have not been
able to restore their national statehood.
6.Turkic peoples of Central Asia during the
Second World War
On June 22, 1941, the Great Patriotic War of the peoples of the USSR
began with the attack of the German armies on the USSR.
Hitler's Germany had several plans for the USSR. According to the
Barbarossa plan, the war should be finished within 3 months, the
Germans should capture the territories up to the Urals and move the
people living there from the Urals to the East. Crimean Tatars were
also to be removed from their territories, and Crimea was to be used
as a strategic springboard. In 1927-1929, many shortcomings in the
process of transition to collectivization had a negative impact on the
situation in the village. In addition, the situation was aggravated by
the presence of drought and hunger.
In the management plan of the Caucasus, Azerbaijan was the main
focus (in terms of both oil and strategic position). It was planned to
create "Greater Turkestan" (Grossturkestan) dependent on Germany
in Central Asia. Plans were also made for the seizure and exploitation
of the natural resources of the Volga, the Urals and Siberia. Thus, all
Turkish regions were included in the occupation plans of Nazi
Germany. Other peoples from the first days of the war Turkic peoples
were also mobilized to the army. The Crimean Tatars also had to be
removed from the territories where they lived, and Crimea was to be
used as a strategic plasdarm. From the first days of the war, the Turkic
peoples, like the Dughar peoples, were mobilized in the army. At the
same time, hundreds of people applied to go to the front voluntarily.
The creation of national divisions in the Central Asian republics
began in August 1942. First, the 87th Turkmen, 90th Uzbek divisions,
and the 162nd Central Asian Rifle Division were created.
During the Great Patriotic War, representatives of the Turkic peoples
fought with special sacrifice on the front lines together with other
peoples, and many of them were awarded orders and medals for their
bravery in battles. Uzbek soldiers were particularly active in the
battles for the Dnieper. Uzbek military units actively participated in
the Kursk operations. Representatives of the Turkic peoples also
actively participated in the partisan movement, the resistance
movement for the liberation of Europe. Kazakhs also participated in
the partisan groups of the North Caucasus. Turkmen soldiers were
distinguished by their special dedication on the fronts of the Great
Patriotic War. They fought in battles for Stalingrad and other fronts.
During the war, almost all Turkish regions were reliable providers of
the front line. In the first days of the war, according to the instructions
of the leadership of the USSR, the factories and plants existing in the
western regions of the country were moved to the East, especially to
Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan,
as well as to the Volga and Siberia. The demand for oil had increased
dramatically. For this purpose, work was being done to increase oil
extraction and processing in Azerbaijan, as well as in the new oil
regions of Volga and Turkmenistan. However, as it is known, the
front line in the North Caucasus and along the Volga passed near the
oil regions, and in Turkmenistan, work was just beginning. Therefore,
Azerbaijan was the main supplier of oil products to the front,
primarily gasoline and kerosene, especially aviation gasoline. Thus,
during the war years, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, as well as the Turkic republics of the
Volga, Ural, and Siberia of the Russian Federation became the main
core of the country's economy, the production of military
equipment,ammunition, clothing, food, and raw materials.
One of the issues that should be paid special attention to when talking
about the years of World War II is the issue of deportation. It is
known from the available documents about the deportation that some
of the deported peoples were accused of collaborating with Hitler's
army and the local authorities created by the German invaders.
Akhiska Turks were also accused of high migration, smuggling, and
cooperation with Turkish intelligence agencies.On November 2, 1943,
the Karachays, and on March 8, 1944, the Balkars were deported to
Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan by the decision of the State Defense
Committee of the USSR (non-Turkish Kalmyks, Chechens, and
Ingush were also deported). Each family could carry 500 kg of cargo.
But 20 minutes were given to "gather". Simultaneously with the
deportation, the autonomy of both peoples was abolished, the
territories of their residence were divided between Georgia, the
Stavropol region and the Kabardino Assr, the names of their
settlements were changed. These peoples, whose state institutions
(autonomies) were abolished, were deprived even of ordinary civil
rights and freedoms. Their rights to national self-determination were
taken away, and their ability to live their native language and culture
was limited. In 1944, on may 18, Crimean Tatars were deported to
Uzbekistan. In 1944, on the night of November 15-16, Akhiska Turks
living in the southern regions of Georgia, Akhiska, Adigey, Aspinza,
Akhalkalek and Bogdanovka, were loaded onto freight trains and
exiled to the steppes of Central Asia and Kazakhstan for a day
without any explanation by the decision of the USSR State Defense
Committee. In 1957, the deported peoples were acquitted. Crimean
Tatars and Ahishkha Turks were not given the right of repatriation.
Other deported peoples returned and regained their statehood.
Crimean Tatars and Ahishkha Turks fought for their return for a long
time. In 1989, the law "On the right of repatriation of people deported
during the Second World War" was adopted. Despite the difficulties,
part of the Crimean Tatars returned to Crimea. They have not been
able to restore their national statehood.

7. Basmachi movement
There was a long-term armed struggle against the Bolshevik invasion
in the territory of Turkestan. After the destruction of the Kokand
autonomy by the Bolsheviks, the first resistance groups created by the
military minister of this autonomy laid the foundation of the struggle
known as the "basmachi" movement in history. In the spring of 1918,
new basmachi groups began to form around Osh. In the summer of
that year, new armed groups led by Muhammad Amin Bey
Ahmedbeyov were formed in the western part of Ferghana province.
Soon, it was the Ferghana area that became the main headquarters of
the Basmachi groups.
In October 1919, a congress of the resistance movement was held at
the border station called Irkeshdam, where a new autonomous
government of Turkestan was organized, and Muhammad Amin
Ahmadbayov was elected as the chairman of this government. It
should be noted that in addition to such centralized forces, there were
separate military units. In October 1921, the former military minister
of Turkey Enver Pasha was brought to the leadership of the resistance
movement. Enver Pasha succeeded in creating a Basmachi army of
16,000 by uniting the scattered forces. Soon, this army attacked and
liberated the eastern provinces of the Bukhara emirate from the
Bolsheviks. On October 14, 1921, by the decision of the Central
Committee of the RK(b)P, the fight against the Basmachists was
announced as the number 1 task of the party in Turkestan. Kamenev,
head of the armed forces of the RSFSR, was sent to Turkestan for this
purpose. A large number of military units were brought here from
various regions of Russia. On June 29, 1922, in the battle that took
place near Gissar, the Bolshevik armies used their great advantage
and inflicted a heavy defeat on the Basmakhs. On July 14, Basma
fighters were forced to withdraw from Dushanbe. The death of Enver
Pasha in one of the August battles confused the Basmachists for a
certain period of time. However, a series of brilliant victories of
Ibrahim Bey in Bukhara and Junayd Khan in Khiva resulted in a new
development of the resistance movement. In general, the Basmachi
movement lasted until the mid-30s.

8. The Turkic peoples of Central Asia

during the First World War
The process of joining the Turkic regions of Central Asia to the
territory of Russia started in the 18th century from the territory of
present-day Kazakhstan. In the 19th century, Russia had to compete
with Britain in the Central Asian region. This competition is called
"The Great Game in the Central Asian region in the 19th century" in
the historical literature and studies devoted to the history of
international relations. The rest of the territories of modern
Kazakhstan were occupied by Russia until the middle of the XIX
century through the construction of peaceful, mainly defensive
fortresses, and the territories of modern Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan,
Turkmenistan were occupied by the war in 1864-1895.
In 1902-1903, secret social-democratic organizations began to emerge
in Central Asia. Most of the social democrats who were working
undercover were Russians who were exiled here. The Turkish
population of Central Asia was deprived of all political rights, the best
lands were taken from their hands, and the social structure was
destroyed. The first Russian revolution influenced the revolutionary
movement, national and religious awakening that broke out in Central
Asia, along the Volga and other regions
These were: Islamism, liberal-democratic (in some cases nationalist)
and social-democratic trends (currents). After the February revolution,
the Kazakh-Kyrgyz national movement was rapidly formed in the
territory of Turkestan. The Kyrgyz National Council was established
in Orenburg. On March 12, a Kyrgyz congress was held in Tashkent.
However, the process of political formation of the Kazakh-Kyrgyz
national movement ended only at the First All-Russian Kyrgyz-
Kazakh Congress held in Orenburg on July 21-26, 1917. Their main
political demands were reflected in the idea of creating national
autonomy. One of the special issues discussed at the congress was the
massacres committed by the Russians against the local population in
Yeddi-su region of Kazakhstan. During the uprising of the Central
Asian Turks against Russia in 1916, the civilian population, forced to
flee to China as a result of atrocities committed by the Russian-
Cossacks military units, returned to their homeland after the February
revolution. But even now, the Russian-Cossacks, who had acquired
the lands of the refugees, subjected them to oppression and murder.
The Congress strongly demanded the Provisional Government to take
immediate measures to stop the massacre. Finally, the process of
formation of the national Kazakh faction"Alash" was completed at the
congress. It was this party that organized the autonomous Kazakh
government called "Alash Horde" in December 1917.
The principles of the establishment of Kazakh autonomy were
announced in the statement. The Second All-Kyrgyz-Kazakh
Congress was convened on December 5, 1917 for the declaration of
autonomy. The congress lasted until the 13th of the month. And with
the declaration of autonomy, a temporary Kazakh government called
"Alash-Orda" was created. Soon, the Alash-Orda power spread to the
entire territory of modern Kazakhstan, with the exception of Syr
Darya and Yeddi-su (Semirechye) provinces
Basmachi movement. There was a long-term armed struggle against
the Bolshevik invasion in the territory of Turkestan. After the
destruction of the Kokand autonomy by the Bolsheviks, the first
resistance groups created by the military minister of this autonomy
laid the foundation of the struggle known as the "basmachi"
movement in history. In the spring of 1918, new basmachi groups
began to form around Osh. In the summer of that year, new armed
groups led by Muhammad Amin Bey Ahmedbeyov were formed in
the western part of Ferghana province. Soon, it was the Ferghana area
that became the main headquarters of the Basmachi groups.
In October 1919, a congress of the resistance movement was held at
the border station called Irkeshdam, where a new autonomous
government of Turkestan was organized, and Muhammad Amin
Ahmadbayov was elected as the chairman of this government. It
should be noted that in addition to such centralized forces, there were
separate military units.
9. The international situation of Turkey on
the eve of the Second World War

In 1932, Turkey entered the League of Nations under favorable

conditions. This became possible as a result of the rapprochement of
Turkey with France. Speaking about the importance of Turkey, the
French representative indicated that “Turkey will be a bridge between
the East and the West, and this is the guarantee of the future power of
the country.” It is no coincidence that Turkish historians consider the
country's 1932-1938 period as the period when Turkey gained equal
status with other independent states in the international world. Only
after that, Turkey began to move away gradually from the sphere of
political influence of the USSR, where the totalitarian, fascist regime
was gaining strength. One of the factors determining Turkey's activity
was B. Mussolini's claims to Antalya. This led Turkey to approach
Romania, Yugoslavia and Greece in the Balkan Pact or Balkan
Entente. In February 1934, the formation of the Balkan Pact was
formalized in Athens, after a series of bilateral agreements regulating
the broken relations were signed. After the pact was signed,
opportunities were created for Bulgaria and Albania to join it.
However, Bulgaria, under the influence of both the USSR and the
small Entente, could not get away from its hostile attitude towards
Turkey and refused to join the pact.
However, Turkey's attempts to distance itself from the sphere of
influence of the USSR, which declared relations with the USSR as the
main direction in its foreign policy, was an undeniable fact. That is
why England, which previously had a negative and indifferent attitude
towards the signing of this document, suddenly started to defend it.
The leaders of fascist Germany and Italy also closely followed the
actions of Turkey. Italy, on the one hand, tried to prevent the Turkish-
French rapprochement on the Mediterranean issues, and on the other,
to implement such a crazy idea as the “Great Roman Empire”. In
general, Germany, which focused the entire Turkic world, wanted to
take control of the Turkic world through Turkey.
However, the rapprochement of Iran and Turkey with Germany led to
the strengthening of anti-Soviet tendencies in the political character of
the pact. In fact, although the pact was created on the initiative of
England, it was evidenced by Turkey's growing influence in the
international arena and its desire to take political leadership in the
region. The pact, signed for 5 years, gradually weakened later – from
the beginning of 1939-and lost its political significance as a result of
the rapprochement of Turkey with Germany during the war. In the
mid-1930s, serious tension arose in Turkey-Syria relations. The
conflict was expanding over which country the Hatay sanjak located
on the Turkish-Syrian border belonged to. Most of Hatay's population
was Turkish. Even in 1921, Turkey demanded the return of the
Sanjak, but no positive result was achieved. However, Hatay, which
declared its "independence" as a result of the vote held in December
1937, was included in Turkey's sphere of influence from 1938 thanks
to the activities of Turkish diplomacy. On July 4, 1938, Turkey sent
troops to Sanjak in order to put an end to the speeches of Armenian
and Arab provocateurs.
On the eve of World War II, Turkey was in a state of great economic
stress and growing political crisis. Officially declared policy of state
capitalism, five-year development plans were implemented
inconsistently by the government headed by J. Bayar. The
inconsistency and negative situations existing in the field of economic
policy led to the tension of the political situation in Turkey on the eve
of the Second World War. İsmet İnönü, who became the new
president of the Republic of Turkey after the death of M.K. Atatürk,
forced Prime Minister J. Bayar to resign before the parliamentary
elections in March 1939, and appointed Refik Saydam, who was a
supporter of state capitalism measures, to that position. The gradual
aggravation of the international situation, followed by the start of a
new world war, the expansion of military operations near the borders
of Turkey, necessitated the strong militarization of the country's
economy and the adaptation of all spheres of public life to war
conditions. Although the Turkish leadership remained loyal to the
policy of neutrality declared in the Second World War, it was taking a
line of insurance against potential threats.
During this period, it is possible to divide the policy of militarization
in Turkey into two main stages. The first stage is related to the
political activity of Prime Minister R. Saydam. R.Saydam strove to
implement general and deep militarization in the country with the
methods of state capitalism, to turn Turkey into a military camp with
an regular military-bureaucratic system, ready for the implementation
of various military plans. The second stage of the country's
militarization policy is related to the activities of Şukrü Saracoğlu
(from July 1942). He believed that the "free market" and "free market
nature", that is, the unhindered activity of private capital, will
"automatically" instantly create order and order in the economy, and
provide favorable conditions for the implementation of possible
military actions of Turkey
The state of emergency, which was inevitable and necessary,
remained in force during the Second World War. The total volume of
financial resources directed to military purposes has increased to an
extent incomparable to previous times. In general, during the years
1939-1945, Turkey's direct military expenses were expressed in a
large amount - 2431.9 million liras
The economy of Turkey, which had taken a neutral position in the
Second World War, experienced shocks, major obstacles appeared in
the country's foreign trade relations and the already settled
distribution of material and labor resources. Despite the noticeable
increase in production, towards the beginning of the war, Turkish
industry could provide only a part of the national demand for the most
important types of products
On January 24, 1940, the Parliament adopted the "Law on National
Defense".
During the war, the Turkish leadership paid special attention to the
development of foreign trade. The Turkish leadership tried to benefit
from the military and financial aid of the developed, large Western
countries for the country's interests. At the end of 1941, the US
government extended the operation of the lend-lease law to Turkey. In
turn, in 1942, Germany gave a loan of 100 million marks to Turkey
for the purchase of weapons and military materials. In 1943, Britain
presented arms worth 20 million pounds to Turkey
On the eve of the Second World War - in 1938, M.K.Atatürk
died and I. Inonu was elected president. In order to ensure Turkey's
security, he based M.K. Atatürk's policy of neutrality in his activities.
A month after the start of the Second World War, Turkey signed an
agreement on partnership and mutual assistance with England and
France, and it maintained an Anglo-French position until France was
invaded by Germany. Knowing that these states had negotiated with
the USSR before the war, Turkey tried to conclude a mutual aid
agreement with the Soviet Union in September 1939. It was for this
purpose that Turkish Foreign Minister S. Saracoglu was sent to
Moscow.
Soviet leaders also began insisting on Turkey's joining the war in
order to reduce their burden on the western front and thereby weaken
Turkey.On October 19-30, 1943, this was discussed at the meeting of
foreign ministers of the USA, USSR and England in Moscow. This
issue was widely discussed at the Tehran conference of the allies. On
December 4-6, 1943, a conference was held in Cairo with the
participation of F.Roosevelt, U.Churchill and I.Inonu, foreign
ministers of the allied states. On August 2, Turkey broke off
diplomatic relations with Germany. From this period, Turkey again
began to lean towards the United States, Britain and France. In 1945,
on February 23, Turkey, under pressure from the anti-fascist bloc,
declared war on Germany and Japan, but did not join active
hostilities, but deployed formal war tactics. Declaring war on
Germany and Japan enabled Turkey to join the anti-fascist bloc and
become one of the founders of the United Nations.

10. Montreux Straits Convention and its

main essence July 20, 1936
The Montreux Straits Convention is a convention adopted at the
international conference held in Montreux, Switzerland, which
restores Turkey's sovereignty over the Bosphorus and Dardanelles,
which connect the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. The
conference at which the convention was adopted was held in 1936
from June 22 to July 21 and ended with the adoption of an
international agreement formalizing Turkey's right over the Straits.
However, Turkey has made a commitment to comply with the
principles of international maritime law. And Entered into force -
November 9, 1936. Restored Turkey's sovereignty over the Bosphorus
and Dardanelles Straits.
Signatory states were Bulgaria, France, Greece, Japan, Romania,
Yugoslavia, Turkey, USSR.
The terms of the convention caused dissatisfaction of the USSR for
many years. Thus, the convention that closed the entry of warships
into the straits caused disputes about the USSR's military entry into
the Mediterranean Sea. The convention signed in Montreux Palace in
Switzerland on July 20, 1936 allowed Turkey to return the Straits to
military status. The Convention is still in force

GPT: The Montreux Straits Convention, signed on July 20, 1936,

regulates the passage of naval warships through the Dardanelles and
Bosporus Straits, which connect the Aegean Sea to the Black Sea.
Here are its key points:
Main Essence
1. Sovereignty and Control: The Convention restored Turkey's
full control over the straits while ensuring freedom of passage
for civilian vessels in peacetime and wartime.
2. Warship Passage Regulations:
· Peacetime: Warships from Black Sea states have greater
freedom of movement compared to those from non-Black Sea
states. The latter are subject to tonnage and type limitations, and
their stay is limited to 21 days.
· Wartime: If Turkey is not a belligerent, the straits are closed to
all warships. If Turkey is at war, it has the right to regulate the
passage of warships and may close the straits if it feels
threatened.
1. Civilian Ships: Merchant vessels enjoy freedom of passage
through the straits at all times, although Turkey has the right to
inspect them.
2. Notification and Tonnage Limits: Non-Black Sea states must
notify Turkey 15 days in advance before sending warships
through the straits, and there are limits on the aggregate tonnage
of warships that can be in the Black Sea.

Historical Context
The Convention replaced the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne's provisions
regarding the straits, reflecting the changing geopolitical landscape
and Turkey's strategic importance. It aimed to balance the interests of
the Black Sea littoral states and those of the wider international
community, while securing Turkey's national security and regional
stability.
Modern Relevance
The Montreux Straits Convention remains a cornerstone of regional
maritime law and continues to influence the naval strategies of both
Black Sea and non-Black Sea states, especially in the context of
NATO and Russian interactions.

11. Turkey's internal policy during the

Second World War

In 1932, Turkey entered the League of Nations under favorable

conditions. This became possible as a result of the rapprochement of
Turkey with France. Speaking about the importance of Turkey, the
French representative indicated that “Turkey will be a bridge between
the East and the West, and this is the guarantee of the future power of
the country.” It is no coincidence that Turkish historians consider the
country's 1932-1938 period as the period when Turkey gained equal
status with other independent states in the international world.
During the Second World War, the total number of soldiers and
officers serving in the Turkish army reached 900,000. In general,
during the war, the Turkish leadership implemented a foreign and
domestic policy that served the interests of the nation and the integrity
of the state territory. 1939-1945 was also an important test moment
for Turkey. The Turkish leadership, which took a neutral position in
the war, eliminated the threat of a massive collapse of the country's
material and spiritual wealth thanks to a far-sighted domestic and
foreign policy. One of the most interesting events of the Second
World War is that Turkey, surrounded by warring states, almost at the
center of the theater of military operations, did not participate in
hostilities until the end of the war. This caused the discontent of the
neighboring Soviet Union, which had taken on the brunt of the war.
On the eve of the Second World War - in 1938, M.K.Atatürk died and
I. Inonu was elected president. In order to ensure Turkey's security, he
based M.K. Atatürk's policy of neutrality in his activities.

12. The essence and consequences of the

Mosul problem
The Mosul Problem (1918-1926) was a territorial dispute between
Great Britain and Turkey over the ownership of the oil region of
Mosul, along with the Kirkuk, Erbil and Sulaymaniyah regions of
Mosul Province, which were part of the Ottoman Empire before the
First World War.
Mosul province was part of the Ottoman Empire until the end of
World War I, when it was occupied by England. . In 1924, on May
19, the Istanbul conference was held between Turkey and England. At
the conference, the Turkish side stated that Mosul was historically
always Ottoman territory, and at the end of the first World War this
situation did not change, two-thirds of the population of the province
consisted of Muslims, the predominance of Turks and Kurds, and
therefore justified Mosul's stay within the borders of Turkey for
historical, military and ethnic reasons.
The dispute was raised to the level of the League of Nations.
However, the dispute could not be resolved. The Council of the
league of nations organized a commission of Inquiry recommending
that Turkey, which signed the border treaty with the Iraqi government
in 1926, should compromise Mosul. Iraq agreed for 25 years to
transfer 10 percent of the profits from Mosul's oil fields to Turkey.
According to the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres, Mosul was included in the
British mandate of Iraq. However, the Great National Assembly
government established in Ankara under the leadership of Mustafa
Kemal Atatürk did not recognize the agreement. . In 1922-1923, the
delegations of Turkey and England could not reach an agreement on
this issue at the Lausanne conference. The parties used arguments
based on the ethnic composition of the region's population.
The British considered the Kurds to be a people of Iranian origin -
thus, according to their calculations, the Turks constituted only one-
twelfth of the entire population of Mosul. As a result, in Article 3 of
the Treaty of Lausanne, there was a provision that "the borders
between Turkey and Iraq will be determined amicably between
Turkey and Great Britain within 9 months." In the final document, the
clause that "the dispute will be referred to the Council of the League
of Nations" in the absence of an agreement was also reflected in the
final document.
League of Nations decision:
After the Istanbul negotiations of 1924 (April 19 - June 5, 1924
Istanbul conference) also failed, Great Britain referred the issue of
Mosul to the League of Nations on August 10, 1924. At the same
time, the Council of the League of Nations created a commission
consisting of representatives of Sweden, Belgium and Hungary to
study the matter on the spot . The report of the commission heard in
October 1925 was ambiguous. Thus, the commission accepted that
Iraq has no legal rights over Mosul, however, based on the "needs of
normal development" of Iraq, it decided that Mosul should be
annexed to Iraq if the League of Nations leaves the mandate over Iraq
for the next 25 years.
Ankara agreement on Mosul problem: The issue of Mosul strained
British-Turkish relations. Britain has repeatedly demonstrated its
intention to resolve the issue of Mosul by force of arms. The Turkish
government, which could not continue the pressure of the Western
countries, made concessions to the British. Under the pressure of the
Western powers, on June 5, 1926, Turkey signed an agreement with
Great Britain and Iraq in Ankara, and according to this agreement, it
recognized the "Brussels Line". For this, Turkey was given the right
to receive 10% of the Iraqi government's revenue from Mosul oil for a
period of 20 years or to receive a monetary compensation of 500,000
pounds.

13. Saadabad Pact and its main provisions

The Saadabad Pact is a non-aggression pact signed between Turkey,
Iran and Afghanistan on July 8, 1937 in the Saadabad Palace in
Tehran. Reasons for the conclusion of the pact:
1. Settlement of border problems: All the member states of the
Pact had a border problem with Iran. Also, due to existing border
problems, especially in the Turkey-Iraq-Iran triangle, Kurdish tribes
rebelled without recognizing borders. This is the most important
reason for signing the pact.
2. The desire of the countries to declare their independence: It was
extremely important for these states, which were freed from the
colonial and semi-colonial periods, to declare their independence. For
the first time, a tripartite agreement between Turkey, Iran and Iraq
was initialed in Geneva on October 2, 1935. Afghanistan joined it
later. Then, the agreements regulating each area, including the
settlement of the Iraq-Iran border disputes (Shattul-Arab discrepancy),
the border problem between Turkey and Iran; It enabled the signing of
the Saadabad Pact dated July 8, 1937.
3. Iraq offered a non-aggression pact to Iran and Turkey to balance
its allegiance to Britain. Turkey proposed the establishment of a
regional pact instead of separate pacts. The pact was signed in Tehran
after the idea of Afghanistan's inclusion in the pact proposed by the
USSR was accepted.
Parties; in the agreement, they promised that they would not interfere
in each other's internal affairs, that they would talk to each other about
issues related to their common interests, that they would not attack
each other, and that they would respect the protection of their borders.
Article 7 prohibited the parties from forming and acting in armed
groups, associations or organizations with the aim of destroying the
enterprises of the other parties, undermining the order and security or
disrupting the political regime.

14. The socio-economic situation of

Turkey in the 30s of the 20th century

The economic crisis of 1929-1933 strengthened the state's attack

on foreign capital in Turkey. The state took a way out of the crisis by
expanding the nationalization of private capital, centralizing
management, and planning economic development. Even in the first
years of the Republic, as a continuation of the line of State
monopolization of a number of important production areas, already in
1928 the Turkish government began the “etatistization”of important
railways. Although the world economic crisis of 1929-1933 gave the
national Turkish bourgeoisie an opportunity to somewhat limit the
influence of foreign monopolies, it revealed the importance of
strengthening the country's industrial development. A number of
decisions were made at the congress of industrialists held in April
1930. In these decisions, the government was required to provide
extensive assistance to private entrepreneurs, to create credit
departments for long-term capital investment. After the Congress, the
government attempted to plan its actions in the industry. This plan
involved the acquisition of enterprises owned by foreign capital.
However, it soon became clear that such planned actions were not
enough, and the government began to develop a plan to develop the
industry based on state capabilities. It was at this time, in 1931, the
principle of statism was included in the program of the party (Xalq
Cümhuriyyət partiyası), and in 1933, in the constitution of the
Republic of Turkey.
The global economic crisis hit Turkey's agrarian sector
seriously. The price of agricultural products fell sharply. The
government began to take serious measures against the crisis. By the
law of June 1, 1929, great powers were given to the Agricultural
Bank. Besides, in 1932, the government introduced firm purchase
prices for wheat. Soon after, the customs duty on the import of
agricultural machinery was abolished. All these measures, at least
partially, saved agriculture from a miserable situation during the crisis
years.
During these crisis years of Turkey, M. Kamal followed the
correct foreign policy line. So, on the one hand, normal relations with
the former members of the Entente were restored, and on the other
hand, cooperation with the USSR and Germany was developed
through the conclusion of economic agreements.
USSR was one of the countries with which Turkey had close
relations. During these years, the government members of the two
neighboring countries had mutual visits of various levels, exchanged
views on various international problems, and the period of the
neutrality and non-aggression agreement between the two countries
was extended. At the same time, the USSR was one of Turkey's
largest trade partners. In 1932, after the visit of Turkish Prime
Minister I. Inonu to Moscow, the USSR government decided to give
Turkey a loan of 8 million dollars.
According to the "Municipal Law" in 1930, women in Turkey were
given the right to be elected to local authorities before a number of
European countries
In the 1930s, the economic policy of the leadership of the Republic of
Turkey almost did not change its previous character. As before,
during the 1930s, the main content of this policy was still statism -
turning the state capitalism unit into the main area of the economy by
limiting the positions of foreign capital and strengthening the role of
national capital. During the 30s, all communal and economic
enterprises owned by foreign companies were “etatisted”, that is, they
were bought out by the national government
Ektibank, established on July 14, 1935 (its initial nominal capital was
20 million liras), was the main tool in the creation of the state
capitalism unit in the mining industry.
Thus, as a result of socio-economic reforms carried out in the 20s and
30s of the last century under the leadership of M.K. Atatürk,
especially as a result of the statism policy, foreign capital was
squeezed out of the national economy, and a strong impetus was
given to the development of the economy, especially industrial
production. In July 1934, the Parliament adopted a law on surnames.
The adoption of this law greatly facilitated clerical work in the civil
service, where until now only names were processed. M. Kamal was
given the "Atatürk surname" by the law adopted soon after. The law
also prohibited forms of address from feudalism (pasha, bey, effendi,
etc.).
After World War II (1939-1945), due to the strengthening of the
influence of the big bourgeoisie, the Turkish government withdrew
from the policy of statism and the doctrine of statism was suppressed
from the theory of "mixed economy". In the 1960s, the slogan "new
statism" was put forward here.

15) The results of the Lausanne conference for

Turkey
In 1923, the Treaty of Lausanne made the Dardanelles a demilitarized
zone. The treaty opened the straits to the unrestricted and free
movement of civilian and military vessels under the supervision of the
International Straits Commission of the League of Nations. In the late
1930s, the strategic situation in the Mediterranean changed with the
rise of Fascist Italy, which controlled the Greek-inhabited Dodecanese
islands off the western coast of Turkey and built fortifications on
Rhodes, Leros, and Kos. The Turks feared that Italy would try to use
access to the straits to expand its influence over Anatolia and the
Black Sea region. Moreover, there were also concerns about the
rearmament of Bulgaria. Turkey was not allowed to strengthen the
straits, but she did it secretly.
According to the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres, Mosul was included in the
British mandate of Iraq. However, the Great National Assembly
government established in Ankara under the leadership of Mustafa
Kemal Atatürk did not recognize the agreement. He demanded that
Turkey retain all of its lands within the borders that existed at the time
of the Mudros peace treaty of 1918. For Turkey, Mosul was important
not only as an oil region, but also as a strategic point. He was the key
to Kurdistan. The conflict of interests between "Turkish Oil
Company" (the main shareholder was Lord Curzon) and "Standard
Oil" (USA) oil companies complicated the solution of the issue. In
1922-1923, the delegations of Turkey and England could not reach an
agreement on this issue at the Lausanne conference. The parties used
arguments based on the ethnic composition of the region's population.
The Turks claimed that out of a population of 503,000, excluding
Bedouin nomads, 281,000 were Kurds, 146,000 Turks, 43,000 Arabs,
and 31,000 non-Muslims.
The Turks, who consider the Kurds to be a people of Turanian origin,
claimed that 85% of Mosul's population was made up of Turks. The
British estimated the population of Mosul at 785,000, of whom
454,000 were Kurds, 185,000 Arabs, 65,000 Turks, 62,000 Christians,
and 16,000 Jews. The British considered the Kurds to be a people of
Iranian origin - thus, according to their calculations, the Turks
constituted only one-twelfth of the entire population of Mosul.
As a result, in Article 3 of the Treaty of Lausanne, there was a
provision that "the borders between Turkey and Iraq will be
determined amicably between Turkey and Great Britain within 9
months." In the final document, the clause that "the dispute will be
referred to the Council of the League of Nations" in the absence of an
agreement was also reflected in the final document. In fact, this could
be considered a victory for Curzon, since it predetermined the loss of
Mosul by Turkey.

16) Atatürk`s reforms in Turkey: statism

The economic crisis of 1929-1933 strengthened the state's attack
on foreign capital in Turkey. The state took a way out of the crisis by
expanding the nationalization of private capital, centralizing
management, and planning economic development. A number of
decisions were made at the congress of industrialists held in April
1930. In these decisions, the government was required to provide
extensive assistance to private entrepreneurs, to create credit
departments for long-term capital investment. After the Congress, the
government attempted to plan its actions in the industry. This plan
involved the acquisition of enterprises owned by foreign capital.
However, it soon became clear that such planned actions were not
enough, and the government began to develop a plan to develop the
industry based on state capabilities. It was at this time, in 1931, the
principle of statism was included in the program of the party (Xalq
Cümhuriyyət partiyası), and in 1933, in the constitution of the
Republic of Turkey.
The global economic crisis hit Turkey's agrarian sector
seriously. The government began to take serious measures against the
crisis. By the law of 1929, great powers were given to the
Agricultural Bank. During these crisis years of Turkey, M. Kamal
followed the correct foreign policy line. So, on the one hand, normal
relations with the former members of the Entente were restored, and
on the other hand, cooperation with the USSR and Germany was
developed through the conclusion of economic agreements. USSR
was one of the countries with which Turkey had close relations.
During these years, the government members of the two neighboring
countries had mutual visits of various levels, exchanged views on
various international problems, and the period of the neutrality and
non-aggression agreement between the two countries was extended.
At the same time, the USSR was one of Turkey's largest trade
partners. According to the "Municipal Law" in 1930, women in
Turkey were given the right to be elected to local authorities before a
number of European countries. During the crisis, M. Kamal paid
special attention to the strengthening of ideological propaganda
among the people. The 3rd Congress of the party (Xalq Cümhuriyyət
partiyası), held on May 10, 1931, adopted the party's program and
charter for the first time. In the program, 2 more (statism and
revolutionism) were added to the 4 principles previously announced
by M. Kamal. These principles, which are called "6 axes" in a
metaphorical sense, were guided in all areas of the development of the
society.
In the 1930s, the economic policy of the leadership of the Republic of
Turkey almost did not change its previous character. As before,
during the 1930s, the main content of this policy was still statism -
turning the state capitalism unit into the main area of the economy by
limiting the positions of foreign capital and strengthening the role of
national capital. Ektibank, established on July 14, 1935 (its initial
nominal capital was 20 million liras), was the main tool in the
creation of the state capitalism unit in the mining industry. Even after
the death of MK Atatürk, the political line of statism was successfully
continued. The newly elected president, I.Inonu, was an unwavering
supporter of M.K.Atatürk's ideas. Thus, as a result of socio-economic
reforms carried out in the 20s and 30s of the last century under the
leadership of M.K. Atatürk, especially as a result of the statism
policy, foreign capital was squeezed out of the national economy, and
a strong impetus was given to the development of the economy,
especially industrial production.

17) Ottoman Turkey during the First World

War
The day after the outbreak of the first World War, namely (yəni) in
1914, on August 2, Turkey concluded a military alliance with
Germany. According to the agreement, if Russia gets involved in the
Austro-Hungarian conflict, if Germany joins the war on the part of
Austria-Hungary, Turkey must also declare war on Russia. The
Turkish army was completely at the disposal of Germany. But
apparently, Turkey declared itself neutral. In addition, one day after
the alliance agreement was signed, Turkey announced its neutrality.
This was explained by the fact that Turkey is not yet ready for war.
Because even after the alliance agreement with Germany was signed,
the young Turks tried to avoid war with the Entente until the
reorganization of the army and mobilization was completed.
According to the alliance treaty, Turkey had to join the war on the
side of Germany. At that time, German officers were already at the
head of the Turkish army. Among the leaders of the Young Turks,
there were also those who opposed the military alliance with
Germany. They were especially afraid of war with Russia. It should
be noted that in the Ottoman state there were not a few supporters of
rapprochement with the Entente, including Russia. The uncertainty of
the foreign policy of the Ottoman state in the middle of 1914 was the
disagreement within the government.
In the proposal put forward in 1914 by Russia and England together,
they stated that they would guarantee the independence and territorial
integrity of the Ottoman state in exchange for Turkey's neutrality and
that they would oppose any aggression.
Even in 1914, the "Turkish-Russian Friendship Committee" was
organized in Istanbul. Against the joint proposal of Russia and
England, Turkey put forward the following proposals:
1. Complete abolition of capitulations;
2. The return of two armored ships confiscated by the British
government at the beginning of the war;
3. The return of Western Thrace to the Ottoman state;
4. The return of the islands occupied by Greece to Turkey;
5. Solving the Egyptian issue;
6. Ensuring that Russia does not interfere in Turkey's internal affairs;
7. The promise that England and France will really defend the
Ottoman state if Russia attacks Turkey.
Britain was making great efforts to keep Turkey neutral. The alliance
with the Ottoman state was not part of Russia's plans. Because at this
time, the Russians' ability to capture Istanbul and the Bosphorus was
disappearing. Under the current conditions, none of the great powers
wanted to include the Ottoman state in their ranks. But a little later,
Germany decided to involve the Ottoman state in the alliance. Turkey
was neither economically nor militarily ready for war. However, the
government started mobilizing. At first, 650,000 people were drafted
into the army. Finally, on October 20, 1914, at a limited cabinet
meeting (Anvar Pasha, Talat Pasha, Jamal Pasha, Khalil Bey), it was
decided to start a war against Russia. On November 2, Russia
declared war on the Ottoman state.
Turkey's army and navy were completely under German control. One
of the most important battles on the Caucasian front was the Battle of
Sarigamysh. The purpose of this battle led by Anwar Pasha was to
recover Kars, Ardahan and Batum, which were given to the Russians
in 1878. Enver Pasha entered the battle with all his forces. The
Turkish army was forced to retreat with heavy losses in this battle,
which was conducted in severe winter conditions. On November 11
1914, at Fateh Sultan Mehmed Mosque in Istanbul, Sheikhul Islam
Kheiri Efendi invited Muslims to jihad against the Entente states.
According to the plans of the German Emperor Wilhelm II and the
German generals, a jihad will be declared in India, Turkestan and
North Africa, against the power of France and Russia. The entry of
the Ottoman state into the war as an ally of Germany and the
declaration of jihad began to worry these states. Therefore, on
November 18, England, and on November 19, France declared war on
the Ottoman state. But jihad did not bring the desired result.There was
no unity among Muslims of different races and nationalities. Shiism,
Sunnism, Wahhabism, etc. sects caused separation between them.
One of the reasons for the failure of the Jihad was that the Ottoman
Empire was allied with another Christian power while it was fighting
against Christianity.
In December 1914, as a result of the fatigue of the Ottoman army, the
Battle of Sarıgamish resulted in the victory of the Russians.After the
failure in Sarıgamish, the Ottoman state could not recover.At the end
of 1915, Anzali, Qazvin and Hamadan were captured.In the spring of
1916, Russian troops attacked along the entire Caucasian front.
Despite the fact that the war was fought in difficult conditions, in the
mountains, Russian troops captured Erzurum in February 1916 and
Trabzon in April, and thus the Russians occupied the entire Eastern
Anatolia. Since this date, the attacks of the Turkish troops with weak
forces have been unsuccessful. After the signing of the Erzincan
Peace Treaty, the Russian army began to withdraw from the occupied
regions.Since the entire Armenian population of Eastern Anatolia
revolted in February 1915, the Ottoman government was forced to
take decisive measures.Thus, they disarmed the Armenians The Battle
of Dardanelles was one of the most important turning points of the
First World War for the Ottoman Empire. The battle of Dardanelles
consisted of two stages, sea and land. The fleets of the allied states led
by the British Empire thought that they would easily capture the
Dardanelles Strait by sea, and in this way they aimed to approach
Istanbul, the capital of the Ottoman Empire. They thought of
providing their ally Russia with food and military force by capturing
the straits of Istanbul and Dardanelles.Dardanelles War — a sea and
land battle between the Ottoman Empire and the Entente states during
the First World War between 1915 and 1916. The Union states
entered the Dardanelles Strait as the first target by taking Istanbul, the
capital of the Ottoman Empire, to take control of the straits, to open a
reliable food and military trade route with Russia, and to weaken one
of the German allies. However, their attacks were unsuccessful, and
both sides suffered heavy losses, and the Union states retreated. This
battle became legendary as a great victory of a country in a state of
destruction, and remained in the memory of every citizen.

18) The Armenian question at the beginning of

the 20th century
On the eve of the First World War, Russia again put forward the
"Armenian question" for use. The "Dashnakstyun" party of the
Armenians was masked with the slogan of " self-determination" and
became a vassal of the Entente states, primarily Russia. In the autumn
of 1912, the Catholicos of all Armenians appealed to Nicholas II to
"protect" the Armenians living in the Ottoman Empire. The Russian
government promised to protect the Armenians living in the Ottoman
Empire in order to use them as a tool in the future.
Russia used Armenians for this. As soon as the war started, the
Armenian committees organized their volunteer regiments to realize
the dreams of "Great Armenia" and moved against Turkey on the
South Caucasus front in front of the Russian army. With the arrival of
the Russians in the region, on the one hand, the groups of
Dashnaksutyun, and on the other hand, Hnchak groups raided the
Turkish villages where the men were at war, tortured and killed
women, children and the elderly. As a result of the participation of
"volunteer Armenian regiments" from Russia, the number of armed
Armenians operating in Turkey reached 30 thousand. As a result of
the resistance of the Turks to the Armenian armed groups, many
people were killed on both sides. Since the entire Armenian
population of Eastern Anatolia revolted in February 1915, the
Ottoman government was forced to take decisive measures. On
February 25, the General Staff sent instructions to all units that
Armenians should not be drawn into military service under any
circumstances. Thus, they disarmed the Armenians. However, they
were kept in active military service in auxiliary military units. In
1915, on April 24, the Ministry of Internal Affairs issued an order to
close the Armenian committee centers, confiscate their property, and
arrest the heads of the committees. In accordance with this instruction,
2,345 Armenians were arrested. The day of April 24, which
Armenians annually celebrate as the day of genocide, is actually the
day of the arrest of Armenian committees.
 (additional information)
The entry of the Ottoman Empire into the war against England,
France and Russia in 1914 was considered a great opportunity by the
Armenian committees. The Armenians who gathered volunteer
regiments and joined the Russian army entered the Eastern Anatolian
lands together with the Russian invading armies. Also, in various
regions of Anatolia, the Armenian population raised new uprisings,
betrayed the Ottoman state, and the civilian population was subjected
to a great genocide. In this genocide, not only Turks, but also
Romanians and Kurds living around Trabzon were killed by
Armenians. The Ottoman state was forced to take retaliatory measures
for the treachery of the Armenians. Because the Armenians were in
alliance with the Russians and they were killing the peaceful
population. Armenian thugs spared no one: they killed the elderly,
children, pregnant women, babies with unprecedented brutality. In
response to these, the Ottoman government began not to recruit
Armenians for military service, to abolish Armenian committee
centers, and to arrest their leaders. The Ottoman government decided
to transfer the rebel Armenians to Syria and Lebanon as well. At that
time, these territories were part of the Ottoman Empire. Since the
deportations and arrests began on April 24, 1915, Armenians
celebrate this day as the so-called Armenian Genocide, and although
they tried to have it recognized by other countries, they could not
achieve their insidious goals.

19) Turkish national liberation movement

under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
and its results
On May 29, he announced the article listing the wishes of the Turkish
people, which went down in the history of Turkey as the "Basin
Bulletin". This article was sent to all governors, organizations,
military units in Ankara, Erzurum, Konya and Diyarbakir, and with
this the first step of the National struggle was taken. The first
revolutionary speeches of the national struggle were announced with
the "Amasya Decisions".
Based on these decisions, it was stated that the Istanbul government
did not properly represent the people, and it was announced that the
integrity and freedom of the motherland would be achieved again by
the determination of the people. In addition, it was decided to gather a
national delegation to represent the nation and declare its rights to the
whole world. Three people from each city who won the trust of the
people were invited to the National Congress to be held in Sivas. In
order to prepare for this, it was decided to hold a congress in Erzurum
on July 23, mainly with the participation of representatives of Eastern
provinces. The Sivas Congress began its work on September 4, 1919,
despite France officially noting and threatening to occupy the city of
Sivas. Mustafa Kemal Pasha was elected as the chairman of the
Congress. First, all the national societies operating in different parts
of the country were united in one center. A new "Representative
Board" was elected and the leadership of this board was entrusted to
Mustafa Kemal Pasha. According to the decisions of the Congress,
the Turkish nation declared the indivisibility of the homeland within
the national borders, that the nation would defend itself against
foreign interference and invasions, and that it would not accept any
mandate or patronage.
These decisions were welcomed everywhere in Anatolia, and even the
Ottoman National Assembly, which convened in January 1920,
announced that it accepted the terms of the peace treaty announced at
the Erzurum and Sivas congresses. The growth of Mustafa Kemal
Pasha's influence and the ability to influence all existing organizations
and even the Ottoman Parliament seriously worried the Entente
countries. Therefore, along with a number of reasons, Istanbul was
officially occupied on March 15, 1920, the Milli Majlis was
abolished, and many deputies were arrested in order to put pressure
on the growing popular resistance in Anatolia. In response to this,
Mustafa Kemal Pasha announced that the Milli Majlis would be
opened in Ankara as soon as possible, and approximately 1 month
later, on April 23, 1920, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey
ceremoniously began its activities in Ankara. At the first meeting,
Mustafa Kemal was elected as the chairman of the assembly.
on August 10, 1920, the parties signed the Treaty of Sèvres. This
agreement meant the fall of the Ottoman Empire. However, this
agreement did not officially enter into force in the Ottoman state.
Because the agreement had to be ratified by the Ottoman Majlis, but
the Majlis continued its activities in Ankara, and official Ankara
declared that it did not accept any negotiations or agreements in
which its representative did not participate.
In general, the armed struggle of the Turkish liberation war can be
divided into 2 parts: the first is the armed resistance of the groups
against the occupations after the Mudros Agreement, and the second
is the activity of the regular army, which the Ankara government
united these groups and led the country to a decisive victory. First,
military operations began against the French occupation in Southern
Anatolia and the Armenian occupation in Eastern Anatolia. At the end
of 1921, with the liberation of Marash, Adana and Antep, the French
troops were forced to withdraw to Syria. The occupation of Dashnak
Armenia by Russia and the Kars agreement concluded with the
Ankara government in October ensured the security of the eastern
border. On the western front, the struggle against the Greek
occupation and the liberation of Istanbul was going on. Every success
on this front strengthened the position of the Ankara government in
political negotiations. So, after the victory of Inonu I, England
proposed holding a new conference in London and softening the
terms of the Treaty of Sèvres.
. The II Inonu War, which lasted for 8 days, also resulted in the defeat
of the Greeks. The Greek army was completely defeated by the
Sakarya field wars and the Great Offensive that began on August 26,
1922. The armed struggle between the Greeks and the Turks ended
with the signed Mudanya Peace Treaty.
On October 27, 1922, the Ankara government was invited to
Lausanne, Switzerland, in connection with the signing of a new peace
treaty that ended the war. In addition to the Ankara government, the
Istanbul government was also invited to this conference. The purpose
of this was to create a difference of opinion
between the two groups.
Great Britain, France, Italy, Greece, Romania and Yugoslavia stood
before Turkey at the conference that started on November 20. Not
only the war and its aftermath, but also hundred years of problems
inherited from the Ottoman era were discussed at this conference. In
the peace treaty signed on July 24, 1923, the terms of the Turkish side
were almost completely accepted. The borders of Turkey were
defined, the issue of debt, capitulations, ethnic minorities were
resolved, and it was decided to evacuate Istanbul and the Bosphorus
region within six weeks. The territorial integrity of Turkey was
ensured by the entry of the Turkish army into Istanbul on October 6.
On October 29, 1923, the Republic of Turkey was declared.
During the course of the movement, the government of the Azerbaijan
Democratic Republic helped the Anatolian movement, even though it
was in a difficult situation. However, under the circumstances, Turkey
needed a stronger ally. Such an ally could be Russia. Because both
countries had to fight with the same enemies - united Europe. From
1919, the rapprochement between the two sides was evident.
On April 26, 1920, M. Kamal addressed a letter to the Soviet
government to help Turkey's struggle for independence. The begun
diplomatic correspondence ended with the drafting of a Turkish-
Soviet friendship treaty in Moscow with the joint efforts of Soviet and
Turkish diplomats.
The defeat of the Armenian military units ended with the signing of
the peace treaty in Gyumru (Alexandropol) on December 2, 1920.
Parliament also sent a note to the Georgian government and
demanded the return of Batum. According to the agreement signed
with the Georgians on February 23, 1921, Ardahan, Artvin and Batum
were returned to the Turks. Thus, according to the treaty of Kars
Gyumri, which was lost in the Russo-Turkish war in 1878, Ardahan,
Artvin, and Batum were returned to Turkey according to the treaty
concluded with the Georgians.
At the meeting of the TBMM held on January 20, 1921, the Kemalists
achieved the adoption of the first law on the "Main Organization". In
addition to being guided by the principle of national sovereignty and
unified power, the law also proclaimed the slogans of freedom of
speech, press, and assembly. In the "Basic Organization" law, which
is considered the first constitution of Turkey, the social, political and
economic structures that had already been formed by that time were
determined through legislation.
The first successes of the Kemalists prompted the Entente and Soviet
Russia to adopt a new political line in relation to Turkey. Both sides
decided to start negotiations with the Ankara government again. The
greatest success of 1921 was already the fact that Ankara diplomats
were negotiating in both London and Moscow. In parallel with the
London negotiations, the Entente States invited the Istanbul
government and tried to achieve the recognition of the Main articles
of the Treaty of Sevres by Ankara. The main positive result of the
conference was the de facto recognition of the Ankara government.
The Soviet-Turkish conference opened in Moscow on February 26,
1921 ended with the signing of the Treaty on "Friendship and
Brotherhood" on March 16. The Soviet leadership did not object to
the return of Kars, Ardahan and Artvin to Turkey. Batum was given
to Georgia, Gyumri to Armenia. Acting on the directives of M.
Kamal, Riza Nur and Ali Fuad Jabasoy managed to include an article
about Nakhchivan, a part of Soviet Azerbaijan included in the sphere
of influence of Soviet Russia, in the text of the agreement.
In the critical moments when the front line was approaching Ankara,
M. Kamal asked the Parliament for additional powers as the
commander-in-chief. On August 5, 1921, the National Assembly gave
such powers to M. Kamal. The Turks, who were twice behind the
Greeks in manpower and all types of military ammunition, won a
great victory under the leadership of M. Kamal after a 22-day battle
near the Sakarya River on August 23. Because of the victory, the
TBMM gave M. Kamal the rank of marshal and the title of "veteran".
Sakarya's victory also had an impact on the reputation of TBMM in
the world of foreign policy. On October 13, 1921, a friendship treaty
was signed in Kars between Turkey on the one hand and the
Republics of the South Caucasus on the other hand at the initiative of
Soviet Russia.
. The Treaty of Kars reaffirmed the articles of the Moscow Treaty
regarding the Caucasian Republics.
The Battle of Sakarya had a serious impact on the position of France
and Italy in the Entente camp. In 1921, on October 20, France signed
a separate peace with Turkey in Ankara. Under the terms of the peace,
the military situation between the parties ended, and all Southern
Anatolian lands, except Iskanderun, were returned to Turkey. At that
time, Italy also withdrew its troops from Antalya.
The battle of Smyrna (Izmir), which took place in September 1922,
also resulted in the defeat of the Greek armies
On September 18, all of Anatolia was freed from the enemies.
The battle of Izmir created complete confusion in the Entente camp.
Greek King Constantine and British Prime Minister L. George were
forced to resign.
. On September 23, the allies offered peace to M. Kamal, who was in
Izmir.On October 11, 1922, in the Turkish port of Mudanya, Turkey,
on the one hand, and England, Italy, and France on the other hand,
signed an armistice. The peace stipulated the withdrawal of Greek
troops to the left bank of the Maritsa (Merich) River in Eastern
Thrace, the transfer of civil administrations here to Turkish
representatives within 30 days, the allies staying in Istanbul until the
final peace treaty was signed, and Turkey maintaining gendarmerie
forces in Eastern Thrace with no more than 8,000 people. Greece
joined the settlement on October 13.
On September 24, the Soviet government, and on November 13,
England took the initiative to convene an international conference in
Lausanne (Switzerland) to regulate relations with Turkey. On
November 20, 1922, at the initiative of England, France and Italy, an
international conference to sign a peace treaty with Turkey began in
Lausanne, Switzerland. Greece, Japan, Romania, Yugoslavia, and
when the issue of the straits was discussed, Russia and Bulgaria also
took part in the conference.

20) Peace of Mudros and its consequences

On October 30, 1918, in the port of Mudros on the island of Lemnos
in the Aegean Sea, on the English cruiser "Agamemnon", Turkey
signed the Treaty of Mudros, which had extremely difficult conditions
not only for itself, but also for Azerbaijan. According to the main
terms of the peace, the defeated party had to leave the army, hand
over its warships, railways, post and telegraph facilities to the
Entente, and withdraw its troops from all Arab lands. If the situation
dictated it, the Entente states had the right to occupy the Bosphorus
and the Eastern provinces where Armenians lived in a relatively
compact state. Two terms of the peace were related to the South
Caucasus: Article 11 required the complete withdrawal of the
Ottomans from the region. Clause 15 stipulated that the Allies would
keep the South Caucasus railway under control and occupy Baku. The
Allies had the right to capture Batumi.On October 30, 1918, the
Mudros peace agreement was signed between the Turks and the
British. The Mudros agreement was not satisfied with the occupation
of the Arab countries by the Entente forces, but set the following
heavy demands for Turkey: the Dardanelles and Bosporus straits
should be handed over to the Allies; allies are preferred to buy all
goods in the country and Turkey cannot export goods; All the
railways of Turkey come under the control of the Allies; all the
armies in the Arab countries should be placed at the disposal of the
allies; All Turkish officers in Tripoli and Cyrenaica are to be assigned
to the Italian garrison; German and Austrian citizens in the territory of
Turkey should be deported from the country; Turkish prisoners of war
should remain in the hands of the allies; Allied prisoners of war were
to be brought to Istanbul and handed over to the respective country;
The Ottoman government was deprived of the right to keep forces
other than those necessary to maintain internal order and frontiers;
Warships sailing in Ottoman waters were to be surrendered to the
Allies; if the allied powers felt a threat to their position, then they had
the right to occupy any strategic place of the empire. According to the
terms of the peace, the Turkish army should soon leave Azerbaijan,
the Turks should give the right to control the South Caucasian railway
to the Entente, and Turkey should not protest against the capture of
Baku and Batumi by the Allies. The Peace of Mudros surrendered
Turkey to the Entente states. With this, the Entente powers began to
implement their previous plans to break up the Ottoman Empire and
occupied many parts of the country.

21) Gallipoli War and its consequences

(Gallipoli=Dardanelles)
The Battle of Dardanelles was one of the most important turning
points of the First World War for the Ottoman Empire. There is no
doubt about that."
On March 18, 1915, the Ottoman Empire repelled the attack of the
allied states from the sea. A month later - on April 25, 1915, British,
Australian, New Zealand and French forces attacked the Gallipoli
Peninsula. The fighting continued until the end of the year. The
parties suffered serious losses.
The battle of Dardanelles consisted of two stages, sea and land. The
fleets of the allied states led by the British Empire thought that they
would easily capture the Dardanelles Strait by sea, and in this way
they aimed to approach Istanbul, the capital of the Ottoman Empire.
They thought of providing their ally Russia with food and military
force by capturing the straits of Istanbul and Dardanelles.
Ayhan Aktar also notes that Dardanelles was strategically important
in the context of the First World War: "According to military history,
Dardanelles battles were the idea of British Navy Minister Winston
Churchill. He wanted to defeat Dardanelles, occupy Istanbul, and
collapse the Ottoman Empire. "The defense of Dardanelles was very
necessary. Because capturing it meant capturing the passage to
Istanbul. After crossing the Dardanelles Strait, it was possible to reach
Istanbul after six hours under the conditions of that time."
The Battle of Dardanelles was of great importance for all the states
participating in the First World War, and it was written in the history
of the allied states as a fact of "military failure". Especially for
Australia and New Zealand, the Battle of Dardanelles played an
important role in the formation of national identity. After the First
World War, the German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman
empires collapsed. "The battle of Dardanelles was very difficult. In
May, a temporary ceasefire was announced for several hours due to
the smell of the body. Because there was a distance of 80 meters
between the trenches. Bodies in the middle too. Their smell prevented
them from continuing the battle." The liberation operations were
completed on January 9, 1916. The Gallipoli wars resulted in the
victory of the Ottoman forces.
Parties to the conflict: 1) Great Britain, Australia, New Zealand,
British India, France
2) Ottoman Empire, German Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire
losses by allies 302,000, losses by the Ottomans 250 000
Dardanelles War — a sea and land battle between the Ottoman
Empire and the Entente states during the First World War between
1915 and 1916. The Union states entered the Dardanelles Strait as the
first target by taking Istanbul, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, to
take control of the straits, to open a reliable food and military trade
route with Russia, and to weaken one of the German allies. However,
their attacks were unsuccessful, and both sides suffered heavy losses,
and the Union states retreated. This battle became legendary as a great
victory of a country in a state of destruction, and remained in the
memory of every citizen.
After the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, the day when the
British and French fleets were forced to retreat, that is, March 18, was
declared as the day of remembrance of the martyrs of Dardanelles.
For the allies, however, this battle has been counted as a symbol of
military incompetence and disaster.

22) The importance of the Moscow and Kars

treaties of 1921
The signing of the Moscow Treaty has great historical significance.
First of all, this agreement solved the existing problems between
Russia and Turkey. Russia and Turkey united in a close alliance and
became natural allies. The Moscow agreement protected the integrity
of Azerbaijan and clarified the issue of territorial belonging to
Nakhchivan. On October 13, 1921, Turkey signed an agreement
between the three South Caucasian republics in Kars with the
participation of a representative of Soviet Russia. The agreement
consisted of 20 articles and 3 annexes. A number of provisions of this
treaty were consistent with the corresponding articles of the Moscow
Treaty. In general, this document rejected treaties with unequal rights,
treaties accepted by force and the Treaty of Sèvres. The agreement
covered the entire complex of provisions on the territorial issues of
Kars and Batum, the operation of transport communications and the
provision of free movement of citizens, and the inviolability of civil
rights issues regardless of nationality and religion. Article 5 of the
agreement was directly related to the fate of Nakhchivan. Here, again,
the issue of keeping Nakhchivan within Azerbaijan and granting
autonomy was determined. Unlike the Moscow Treaty, Article 5 of
the Kars Treaty defined the parties who agreed on the status of
Nakhchivan. These were the governments of Turkey, Azerbaijan and
Armenia. Armenia's claims against Nakhchivan have no legal basis
and these claims are contrary to international law. Both the Moscow
and Kars treaties are the basis of Nakhchivan's right to immunity.
Treaty of Kars 1921 October 13
On March 16, 1921, between the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist
Republic and the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, within the
framework of the fulfillment of the requirements of the Moscow
Peace Treaty, on October 13 of the same year, the Transcaucasian
Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, which included Azerbaijan,
Armenia, and the Georgian SSR and Turkey signed a peace treaty in
the city of Kars. The treaty entered into force on September 11, 1922,
and the expiration date was not determined.
With this agreement, other issues between Turkey and the South
Caucasus republics, especially the territorial-border problem, were
resolved. The main provisions of this agreement coincided with the
corresponding articles of the Moscow agreement. The Treaty of Kars
is a confirmation of the provisions defined by the Treaty of Moscow.
According to the agreement, the northeastern borders of Turkey
remained unchanged. Turkey did not make any concessions in terms
of territory. The issue regarding Nakhchivan has found its fair
solution.
In 1920, on October 28, Zangazur and Nakhchivan were conceded to
Armenia without taking into account the opinion of Azerbaijan by the
agreement concluded between Soviet Russia and Dashnak Armenia.
Nakhchivan, known to Armenians, protested against the separation of
this land from Azerbaijan. This was met with the protest of Turkey.
The Republic of Armenia, unable to stand up to the will of the people
of Nakhchivan, used a diplomatic trick and announced that it
recognized Nakhchivan as an independent Soviet republic on
December 28, 1920. It was shown that the Dashnaks have given up
their territorial claims against him. The Russian side was also forced
to recognize the right of Nakhchivan to decide its own destiny due to
certain political reasons, taking into account the will of the Muslim
population of Nakhchivan, taking into account the proposals of the
Turkish side and the position of a number of members of the
Azerbaijani Bolshevik leaders. The transfer of Zangezur district,
which separates the territory of Nakhchivan from Azerbaijan, to
Armenia necessitated the question of Nakhchivan's autonomy. The
government of the Armenian SSR made new attempts to annex
Nakhchivan. However, in an opinion poll held in January 1921, more
than 90 percent of the population of Nakhchivan voted for the
autonomous status of the district to remain within the Azerbaijan
SSR. At that time, the Turkish delegation came to Moscow to
negotiate with Russia and conclude an agreement. The delegation was
first led by Bekir Sami bey, and then by Yusif Kamal bey. The
negotiations that started on February 26 resulted in the Moscow
Agreement "On Friendship and Brotherhood" on March 16. The
agreement consisted of 16 articles and 2 annexes. On the same day,
the Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the RK(b)P
approved the proposals of B. Shakhtakhtinsky and adopted a decision
on the creation of the Nakhchivan Soviet Republic within Azerbaijan.
According to the third article of the Moscow Treaty, Nakhchivan was
given the status of autonomy within Azerbaijan. According to the
terms of the agreement, Azerbaijan could not give its protectorate to a
third country. This condition was accepted at the insistence of the
Turkish side and was aimed at preventing the transfer of Nakhchivan
to Armenia in the future.

23. The consequences of the treaties of Sevres

and Gyumri on Turkey
Treaty of Sèvres 1920:
The agreement signed between the Ottoman Empire and the
victorious Entente countries on August 10, 1920 in Sèvres, France,
along with the huge territorial losses, actually questioned the
existence of Turkey as an independent state. Although the Treaty of
Sèvres consisted of 433 articles in total, the main noteworthy articles
were the following.
1. Turkey was forbidden to maintain an army of more than 50,000
people.
2. All maritime areas of the country, including Thrace, were united to
Greece.
3. All the western territories of Turkey, including Istanbul, Edirne and
Izmir, were part of the Kingdom of Greece.
4. Turkey renounces all the territories of the Ottoman Empire in the
Middle East and North Africa (Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, Cyprus, Libya,
Egypt, the United Arab Emirates, Tunisia, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait,
etc.), and independent states were declared in those territories.
5. Turkey recognized the French mandate in the Cilicia region (the
area from Alanya to the vicinity of Adana).
6. Turkey renounced its claims to the island of Cyprus.
7. Turkey recognizes the independence of Armenia, Van, Kars,
Erzurum, Bitlis, Trabzon and Mount Ağrı were recognized as its
constituent parts.
8. Turkey and the countries that signed the agreement recognize the
independence of Azerbaijan and called to determine its borders with
Armenia and Georgia through dialogue. If the negotiations fail, the
borders of Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia should be determined
with the help of a special mediation commission of the League of
Nations.
9. He should have recognized the establishment of the state of
Kurdistan, with Diyarbakir as its capital on the territory of Turkey.
This agreement effectively deprived Turkey of the right to an
independent state. Parliament refused to recognize the agreement. The
Sultan's government was outlawed.That agreement, signed in the
difficult days of Turkey, is still presented as a legal document by the
revanchist circles of Armenia, Greece and other countries. However,
the Treaty of Sèvres has already lost its validity as a legal document
and has been replaced by the Peace Treaty of Lausanne.
The Treaty of Sèvres, which entered into force de jure, was de facto
never in force. Thus, the news of the signing of the agreement was
strongly condemned by the Grand National Assembly, which was
founded and chaired by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in Ankara. Atatürk's
government refused to recognize the treaty and declared the
signatories of the disgraceful Treaty of Sèvres traitors.
The Gyumri Treaty:
The Gyumri Treaty is a peace treaty signed between Turkey and
Armenia on the night of December 2-3, 1920. This agreement is
considered the first international agreement signed by the Grand
National Assembly of Turkey. This agreement was supposed to end
the military operations between the Turkish army and the Armenian
armed forces between September and December 1920. The agreement
consisted of 18 articles. According to the terms of the agreement, the
Armenian government had to give up its claim to Turkish lands and
create conditions for the return of Muslims expelled from the territory
of Armenia. The treaty also defined the border between the Republic
of Armenia and Turkey. According to the terms of this agreement,
Armenia should have an army of no more than 1,500 people, and this
army could not have more than 8 cannons. The maximum number of
machine guns could not exceed 20.
Armenia accepted the abrogation of the "Treaty of Sèvres". Also, the
Armenian government declared all agreements against Turkey or
against Turkey's interests invalid.
Turkey took control of the Armenian railways and had the
opportunity to "take military measures" on the territory of Armenia.
According to Article 7 of the treaty, both sides refused to compensate
each other for the damage caused during the war. The agreement was
to be ratified and entered into force within one month from the date of
signing.
A few hours before representatives of the Dashnak government signed
the treaty in Gyumri on the night of December 2-3, the Dashnak
government in Yerevan signed an agreement with the representative
of Soviet Russia Legran on the establishment of Soviet power in
Armenia. On December 4, the army units of Soviet Russia entered
Yerevan. The Soviet government established in Armenia refused to
recognize the treaty signed in Gyumri and declared it invalid.
24. Establishment of the Republic of Turkey
The First World War ended in disaster for the Ottoman Empire. The
war disrupted the entire economic life of the Ottoman Empire. The
country suffered a heavy defeat in the war, the empire collapsed. Until
April 1919, the British troops occupied the southeastern part of
Anatolia (Cilicia), and together with the French, they occupied the
zone of Eastern Thrace and the Black Sea straits. Greece captured
Izmir in Western Anatolia. Mustafa Kemal Pasha, a young officer,
took over the leadership of the Turkish people who started the
national liberation movement. Under his leadership, a large National
All-Turk Congress representing all of Anatolia gathered in Sivas. The
Assembly, which started its work in January 1920, adopted the
"National Oath". In this document, Turkey's independence and
territorial integrity were declared within its borders from the time of
the conclusion of the Mudros Treaty. On April 23, 1920, the Grand
National Assembly of Turkey (Grand National Assembly) was
opened in Ankara. Mustafa Kemal Pasha was elected the chairman of
the Parliament and formed the government. On June 22, 1920, the
Allies deployed the Greek regular army against the liberation
movement. A large part of Western Anatolia and Rumeli, the
European part of Turkey were occupied. The Allies forced the sultan's
government to sign the Treaty of Sèvres. This agreement effectively
deprived Turkey of the right to an independent state. Parliament
refused to recognize the agreement. The Sultan's government was
outlawed.
Dashnak Armenia declared war on Turkey. Kars, Oltun and
Sarikamish were occupied. However, Mustafa Kemal's government
quickly delivered crushing blows to the enemy and liberated the
occupied territories. Dashnak Armenia was forced to sign a peace
treaty in Gyumru. The provinces of Ardahan and Artvin, which were
in the hands of Georgia, were also returned. As a result of the battle
that took place around the village of Inonu in January 1921, the rapid
progress of the Greeks on the western front was stopped. This battle
was a turning point in the Turkish national liberation movement. At
the end of March of the same year, the attacking Greek troops were
again defeated near the village of Inonu. This battle remained in
history as the Second Inonu Battle. In the battle of Sakarya, which
took place in September, a brilliant victory was won over the Greeks.
France and Italy realized the futility of continuing the war with
Turkey and withdrew their troops from Anatolia. As a result of the
offensive operations started in August 1922, the allies faced complete
defeat and were forced to sign the Mudanya Peace Treaty on October
11. On November 1, the Sultanate was abolished. A peace treaty was
signed between "Atlanta" and Turkey on July 24, 1923 in Lausanne.
The occupation regime, Mudros and Sèvres treaties were canceled,
Turkey's independence and new borders were recognized. The Treaty
of Lausanne meant that the Turkish nation-state legally confirmed its
existence in the international world. On October 29, 1923, the
National Assembly declared Turkey a republic. Mustafa Kemal was
elected president (1923-1938).

25. The role of Turkish intellectuals in the

formation of Turkism
The Turkish nation, being a large nation, has historically spread over
large areas, and several Turkish states have existed in these areas at
the same time. Thus, separate Turkic peoples with a history of
independent statehood emerged. It is clear that Turkish nationalism as
a national ideology covers all Turkish peoples. That is, the goal of this
ideology is the unification of Turkish states in a certain form at the
highest level.
But before this goal, it is necessary to achieve national goals at the
level of individual Turkish peoples and states. According to these
goals, three levels of Turkish nationalism are defined. The first level
of Turkism is the solution of national issues in individual Turkic
peoples.
The second level of Turkicism includes Turkic peoples, which are
closer in terms of certain characteristics (territory, moral values, etc.)
and reflect their certain unity.
The third level of Turkism includes all Turkic peoples. This level of
Turkish nationalism is called "Turanism" or "all Turkism" ("Pant-
Turkism"). Sometimes the expression "Turkism" is used in the
meaning of the third level of our national ideology. The goal here is to
achieve the political and cultural unity of all Turkish peoples and to
become a power center in the world.
Gaspiral (1851-1914) is the first thinker known to history who
fundamentally advanced the ideas of Turkism at the third level. The
first traces of these ideas can be found in 19th century Azerbaijani
intellectuals (M.F. Akhundzade, H. Zardabi, etc.). The ideas of
Turanism were later developed by A. Huseynzade, Y. Akchura, Z.
Goyalp and other ideologues. New-minded intellectuals such as M.F.
Akhundov, H.B. Zardabi, U. Hajibeyov, Y.V. Chamenzaminli, J.
Mammadguluzade, and "Akinci" and "Molla Nasreddin" brought
Turkism and enlightenment to a new stage. Their actions in the field
of language and culture also gave a green light to political Turkism
and produced national devotees such as M. A. Rasulzade, A. B.
Topchubashov, F. Nemanzade, F. Kh. Khoysky. Thanks to their hard
work, the first parliamentary republic was created in the Islamic-
Turkish world at the beginning of the 20th century. The national press
was founded. For the first time, a university was established in the
national language. The Azerbaijani people became one of the first
carriers of Science and culture, political national consciousness
among the Turkic peoples. 3) Finally, Turkism originated in Turkey.
One of the prominent ideologists of Turkism, Ziya Gokalp, writes:
"Turan" or "turs", "Turks" - this is a common name that unites all
Turks. After the first Russian revolution (1905-1907), a number of
intellectuals living in Russia who spread the idea of Turkism were
forced to turn to Turkey due to political conditions. Yusif Akchura
oglu (Tatar by nationality), Ali Bey Huseynzade, Ahmed Agha oglu,
Ismayil Bey Gaspiral and other intellectuals continued their activities
in Turkey. Under their influence, Ziya Goy Alp, Mustafa Kemal
Atatürk, Ali Kemal (who published a newspaper called "Turk" in
Cairo), Zaki Togan and other Turkic ideologues grew up. After the
first Russian revolution (1905-1907), a number of intellectuals living
in Russia who spread the idea of Turkism were forced to turn to
Turkey due to political conditions. Yusif Akchura oglu (Tatar by
nationality), Ali Bey Huseynzade, Ahmed Agha oglu, Ismayil Bey
Gaspiral and other intellectuals continued their activities in Turkey.
Under their influence, Ziya Goy Alp, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, Ali
Kemal (who published a newspaper called "Turk" in Cairo), Zaki
Togan and other Turkic ideologues grew up.

26. Territorial claims of Armenia against

Turkey at the beginning of the 20th century
On the eve of the First World War, Russia again put forward the
"Armenian question" for use. The "Dashnakstyun" party of the
Armenians was masked with the slogan of " self-determination" and
became a vassal of the Entente states, primarily Russia. In the autumn
of 1912, the Catholicos of all Armenians appealed to Nicholas II to
"protect" the Armenians living in the Ottoman Empire. The Russian
government promised to protect the Armenians living in the Ottoman
Empire in order to use them as a tool in the future.
Russia used Armenians for this. As soon as the war started, the
Armenian committees organized their volunteer regiments to realize
the dreams of "Great Armenia" and moved against Turkey on the
South Caucasus front in front of the Russian army. With the arrival of
the Russians in the region, on the one hand, the groups of
Dashnaksutyun, and on the other hand, Hnchak groups raided the
Turkish villages where the men were at war, tortured and killed
women, children and the elderly. As a result of the participation of
"volunteer Armenian regiments" from Russia, the number of armed
Armenians operating in Turkey reached 30 thousand. As a result of
the resistance of the Turks to the Armenian armed groups, many
people were killed on both sides. Since the entire Armenian
population of Eastern Anatolia revolted in February 1915, the
Ottoman government was forced to take decisive measures. On
February 25, the General Staff sent instructions to all units that
Armenians should not be drawn into military service under any
circumstances. Thus, they disarmed the Armenians. However, they
were kept in active military service in auxiliary military units. In
1915, on April 24, the Ministry of Internal Affairs issued an order to
close the Armenian committee centers, confiscate their property, and
arrest the heads of the committees. In accordance with this instruction,
2,345 Armenians were arrested. The day of April 24, which
Armenians annually celebrate as the day of genocide, is actually the
day of the arrest of Armenian committees. The entry of the Ottoman
Empire into the war against England, France and Russia in 1914 was
considered a great opportunity by the Armenian committees. The
Armenians who gathered volunteer regiments and joined the Russian
army entered the Eastern Anatolian lands together with the Russian
invading armies. The Ottoman state was forced to take retaliatory
measures for the treachery of the Armenians. Because the Armenians
were in alliance with the Russians and they were killing the peaceful
population. Armenian thugs spared no one: they killed the elderly,
children, pregnant women, babies with unprecedented brutality. In
response to these, the Ottoman government began not to recruit
Armenians for military service, to abolish Armenian committee
centers, and to arrest their leaders. The Ottoman government decided
to transfer the rebel Armenians to Syria and Lebanon as well. At that
time, these territories were part of the Ottoman Empire. Since the
deportations and arrests began on April 24, 1915, Armenians
celebrate this day as the so-called Armenian Genocide, and although
they tried to have it recognized by other countries, they could not
achieve their insidious goals.
In order to ensure stability in the rear of the army fighting on the
Caucasian front, to protect the life of the peaceful Muslim population,
the Ottoman government moved Armenians from the front – line
regions-Eastern Anatolia to regions far from the front, primarily
Mesopotamia. According to the official Russian command, at the very
beginning of the war, 300 thousand Armenian soldiers and officers
were fighting in the Russian army. In order to ensure stability in the
rear of the army fighting on the Caucasian front, to protect the life of
the peaceful Muslim population, the Ottoman government moved
Armenians from the front – line regions-Eastern Anatolia to regions
far from the front, primarily Mesopotamia. Following the defeat of
the Ottoman Empire in World War I, the Allied Powers and the
Ottoman government signed the Treaty of Sèvres on August 10, 1920.
This treaty included provisions for the creation of an independent
Armenian state, which would encompass a significant portion of the
historical Armenian territories in the eastern Ottoman Empire.
Specifically, it allocated the provinces of Erzurum, Van, Bitlis, and
Trabzon to Armenia, thus acknowledging Armenian territorial claims.
The Treaty of Sèvres was never fully implemented due to the Turkish
War of Independence led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. The nationalist
Turkish forces rejected the treaty and successfully established the
Republic of Turkey. This led to the renegotiation of terms and the
signing of the Treaty of Lausanne on July 24, 1923. The Treaty of
Lausanne annulled the provisions of the Treaty of Sèvres and
established the current borders of Turkey, which did not include the
territories claimed by Armenians.

27.Characteristics of Turkish politics in the 60s

of the 20th century
After Turkey joined NATO, the United States signed a number of
bilateral contracts and agreements of a military nature. According to
the agreement concluded in 1954, it was allowed to establish a US
military air base in Turkey. The strong influence of the US in Turkey
caused dissatisfaction in certain circles in the country. The
deterioration of the economic situation also worsened the situation of
the Menderes government. General Jamal Gursel, the commander of
the ground forces, resigned in protest and later staged a military coup.
As a result of the coup in 1960, Jamal Gursel became the president.
Jamal Gursel (1961-1966)
Ismet Inonu formed a coalition government. Ensuring rapid growth
and reaching advanced countries became the main task of the
coalition government. The Edalet Party criticizes the internal politics
of the CXP, saying that this policy serves to create a dictatorship of a
group of people. One of the main demands was the amnesty of the
arrested members of the overthrown government. EP condemned the
passive position of the CXP government in the Cyprus issue. It was
impossible for the CXP government to continue its activities, and the
government resigned on February 13, 1965. The opposition parties
came together and agreed on the conditions for the formation of a
coalition government. On February 20, a coalition government was
formed under the leadership of Urkuplu. An important event during S.
Urkuplu's government was the 1965 parliamentary elections. In these
elections held on October 10, EP won most of the seats and formed
the government headed by S. Demirel. Turkey and the USSR showed
mutual interest in the development of relations between the two
countries. This created an opportunity for economic and scientific-
technical cooperation between the two countries. In 1964-1965,
mutual visits of foreign ministers were carried out. Despite the new
constitution and political reforms, the 1960s were marked by political
instability, coalition governments, and frequent changes in leadership.
The Justice Party (AP), led by Süleyman Demirel, emerged as a
dominant force, winning the 1965 and 1969 general elections.
However, political tensions and conflicts persisted, often leading to
short-lived coalition governments.

28. Turkey's role in solving the Cyprus problem

Between 1952 and 1954, Greece's appeals to England regarding
Cyprus. England stated that the island's status quo cannot be changed.
In August 1954, Greece appealed to the UN regarding Cyprus. After
that, the Turkish state announced its official position. Turkey wanted
the island to remain under British rule. Since then, Turkey has started
to be busy as one of the most important foreign policy actors in
Cyprus. In 1958, the violence caused by the Greek Cypriots created a
new tension. England started discussions with Greece and Turkey to
resolve the issue. According to the agreements signed in Zurich and
London in 1959, it was decided to establish an independent republic
in Cyprus. When Britain granted independence to Cyprus in 1960, it
rejected "enosis" as an unreasonable demand. After the independence
of Cyprus in 1960, the Greeks began to oppress the Turks. In order to
defend themselves, the Turkish Cypriots were forced to form a
military unit of about 12,000 people. In response, the Cypriot
government imposed military conscription. Under the pressure of
Greece, Grivas was made commander of the new army. In 1967,
Grivas ordered an attack against the Turks in order to carry out
"enosis" by force. However, despite the numerical advantage, the
Greeks could not break the resistance of the Turks. A war broke out
between Greece and Turkey. In 1968, under the pressure of the
international community, Greece was forced to recall the division it
secretly sent to Cyprus, General Grivas was released from his post
and removed from Cyprus. In the early 1970s, supporters of
unification in Cyprus became active again. Grivas secretly returned to
Cyprus in 1971 and created a terrorist cell. The goal was to create an
environment for Greek Cypriot intervention in the island. The officers
of the Grivas were dominant in the National Guard. In July 1974, the
National Guard committed massacres against the Turks in the south of
the island. Turkey's diplomatic efforts did not yield any results.
Turkey deployed its troops to the island on July 20, 1974 to protect
Cyprus from foreign interference. In October 1974, the Cyprus
problem was discussed at the UN Security Council. In the adopted
resolution, it was envisaged to respect the territorial integrity of
Cyprus, its independence and non-alignment policy, the withdrawal of
all foreign troops, and the settlement. In January 1975, inter-
community talks were started with the mediation of the UN Secretary
General. In February 1975, the leaders of the Turkish community
announced the establishment of the Turkish Cypriot state in the part
of Cyprus occupied by Turkish troops. In 1976, R. Denktas was
elected the president of that country. On November 14, 1983, this
country was named the Turkish Republic of Cyprus.

29. The socio-economic and political situation of

Central Asia in the 50-80s of the 20th century
After the war, first of all, work was started to restore the national
economy. The main task was to restore the national economy and to
bring it to the previous level. First of all, the restoration of heavy
industry was envisaged (in general, the basis of the rise of the national
economy and for the purpose of further strengthening the country's
defense capability). The restoration of the national economy was
generally carried out at the expense of the economic base of the
eastern regions of the country. The restoration and reconstruction of
the national economy, the transition from military production to
peaceful construction were accompanied by great difficulties. The
development of new industrial areas has gained a lot of momentum in
the whole country. Agricultural recovery was further hampered by
the drought of 1946. An unprecedented drought occurred in the
country in the last 50 years. In addition, the state could not allocate
the same amount of funds for the restoration of both industry and
agriculture at the same time. The main attention was paid to the
restoration of the industry. Measures were taken to strengthen
collective farms from an organizational and economic point of view.
Small collective farms were combined into larger collective farms. In
these years, the number of Russian-speaking population in the north
of Kazakhstan increased. In 1956, 200,000 people were mobilized to
work in construction and enterprises in the eastern and northern
regions of the country, as well as to work in the Donbas mines. The
50s are also characterized by the rise of scientific and technical
progress. The race for socialism has expanded. The main attention
was paid to the development of grain farming. Kazakhstan became
one of the main grain bases of the USSR.
The 1950s were accompanied by growth in all areas of the country's
life. The national economy was restored, the industry surpassed the
pre-war level. In 1956, by the decision of the Supreme Soviet of
Kazakhstan, the Bostandak region of Kazakhstan was given to
Uzbekistan (because it is economically close to Uzbekistan).
Kazakhstan gave about 1 million hectares of land to Uzbekistan
(Golodnaya Steppe). In turn, Uzbekistan gave a part of these
territories (Golodnaya Steppe) to Tajikistan. After the end of the war,
there were complex tasks in the field of cultural construction. First of
all, it was intended to restore destroyed cultural institutions in the
occupied territories. As a result of the restoration of education and the
expansion of the school network, in the late 1940s and early 1950s,
the entire country switched to a compulsory 7-year education system.
In the 1950s, the number of secondary schools doubled. Young
workers and peasants had the opportunity to study, provided they did
not leave production. The system of boarding schools was introduced.
Wide conditions were created for the development of science. The
activity of scientific research institutes was restored, their material
and technical base was improved. New science centers were created
in the republics. Starting from 1956, serious changes took place in the
social and political life of Kyrgyzstan. Officially, Stalin's regime
began to be criticized, and many repressed persons were acquitted. As
a result of the construction of the largest gas pipeline, the Bukhara-
Ural line, Uzbek gas was transported to the Urals. A very rich gold
reserve has been discovered in Uzbekistan, and exploitation of the
Muruntau gold ore deposit has begun. New large-scale cotton-
growing regions were established, and Uzbekistan became a huge
cotton base of the USSR. In the second half of the 80s, the national
movement in Uzbekistan began to take on an anti-Russian character.
In December 1988, a rally was held in Tashkent with the participation
of young people. The lack of timely reaction of the Uzbek leadership
made the process increasingly unmanageable. Later, the movement
turned against the Ahiska Turks. The center of events was Fergana
province. According to Uzbek historians, this bloody incident was
carried out by the security agencies of the center, and by using the
"Turkish card" they intended to bind Uzbekistan tightly into a
totalitarian state. Turkmenistan ranked third in the Soviet Union due
to oil production. Even the wine industry was being developed in
Turkmenistan. Turkmenistan provided the raw material base for the
Soviet empire and the income obtained from its main resources to the
budget of the union. At the same time, Turkmenistan never asked for
subsidies from Moscow.

30. The collapse of the USSR, the creation of

independent Turkish states in Central Asia
On the eve of the collapse of the USSR, the democratic movements in
Central Asia became stronger, and the contradictions on ethnic
grounds became sharper. One of these events was the 1989 Fergana
events. In June 1989, a bloody massacre of Ahiska Turks took place
in Uzbekistan, and more than 100 people died. The riots were quelled
only by the deployment of additional police units and internal troops.
But the Uzbeks achieved their goal: the Turks were urgently
transferred to Russia on the instructions of the Soviet government. On
June 7, 1990, clashes between the Kyrgyz and Uzbeks reached their
climax in the city of Osh. The riots arose due to a dispute over the
ownership of collective farm lands. To quell the unrest, the Soviet
authorities had to send army units into the emergency zone. On
December 16, 1991, the Supreme Council of the Kazakh SSR adopted
the Law on the State Independence of the Republic of Kazakhstan,
and Nursultan Nazarbayev became the first President of the Republic
of Kazakhstan. 5 days later, in this status, he signed the Alma-Ata
Declaration on the Goals and Principles of the CIS, which confirmed
the abolition of the USSR.
Kazakhstan: Declared independence on December 16, 1991. The
largest Central Asian state by territory and rich in natural resources,
particularly oil and gas. Nursultan Nazarbayev became the first
President, leading the country through a period of economic reforms
and modernization.
Uzbekistan: Declared independence on August 31, 1991. Known for
its historical cities like Samarkand and Bukhara, and significant
agricultural production, particularly cotton. Islam Karimov became
the first President and ruled with an authoritarian style until his death
in 2016.
Turkmenistan: Declared independence on October 27, 1991. Rich in
natural gas reserves. Saparmurat Niyazov (Turkmenbashi) became the
first President, establishing a highly autocratic regime with a strong
personality cult.
Kyrgyzstan: Declared independence on August 31, 1991. Known for
its mountainous terrain and relatively liberal political environment
compared to its neighbors. Askar Akayev became the first President,
but the country experienced political instability and multiple
revolutions in subsequent years.
Tajikistan: Declared independence on September 9, 1991. The only
Persian-speaking republic among the Turkish states, though it shares
cultural and historical ties with the region. Emomali Rahmon emerged
as a key leader after a brutal civil war that lasted from 1992 to 1997,
leading the country through a challenging period of recovery.
At the beginning of the 90s of the 20th century, the newly
independent Central Asian states faced 3 different directions while
determining their place in the system of international relations. These
were: the direction of Russia, the direction of Central Asia and the
foreign direction. The direction of Russia is the unity of the Central
Asian states within the framework of the former Soviet Union and
their cooperation with Russia in the future; Regional unity and
integration of peoples based on cultural and ethnic commonality in
the direction of Central Asia; and the foreign direction meant the
broad choice of foreign policy activities of the Central Asian states
and their relations with other states and regions of the world. At the
beginning, most of the states of the region, which had just begun to
experience the atmosphere of independence, refused the direction of
Russia. The idea of the Central Asian regional union, which is the
second direction, did not fully realize itself. Thus, there was a sharp
disagreement in determining the place and role of the regional states
in this union. And finally, the third – external direction. The Central
Asian states expressed their preference for this direction. But at the
same time, certain differences in the foreign policy priorities of each
state were also evident. Some states, based on the religious and
spiritual commonalities of their peoples, put cooperation with Islamic
States at the forefront (Uzbekistan, Tajikistan), others considered the
economic development and achievements of the countries of the
Pacific region more attractive (Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan), and still
others focused on secular Western countries (Kyrgyzstan), where they
had high hopes for financial assistance. There were rumors that there
would be a sharp struggle between the "secular Islam" of Turkey and
the "radical Islam" of Iran in Central Asia. However, these
assumptions did not come true. The geopolitical struggle in the region
is between the United States on the one hand, and Russia, China, and
partly Iran on the other. In addition to these countries, Turkey, Iran,
Pakistan, India and European Union countries also have the ability to
influence events in the region.
Russia and China have had a very important influence on the region
throughout history. Despite the weakening of Russia's interest in the
region in the first years of the collapse of the USSR, it has become the
link connecting Central Asia with Europe, as usual. Any attempt from
Europe to Central Asia and vice versa is impossible without the
participation of Russia. Russia shows the struggle against the Afghan-
Islamic factor as its priority interest in Central Asia. In addition,
Russia clearly shows that it is interested in the transportation of
energy carriers in the region. To ensure their security, Central Asian
states cooperate with NATO within the framework of the "Partnership
for Peace" program, with Russia within the framework of the
"Collective Security Treaty Organization", and with Russia and China
within the framework of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. In
addition, Russia has military bases in Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan.
After the collapse of the USSR, China, which has a significant
influence in the Asia-Pacific and South Asia regions, got the
opportunity to influence the Central Asia region as well. Due to its
geographical position, China plays the role of a bridge connecting the
Central Asia and Asia-Pacific regions.

31. Aggravation of ethnic conflicts in Central

Asia on the eve of the collapse of the USSR
After the collapse of the USSR, China, which has a significant
influence in the Asia-Pacific and South Asia regions, got the
opportunity to influence the Central Asia region as well. Due to its
geographical position, China plays the role of a bridge connecting the
Central Asia and Asia-Pacific regions. China has repeatedly stated
that it is important for it to establish friendly and neighborly relations
with the newly independent states of the region, as well as friendly
relations with Russia. China has no intention of "filling the void" left
by the collapse of the USSR. Another reason why China is not very
active in Central Asia is that it fears the spread of Islamism and
separatism in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. Kazakh and
Kyrgyz political scientists put forward slightly different opinions
about his "passive policy". They believe that China is implementing a
policy of "creeping invasion" in relation to their countries. That is, a
high migration of the Chinese population is observed in the border
regions with Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. China prefers more
economic relations, which are manifested in the form of increasing
investment in trade, interest in transport corridors, drawing fuel
pipelines from Central Asia, regulating market relations. İt is noted
that the Central Asian states stand in solidarity with China in the
issues of Taiwan, Tibet and East Turkestan in security issues. The
third country that will help Central Asian countries to get rid of
geographical isolation is Iran.

32. The importance of the summits of the heads

of state of the Central Asian states
These summit meetings created an opportunity for the development of
Azerbaijan's relations with the Turkic states of Central Asia. The main
goal was to expand the ways of cooperation, especially in the fields of
energy, economy and transport. The first summit meeting was held in
Ankara on October 31, 1992, hosted by the President of the Republic
of Turkey, Turgut Ozal, and attended by the heads of state of
Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan,
and the Ankara Declaration was signed as a result. Although the
clause related to the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict was not included in
the Ankara Declaration, it was reflected in the final speech of the
President of the Republic of Turkey, Turgut Ozal. The 2nd Summit
was held in Istanbul on October 18-19, 1994. This date is very
important for Azerbaijan. Especially after signing the "Contract of the
Century" with international oil companies, he needed support to
ensure the implementation of this contract. Some foreign and
domestic forces, who were not satisfied with the signing of the
"Contract of the Century" between Azerbaijan and foreign oil
companies on September 20, 1994, tried to disrupt political stability
in the country. The 3rd summit was held in Bishkek in 1995. The
summit was attended by the heads of State of Kyrgyzstan, Azerbaijan,
Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan,Turkey and Turkmenistan, at the end of
which the Bishkek Declaration was signed. In the declaration, it was
decided to cooperate with relevant ministries in order to connect
direct and transit transport lines, ensure independent movement of
services and investments, facilitate the activities of businessmen and
eliminate obstacles to cooperation in the field of mutual trade,
banking and insurance. The issue of combating terrorism and drug
smuggling within the framework of the events between the parties
was first touched upon in the Bishkek Declaration. At the summit
held in Astana in 1998, the Astana Declaration was signed and the
Charter of the Secretariat was adopted. In the Astana Declaration, the
importance of the joint implementation of the "Revitalization of the
Silk Road" program was noted, cooperation with international
financial organizations in the production of energy resources and
delivery to international markets was noted, and international
organizations should use natural gas and an agreement was expressed
regarding the activities carried out in order to deliver oil to the world
markets through Turkey. At the summit held in Baku in 2000, it was
decided to operate the secretariat in Turkey, and at the end of the
meeting, the Baku Declaration was signed. The last summit meeting
of the heads of state of Turkic-speaking countries was held in Istanbul
in 2010. Although Turkic-speaking countries are members of other
regional organizations, difficulties have arisen from time to time in
cooperation within these organizations. Other regional organizations
also served the geopolitical interests of the great powers and were
more political and military in nature, aiming to strengthen their
hegemony in the region.

33. The role of TURKSOY in the development

of cultural relations of the Turkic states
The International Organization of Turkish Culture (TURKSOY) is the
first practical result of cooperation between the heads of state of
Turkic-speaking countries, the first organization in the Turkic world
where multilateral cooperation exists. According to Article 4 of the
Nakhchivan Agreement, the parties cooperate within the framework
of TURKSOY in order to develop cooperation in the fields of science,
education, culture and art, spread and recognize the common values of
the Turkic world at the international level, and deepen cultural
relations between Turkic-speaking countries. TURKSOY was
established in Almaty in 1993 based on an agreement signed by the
ministers of culture of 6 Turkish states. The purpose of TURKSOY is
to preserve, develop and revive the culture and art of Turkic-speaking
countries and peoples, to teach the basics of national culture to future
generations of Turkic-speaking countries. Later, Northern Cyprus and
the Gagauz Eli Turkic region, which is part of Moldova, together with
the Turkish autonomous republics of Tatarstan, Bashkortostan, Altai,
Sakha (Yakutia), Tuva and Khakas, which are part of the Russian
Federation, acquired observer status in TURKSOY. According to the
agreement on the establishment of TURKSOY, the institution has the
characteristics of an international organization. The highest decision-
making body of TURKSOY is the Permanent Council, which consists
of ministers of culture. The activity of TURKSOY is determined by
the Standing Council of Ministers of Culture of Turkic-speaking
countries. Decisions made at the meetings of this council are
implemented by the General Secretariat of TURKSOY. During the
10th TURKSOY meeting in 2010, a decision was made to declare one
city from the member countries as the “cultural capital of the Turkic
world” every year. In this context, Astana (Kazakhstan) in 2012,
Eskişehir (Turkey) in 2013, Kazan (Tatarstan) in 2014, Merv
(Turkmenistan) in 2015 and Sheki (Azerbaijan) in 2016 were elected
cultural capitals of the Turkic world. TURKSOY, like other Turkic-
speaking nations, continues to promote the culture and well-known
personalities of Azerbaijan in the world. On the initiative of
TURKSOY, the UN General Assembly declared March 21 as the
International Nowruz Day. In this context, TURKSOY celebrates
Novruz every year in the whole Turkic world, as well as in European
countries.

34. Establishment of diplomatic relations

between Azerbaijan and the Turkic states of
Central Asia
Azerbaijan-Kazakhstan relations

Kazakhstan is one of the first states with which Azerbaijan

established official relations. The first bilateral relations with this
country formally coincided with the period before the collapse of the
USSR. Thus, on September 30 - October 2, 1991, before the
declaration of state independence of Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan, the
Azerbaijani delegation visited Almaty and signed a 10-year agreement
on friendship, cooperation and good neighborliness within the
framework of the visit. signed between the two countries. One of the
first meetings of the presidents of the two countries took place on
October 19, 1994. President Heydar Aliyev, who participated in the
second summit meeting of the heads of state of Turkic-speaking
countries in Istanbul, discussed the prospects for the development of
relations. between countries with his Kazakh colleague Nursultan
Nazarbayev. The next meeting of President Heydar Aliyev with
Nursultan Nazarbayev took place on February 9, 1995 at the summit
of CIS heads of state held in Almaty. On September 16, 1996,
Kazakhstan President Nursultan Nazarbayev made his first official
visit to Azerbaijan. The following year, on June 10-11, 1997,
President Heydar Aliyev made his first official visit to Kazakhstan.
According to the results of the visit, a number of documents of special
importance, including the declaration on the further development and
deepening of cooperation between Azerbaijan and the Republic of
Kazakhstan, the memorandum on cooperation on the transportation of
oil to international markets, the intergovernmental agreement on visa-
free travel, the agreement on free trade and other documents have
been signed. On April 7, 2000, the President of Kazakhstan Nursultan
Nazarbayev visited Azerbaijan again. The development of bilateral
relations and friendship resulted in the resolution of a number of
areas, including the issue of sharing the bottom of the Caspian Sea,
which is very important for Azerbaijan and occupies an important
place in relations with Kazakhstan, between the two states. . In
November 2001, Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan signed an agreement on
the division of the bottom of the Caspian Sea based on the principle of
the middle line, taking into account the coastlines, relief of the seabed
and islands. On May 14, 2003, a final agreement was signed between
all three states - Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan and Russia - on the basis of
the mentioned principle, on the sharing of the seabed and the common
use of the water surface of the coastal states. With the agreement, the
division of the northern part of the Caspian between the littoral states
was finally resolved and the exact coordinates of the sea borders were
determined. According to the agreement, 19 percent of the bottom of
the Caspian Sea belonged to Russia, 29 percent to Kazakhstan, and
18-19 percent to Azerbaijan. As a result of the efforts of President
Ilham Aliyev, relations between the two countries have deepened and
reached the level of strategic cooperation. Ilham Aliyev's first official
visit to Kazakhstan took place in March 2004, the following year
when he was elected president. During the visit, a wide range of
views were exchanged on economic relations, especially cooperation
issues in the field of transportation of hydrocarbon resources of the
Caspian Sea to the world market, large-scale projects implemented by
both heads of state in the oil field. and the gas sector, especially the
participation of Kazakhstan in the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan project was of
great importance. On May 24, 2005, Nursultan Nazarbayev paid an
official visit to Azerbaijan, and during this visit, 6 documents were
signed, including an agreement on strategic partnership and alliance
relations between Azerbaijan and the Republic of Kazakhstan.

Apart from that, Kazakhstan has supported the positions of

Azerbaijan in other platforms, especially within the framework of the
Eurasian Economic Union. Thus, at the meeting of the Eurasian
Supreme Economic Council held on December 24, 2013 with the
participation of the presidents, Nursultan Nazarbayev expressed
Azerbaijan's concern about this issue with a statement that was met
with serious protest in Armenia. Thus, he demanded to clarify the
issue of the border with Nagorno-Karabakh and the surrounding
regions occupied by Armenia and the lack of effective customs
control on this border and said that official Yerevan's membership in
the organization is possible only within the borders recognized in the
Russian Federation. internationally. Also, at the beginning of April
2016, after the situation on the Armenian-Azerbaijani front line
became tense, Kazakhstan refused to participate in the EU summit to
be held on April 8. This refusal was met with serious protest by
Armenia and was perceived as an act of support for Azerbaijan's
position.

Azerbaijan-Uzbekistan relations

On October 19, 1991, just one day after the adoption of the
Constitutional Act on State Independence, the Azerbaijani delegation
visited Uzbekistan, and during the visit, an agreement on the
principles of economic and commercial cooperation between the two
countries was signed for 1992. Despite the success of the initial
contacts, in 1992-1993 there was a misunderstanding in interstate
relations due to internal political issues. At that time, the attitude of
the Azerbaijani officials to the internal socio-political processes
taking place in Uzbekistan was not well received by the authorities of
this country, and this brought a certain coldness to the bilateral
relations. The tension even led to the closure of the Baku-Dashkent
air route. However, since such a situation did not meet the interests of
any of the parties, efforts were soon started to improve relations. In
particular, with the election of Heydar Aliyev as President, a new
impetus was given to the development of bilateral relations. In 1993-
1995, meetings of heads of state and government of CIS member
states and a number of other international events were held between
Heydar Aliyev and his Uzbek counterpart Islam Karimov. Diplomatic
relations were established between the two states in October 1995,
and Islam Karimov's first official visit to Azerbaijan took place on
May 26-27, 1996. During the visit, the "Agreement on friendship and
cooperation between the Republic of Azerbaijan and the Republic of
Uzbekistan" was signed. In June 1996, the embassies of Azerbaijan
first opened in Tashkent, and then in May 1998, the embassies of
Uzbekistan began to operate in Baku. The official visit of the
President of the Republic of Azerbaijan Heydar Aliyev to Uzbekistan
on June 18-19, 1997 can be characterized as a new stage in the
development of relations. During the visit, 19 documents on
cooperation in various fields were signed between the two countries.
The two countries started active cooperation in a number of
international projects, including the creation of the TRASECA
corridor. On September 7-8, 1998, Islam Karimov participated in the
international conference dedicated to the restoration of the historical
Great Silk Road held in Baku within the framework of the TRASECA
program. Uzbekistan also joined the GUAM organization, which was
co-founded by Azerbaijan. After the election of Ilham Aliyev as the
President, a new stage in the bilateral relations with Uzbekistan has
begun within the framework of the expansion and deepening of
relations with the regional states. On March 23-24, 2004, President of
Azerbaijan Ilham Aliyev paid a state visit to the Republic of
Uzbekistan. One of the most important results of the visit was the
adoption of the Declaration "On further strengthening of strategic
partnership between the Republic of Azerbaijan and the Republic of
Uzbekistan". On September 11-12, 2008, Islam Karimov again paid
an official visit to Azerbaijan. The second visit of President Ilham
Aliyev to Uzbekistan took place on September 27-28, 2010. Islam
Karimov, who expressed Uzbekistan's support for Azerbaijan
regarding the resolution of the Armenian-Azerbaijani Nagorno-
Karabakh conflict in the press statement of the presidents, noted that
"Our position on the Nagorno-Karabakh problem remains
unequivocal and unchanged... Uzbekistan believes that one of the
main conditions for the resolution of this conflict is ensureing
Azerbaijan's territorial integrity". Two years later, on October 11-12,
2012, as a continuation of the meeting, Islam Karimov made an
official visit to Baku. During the visit, the prospects of using the
regional transport corridor, which will be formed by the completion of
the construction of the Baku-Tbilisi-Kars railway line, were
discussed.

Azerbaijan-Kyrgyzstan relations

The first meeting between the heads of state of the two countries
happened at the end of 1993. Thus, in December of the same year,
during the meeting of the Council of Heads of State of the CIS, a
bilateral meeting between the President of Azerbaijan Heydar Aliyev
and the President of Kyrgyzstan Asgar Akayev was held. The first
business visit of the President of Azerbaijan to Bishkek took place
two years later. After that, the development of relations accelerated,
mutual visits of high-ranking officials of the two states and contacts in
the framework of various international events intensified. On
November 11, 1996, the "Protocol on cooperation between the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Azerbaijan and the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Kyrgyzstan" was
signed. Kyrgyzstan on April 23, 1997

President Asgar Akayev made his first official visit to our country at
the invitation of the President of Azerbaijan. In September 1998,
Asgar Akayev visited Baku again as part of a business trip. He
participated in the work of the international conference on the
restoration of the historical Silk Road within the framework of the
TRASEKA program held in Baku, and signed the "Main Multilateral
Agreement on International Transport for the Development of the
Europe-Caucasus-Asia Corridor" and its technical annexes. In
addition, Asker Akayev arrived in Baku on April 2000, 8-9, within
the framework of the VI summit of Heads of Turkic-speaking
countries held in Baku and to participate in the 1300th anniversary
events of the epos “Kitabi-Dede Gorgud". On October 3, 2009, K.
Bakiyev participated in the 9th Summit of the Heads of State of
Turkic-speaking Countries held in Nakhchivan of the Republic of
Azerbaijan and signed the Nakhchivan Agreement on the
establishment of the Cooperation Council of Turkic-speaking
Countries and the Nakhchivan Declaration at the conclusion of the
summit meeting. On March 30-31, 2012, the new President of
Kyrgyzstan, Almazbek Atambayev, paid an official visit to
Azerbaijan, met with the head of state and government
representatives, and spoke at the Milli Majlis.

35. Features of Azerbaijan's energy and

economic relations with Central Asian states
Central Asia, bordering Azerbaijan through the Caspian Sea, is of
great importance for our country as a region inhabited by peoples with
a common history, language, religion and traditions, hosting a large
number of Azerbaijani diaspora, and sharing common energy and
transport interests. is an important market and place of investment. In
1991-1993, delegations of different levels representing Azerbaijan
visited all Central Asian states, met with officials of regional states,
and signed documents providing for cooperation in many directions.
Mutual cooperation with some of these states, especially Kazakhstan
and Uzbekistan, has risen to the level of strategic partnership. In the
economic relations of Azerbaijan with the region, in addition to
mutual trade and investments, cooperation in the direction of the
creation of the Trans-Caspian Energy Corridor and the Caucasus-
Central Asia transport routes plays an important role. As part of the
post-Soviet space, the region is of special importance for Azerbaijan.
Two of the five regional states - Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan -
border Azerbaijan through the Caspian Sea, which increases the
importance of Azerbaijan's relations with regional states in the context
of its maritime status. There are a number of other factors determining
Azerbaijan's interests in Central Asia. Thus, the plans of regional
states to transport energy resources through the territory of Azerbaijan
and thus to obtain transit revenues increase the importance of the
region for official Baku. On the other hand, the Central Asian states,
which do not have direct access to the seas and therefore depend on
transit transport routes, attach great importance to the creation of
trans-European transport corridors both in terms of their foreign
economic and trade relations and foreign trade relations. It is in their
interests to act as a transit intermediary in trade between Asia and
Europe. One of the factors that make Central Asia interesting for
Azerbaijan is our diaspora living in the countries of the region. The
Azerbaijani diaspora in the region was formed as a result of the Soviet
repressions of the 1930s, the Second World War and forced
relocations in relatively later periods.

TRASECA. The first meeting regarding the project was a conference

held in Brussels in May 1993 with the participation of trade and
transport ministers of 8 countries - Azerbaijan, Georgia, Armenia,
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan.
The Brussels Declaration was adopted at the conference. In the
declaration, it was announced that the implementation of the
TRASECA program, which is an interregional technical support
program, is supposed to cover the territories of Europe - Black Sea -
Caucasus - Caspian Sea - Central Asia. It was also reported that the
project is financed by the European Union.At the first meeting of the
Intergovernmental Commission held in Tbilisi in March 2000,
Bulgaria, Romania and Turkey applied to the European Union and
expressed their intention to join the program,as a result,they became
participants in the main multilateral international agreement on the
development of the "Europe-Caucasus-Asia" transport corridor.

The Great Silk Road Restoration Project. "Great Silk Road" project –
It is a rival project to the "Eurasian Union" project of Russia,
especially if we are talking about the Central Asian states. On
September 7-8, 1998, at the suggestion of the President of Azerbaijan
H. Aliyev and the President of Georgia E. Geverdnadze, the heads of
state of 9 countries (Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan,
Moldova, Romania, Turkey, Uzbekistan, Ukraine), 13 international
organizations and With the participation of delegations of 32
countries, an international forum on "Recovery and development of
the Great Silk Road" was held within the framework of the
TRASECA program. The "New Silk Road" project is a continuation
of the American "Greater Central Asia" project, and its main goal is:

1. Utilization of Afghanistan's natural resources;

2. Capturing markets that are home to nearly a quarter of the world's

population, i.e. more than 2 billion people;

3. To develop capitalist relations in the region that is still living in the

phase of feudalism in most of its countries;
4. Placement of military bases in the region under the pretext of
"protection of pipelines";

5. To direct the region's natural resources from China to India and

Pakistan;

6. To create the regional organization "Silk Road States" against the

Shanghai Cooperation Organization and Collective Security
Organizations.

36. Turkey's political support to Azerbaijan in

the second Karabakh War
Although there are many countries in the world that are close to each
other in terms of ethnicity and religion, there have not been high-level
relations between these countries like Azerbaijan-Turkey relations, on
the contrary, conflict situations have also been encountered. On
November 9, 1991, Turkey was the first country to recognize the
independence of Azerbaijan. Diplomatic relations between the two
countries were established on January 14, 1992. The Embassy of
Azerbaijan in Turkey was opened in August 1992. The Consulate
General of Azerbaijan in Istanbul was opened in August 1992.
January 1993, April 12, 2004 in Kars. Turkey's Embassy in Baku,
Consulates General in Nakhchivan and Ganja operate. In the last 25
years, the political relations between Azerbaijan and Turkey have
risen to the level of strategic alliance, and this was confirmed by the
Joint Declaration on the establishment of the High Level Strategic
Cooperation Council (HLSC) in Istanbul on September 15, 2010.
Global economic projects - Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan, Baku-Tbilisi-
Erzurum projects and Baku-Tbilisi-Kars, which are an important
component of "Yeni Ipek", which are an indicator of the dynamic
development of relations between our countries in all fields. "Yol"
transport corridor, which was inaugurated on October 30, 2017,
contributes to peace and security in the region and is of great
importance in terms of improving the well-being of our people. The
realization of the Trans-Anatolian (TANAP) gas pipeline project,
which is the main part of the Southern Gas Corridor, which is called
the project of the 21st century, is the next product of the sincere
friendship and beneficial partnership between Turkey and Azerbaijan.
.

The inviolability of Azerbaijan-Turkey fraternal relations showed

itself again during the Second Karabakh War. Azerbaijan once again
felt the diplomatic, political and moral support of Turkey in this war.
Since the beginning of the war, that is, on September 27, Turkish
Defense Minister H. Akar has declared that Turkey is on Azerbaijan's
side, emphasizing that Armenia's occupation policy is the biggest
obstacle to peace and stability in the South Caucasus. President of
Turkey R.T. Erdogan called on all countries of the world to stand by
Azerbaijan in the fight against occupation and oppression. He
emphasized the inactivity of the co-chair countries of the OSCE
Minsk Group, which have neglected the issue for nearly 30 years, and
declared that the Turkish nation stands by Azerbaijan with all its
capabilities, as always. Without Turkey's diplomatic and military-
political support, it was difficult for Azerbaijan to end the thirty-year
occupation by crushing Armenia with such speed and agility. NATO
member Turkey's diplomatic and political involvement in the events
prevented Russia from getting involved in Armenia's side, because
Russia, despite its military power and presence in the region, did not
want to create a conflict with NATO member Turkey. In this regard,
the warning of Turkish President R.T. Erdogan "do not cross the red
line" also played a role. As a result of the second Karabakh war, the
military phase of the problem ended with the document signed on
November 10. This war was perhaps the "first and last war of
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles" that will remain in history. The
importance of this historical document was also the provision
regarding the Zangezur Corridor, which would connect the entire
Turkic world. This corridor will allow Azerbaijan to strengthen its
position as a transport and logistics center of Eurasia. The joint
participation and important statements of the presidents of Azerbaijan
and Turkey at the Victory Parade held on December 10 to celebrate
Azerbaijan's historic victory in the 44-day war were an indication of
the defeat of Armenia and its patrons not only in the military field, but
also in the military field. but also in the diplomatic and political
sphere.

37. “Shusha declaration” on allied relations

between Azerbaijan and Turkey and its
significance
Azerbaijan-Turkey relations are based on the thesis "One nation, two
states". On June 15, 2021, the signing of the "Shusha Declaration on
alliance relations between the Republic of Azerbaijan and the
Republic of Turkey" once again demonstrated to the world that
Azerbaijan-Turkey brotherhood is unbreakable. It was on that day that
a new stage in the development of relations between Azerbaijan and
Turkey, which share the same religion, language, history, culture and
purpose, began. According to the declaration, a threat to the security
and territorial integrity of one state is perceived as a threat to another
state and creates an obligation to take necessary measures. 100 years
after the Kars Treaty, the Shusha Declaration was signed between
Azerbaijan and Turkey on the alliance relations between Presidents
Ilham Aliyev and Recep Tayyip Erdogan in the city of Shusha, which
was freed from occupation, on the National Liberation Day. In the
current case, the declarants declared from Shusha that the states of
Azerbaijan and Turkey will further develop diplomatic, political,
military, economic and socio-cultural relations based on international
law and harmonize their activities as independent states as much as
possible. . The importance of the declaration from the historical point
of view is that after the Kars agreement signed 100 years ago, another
declaration with the same content, but more extensive, was signed
between Turkey and Azerbaijan and it happened in the city of Shusha,
which had just been liberated from occupation. "The parties
implement an independent foreign policy aimed at protecting and
securing their national interests. Developing international relations
based on peace, friendship and good neighborliness through regional
and international stability and prosperity, including the resolution of
conflicts, regional and global security and stability problems in this
direction we make joint efforts". The parties express their satisfaction
with the state of relations developing at the strategic level between the
two friendly and brotherly countries and note the importance of
continuing the political dialogue at all levels and mutual high-level
visits. The parties will continue their efforts in the direction of
strengthening stability and security in the Caucasus region, restoring
all economic and transport relations, as well as normalizing relations
between the states of the region and ensuring long-term peace. In this
context, the special geographical situation of the Nakhchivan
Autonomous Republic of the Republic of Azerbaijan will be taken
into account. The Republic of Azerbaijan and the Republic of Turkey
determine the political and legal mechanisms of establishing alliance
relations guided by the principles of independence, sovereignty,
territorial integrity, inviolability of internationally recognized borders,
non-interference in the internal affairs of states.The parties note the
importance of coordination in the field of foreign policy and the
implementation of regular bilateral political consultations, and in this
direction they emphasize the importance of activities within the
framework of the High-Level Strategic Cooperation Council between
the Republic of Azerbaijan and the Republic of Turkey.

If, in the opinion of any of the Parties, its independence, sovereignty,

territorial integrity, inviolability or security of its internationally
recognized borders are threatened or invaded by a third state or states,
the Parties shall conduct joint consultations and, in order to eliminate
this threat or aggression, they will implement the initiative
corresponding to the goals and principles of the UN Charter and
provide each other with the necessary assistance in accordance with
the UN Charter. The volume and form of this assistance will be
determined through discussions held without delay and it will be
decided to meet the defense needs for taking joint measures and the
coordinated activity of the power and management structures of the
Armed Forces will be organized. The parties note that the opening of
the corridor (Zangezur Corridor) between the western regions of the
Republic of Azerbaijan and the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic of
the Republic of Azerbaijan, which connects Azerbaijan and Turkey,
and the construction of the Nakhchivan-Kars railway as a
continuation of that corridor will make an important contribution to
the intensification of transport and communication relations between
the two countries.

In this context,the sides strongly support the efforts of Turkey,which

opened its archives in connection with the events of 1915, aimed at
opening Archives in Armenia and other countries and conducting
research on this topic by historians,emphasizing that the unfounded
claims of Armenia against Turkey, attempts to distort history and
politicize historical facts have damaged peace and stability in the
region.

38. The coming to power of the AKP in Turkey

at the beginning of the XXI century
In the 23rd parliamentary elections held in July 2007, the AKP led by
Erdogan won 341 seats in the 550-seat parliament with 46.6 percent
of votes. After a new confident victory, despite the protests of the
opposition parties represented in the parliament, Abdulla Gül was
elected president. From the end of that year, the Turkish parliament
authorized the armed forces to fight against the PKK in Iraqi territory,
which increased Erdogan's influence. But at the beginning of 2008, a
more serious problem arose for Erdogan's government. The main
reason for this was the AKP's passage through the parliament of the
bill allowing students to enter university buildings wearing a hijab.
After that, the chief prosecutor of Turkey, Abdürrahman Yalçıngaya,
filed a written appeal to the Constitutional Court regarding the closure
of the AKP and the banning of up to 70 party activists, including
Erdogan, from engaging in politics. However, in July 2008, the
Constitutional Court did not make such a decision stating that the
demands of the chief prosecutor were groundless. Erdogan's
declaration of the importance of Turkey's representation in the
European Union and his efforts in this direction further strengthened
his pro-Western image. Davutoğlu, who regulates Turkey's
international relations very correctly, was successful for the country
first as Erdogan's chief adviser, and since 2008 as foreign minister.
The best foreign minister in the history of the Republic of Turkey,
Davutoğlu's "zero problem with neighbors" policy has increased
Turkey's influence in the entire region. Turkey is not an appendage of
the West and NATO, as it was during the "cold war" and in the 1990s.
Turkey is one of the important powers that can implement an
independent policy. US President Barack Obama's first foreign visit to
Turkey, in his speeches in Istanbul and later in Egypt, called Turkey
the capital of Islamic culture and democracy, using precise phrases
such as "civilization begins with Islam", and gave messages of full
support to Turkey. During his trip to Europe, he attached special
importance to the EU membership of the brotherly country. it also
showed the correct direction of the policy carried out in modern
Turkey. Always based on the motto "Strong Army-Strong Turkey", it
has the 2nd strongest combat capability in NATO after the United
States, and the 4th in the world. Turkey, which has an army with
armed forces, launched a national satellite of its own production,
equipped with new modern (modern) equipment and devices. By
purchasing 13 "Patriot" missile defense systems worth 7.8 billion
dollars from the United States, Turkey, which increased its military
power many times over, proved once again that it has the strongest
army in the region.

39. Turgut Ozal's success: economic wonders

Turgut Ozal (from 1989 to 1993, he served as the 8th President of
Turkey.

On the eve of the parliamentary elections, more than 10 political

parties began to operate. In the parliamentary elections held on
November 6, 1983, the party" mother veten " received more than 45
percent of the votes. The government was formed under the
leadership of Turgut Ozal. This period is considered a period of liberal
changes in the history of Turkey. The main achievements of Ozal's
power in the 1980s are considered to be the democratization of
domestic political life, the holding of the next parliamentary
elections on a democratic basis and the measures taken to further
strengthen civil power. It is for these reasons that Turgut Ozal was
recognized as the prime minister with his word and authority both at
home and abroad. In April 1986, at the suggestion of Turgut Ozal,
bans were lifted against former political leaders. On November 24,
1983, the parliament began to function. The government was formed
under the leadership of the leader of the "Vatan" Party (ANAP)
Turgut Ozal, who won the elections. Civil power was created in the
form of Parliament, president, advisory body, Presidential Council
and government. Since then, a new stage of development has begun,
characterized as a period of liberal changes in historical literature in
various spheres of Turkey's life. Preference for liberal values in both
political and economic life was given to the leadership of the party"
motherland " and its leader T. Ozal's course of irreversible action
was. The party's program, adopted in 1983, reflected provisions
directed against authoritarian power, and in subsequent years T. The
Ozal government complied with these provisions. It is no coincidence
that the measures taken in the field of democratization of domestic
political life, holding the next parliamentary elections on a more
democratic basis and further strengthening civil power in the 80s T. It
is considered the main achievements of Ozal's reign. It is for this
reason that T. Ozal was soon recognized as the prime minister with
his word and authority both domestically and abroad.

40-41 (corresponding to 2suala) inclusion of

Central Asian states in the system of interests of
leading countries in the late XX-early XXI century
After the collapse of the USSR and the return of the region to the
sphere of interests of the world powers, a number of projects were
implemented and planned to be implemented here.

First of all about the project" Great Central Asia". In the second half
of the XIX century, there was a fierce competition between the
Russian and British empires for influence in the Central Asian region,
which was called the "big game" in international relations. According
to many researchers, the "big game" played in the region since the
late 20th century has been revived, this time with the addition of
new players. Each of the states interested in the region has joined
the struggle here. The United States has begun the implementation
of the"Greater Central Asia" Project. The project "greater Central
Asia" was created in the expert circles of the United States

The main ideologist of the project is Frederick Starr, director of the

Institute of Central Asia and the Caucasus of the United States. The
goal of the project is to unite Central Asia and Afghanistan from a
military-strategic and geopolitical point of view.
Up here 40 and then the following projects 41.

After the deterioration of relations with Uzbekistan after the 2005

Andijan events, US officials began to discuss this project with the
leaders of other Central Asian states at the diplomatic level. Speaking
about the position of the United States in relation to Central Asia, K.
Rice noted that the United States sees Central Asia as a "region of
new opportunities, not crisis and instability." The leaders of Central
Asia consider this project to be just an economic project, noting that
there are no military or other intentions. According to many experts,
the "Greater Central Asia" project is an important component of a
larger - scale project - the "Greater Middle East" project and serves a
strategic goal-to diversify strategic interests and achieve stability in
the region.

TRACECA. The first meeting dedicated to the project was a

conference held in Brussels in May 1993 with the participation of the
ministers of trade and transport of 8 countries - Azerbaijan, Georgia,
Armenia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and
Tajikistan. The Brussels Declaration was adopted at the conference.
The declaration declared that the implementation of the TRACECA
program, an interregional technical support program, should cover
the territories of Europe - the Black Sea - the Caucasus - the Caspian
Sea - Central Asia.

Great Silk Road restoration project. The" Great Silk Road "project is
a project that competes with the Russian project" Eurasian Union",
especially if we are talking about the states of Central Asia. On
September 7-8, 1998, President of Azerbaijan H. Aliyev and President
of Georgia E. Geverdnadze, with the participation of heads of state of
9 countries (Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova,
Romania, Turkey, Uzbekistan, Ukraine), delegations of 13
international organizations and 32 countries, the international forum
on "restoration and development of the Great Silk Road" was held
within the framework of TRACECA program.

The" New Silk Road "project is a continuation of the American"

Great Central Asia " project and its main goal:

1. Using Afghanistan's Natural Resources (US Geological Survey

he estimates them at $ 1 trillion).;

2. Capturing markets where about a quarter of the world's

population lives, that is, more than 2 billion people;

3. The development of capitalist relations in a region that is still in

the stage of feudalism in most of its countries;

4. Deployment of military bases in the region under the pretext of "

pipeline protection;

5. Send the region's natural resources from China to India and

Pakistan;

6. To create a regional organization "Silk Road State" against

Shanghai Cooperation Organization and collective security
organizations.

However, there were many economic projects that the States hoped
to implement, but did not materialize:

1) TAPIi. Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India Gas Pipeline.

Instead, an alternative Iranian-Pakistani gas pipeline is being built.

2) even among experts, little is said about the Turgundu - Herat -

Kandahar - Quetta highway, which runs along the coast of the Indian
Ocean.
3) 3) Turgundu – Herat – Kandahar – Quetta route-port of guadar

it was planned to build a railway line.

4) construction of khayraton-Mazari-Zarif-Herat-Iran railway

Russia, in turn, is trying to implement a number of projects and

programs to protect its interests in the region and prevent the West
from strengthening its positions here. One such project is the
"Eurasian Union", which world analysts, including the post-Soviet
states, call "SSRI-2". It should be noted that in many cases the
Eurasian Union project can be mistaken for the Eurasian Economic
Union. In fact, these are 2 different projects. First of all, about the
Eurasian Union. The Eurasian Union is a project of a Confederate
Union of states with a single political, economic, military, customs,
humanitarian and cultural Union. N. In the project proposed by
Nazarbayev in 1994, the Eurasian Union was originally intended to be
an alliance of 5 post - Soviet republics-Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan.

Eurasian Economic Union. In October 2000, the presidents of

Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan agreed on the
creation of the Eurasian Economic Union in Astana.

42. The emergence of democratic movements in

the Turkic states of Central Asia at the end of the
XX century
The emergence of democratic movements in the Turkic states of
Central Asia at the end of the 20th century was a reaction to the
collapse of the Soviet Union. These movements sought to establish
political independence, self-determination and democratic
governance after decades of Soviet rule. They tried to move away
from authoritarianism and adopt democratic principles, although the
transition period was not always comfortable due to various political,
social and economic problems.

On the eve of the collapse of the USSR, Democratic Movements in

Central Asia intensified, and contradictions on ethnic grounds
increased. One such event was the Fergana events of 1989. In June
1989, a bloody massacre of the Meskhetian Turks took place in
Uzbekistan, which killed more than 100 people. The riots were
suppressed only by the introduction of additional police units and
Internal Troops. But the Uzbeks succeeded: the Turks were urgently
sent to Russia on the instructions of the Soviet government. 36 years
ago, tragic events took place in the Fergana region of the Uzbek SSR
that shook the entire Soviet Union. Representatives of the Uzbek
nation, mostly young people, made a series of attacks on the
Meskhetian Turks, who compactly lived here after they were forcibly
expelled from Georgia 45 years ago. In addition to the Turks,
representatives of other national minorities - Tajiks, Russian and
Crimean Tatars-also became victims of the attacks. In total, there
were representatives of 10 nationalities among the dead. Ethnic
tensions also erupted in other parts of Uzbekistan before the
Fergana events. So, in December 1988, at thousands of rallies in
Tashkent, the slogan “Russians! Go to your own Russia, and the
Crimean Tatars to the Crimea!"sounded. In 1990, on June 7, clashes
between Kyrgyz and Uzbeks in the city of Osh reached their climax.
The riots arose due to a dispute over the ownership of collective
farm lands. To suppress the unrest, the Soviet authorities had to
send army units to the emergency zone. During the interethnic
conflict, according to various estimates, from 300 to 10 thousand
people died.

43. The role of TICA in the development of

economic relations between Turkic-speaking
states
Turkish: Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Agency presidency)-
the branch office of the Vice-President of Turkey. TIKA is responsible
for organizing Turkey's official development assistance to developing
countries, with particular attention to Turkish countries and
communities. Main objectives of the organization:

Assistance to the development of Turkic countries and communities.

To develop economic, trade, technical, social, cultural and

educational cooperation between Turkic-speaking countries and
communities.

Participation in social and cultural projects, etc.

The Turkish cooperation and Development Agency (TIKA) was

established in 1992. During these years (1992-2000), Tica program
coordination bureaus were established in Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. Numerous projects have
been implemented in the fields of education, agriculture, industry
and finance. In these early years, attention was paid to educational
and social projects such as building schools, universities, libraries in
Central Asia and providing scholarships to students and civil servants
to study in Turkey. In 2000-2010, TIKA sought to be an integral part
of Turkey's foreign policy. The field of activity has been expanded
and now covers the Middle East, Africa and the Balkans. The number
of coordination program departments has more than doubled - from
12 departments in 2002 to 28 in 2010. From direct assistance,
attention was focused on technical assistance, strengthening
institutional capacity and developing human potential. In 2010, more
than 100 projects were implemented in 25 countries. As of 2015,
Tika program coordination offices have been opened in 42 countries.
During this period, Tica was also expanded in Latin America and the
Asian region. The main areas of assistance were Tunisia, Somalia,
Afghanistan, Chad, North Macedonia and Kyrgyzstan.

44. Features of Turkish politics in the 80-90s of

the XX century
Turkish politics in the 1980s and 1990s was characterized by several
notable features:

1.Military impact: the 1980 military coup led by General Kenan

Evren had a profound impact and in 1982 adopted a new
constitution that expanded the military's influence on politics and
restricted civil liberties.

2.Political instability: this period was marked by frequent changes of

government, coalition policies and political fragmentation. Parties
such as the Homeland Party (ANAP), the true road Party (DYP) and
the Welfare Party (RP) became important players.
3.Economic reforms: under Prime Minister Turgut Ozal (1983-1989),
Turkey underwent significant economic liberalization, moving to a
more market-oriented economy involving privatization and
regulation.

4.Kurdish conflict: during this time, the conflict with the Kurdistan
Workers ' Party (PKK) escalated, which led to significant military
operations in the southeast and influenced domestic policy and
discussion of human rights.

5.Islamist movement: the rise of political Islam became more

prominent, The Social Party received significant support, resulting in
the election of Necmettin Erbaka as prime minister in 1996. During
this period, tensions between secular and Islamist forces increased.

6. Human rights problems: there were persistent problems with

human rights, including restrictions on freedom of expression,
political repression and allegations of torture and extrajudicial
executions, which were often associated with the state's conflict with
the PKK.

7. Relations with the EU: significant changes have taken place in

Turkey's desire to join the European Union, including the filing of an
official membership application in 1987. However, progress was slow
due to concerns about human rights and political stability.
45. Turkey's relations with the Turkic-speaking
states of Central Asia: common interests
Turkey's Central Asian policy in 1989-1991, Turkey's policy in Central
Asia was based on emotional relations, but in subsequent years it
was based on national interests. The reasons why Turkey initially
focused its attention on Central Asian politics are as follows:

Limitation of relations with the European Commission in the 1980s;

collapse of the USSR in the 1990s;

Formation of new states in Central Asia; support for the West

Desire to provide political influence in the region, economic reasons

Cultural and historical ties.

All these features together determined the trajectory of Turkish

policy and laid the foundation for important events in the new
millennium.

When the Central Asian states declared their independence, Turkey

became the first country to recognize them and sought to strengthen
its influence as a leader in the region. President Of Kazakhstan N.
Nazarbayev's visit to Turkey in 1991 was one of the first stages of
establishing diplomatic relations. In the same year, the Presidents of
Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan also visited Ankara. In 1992, Turkish
President Süleyman Demirel visited the region and promised to
provide $ 1 billion in loans. Over the years, about 200 bilateral
agreements have been signed with the states of Central Asia. Central
Asian countries joined the Organization of economic cooperation
with the encouragement and support of Turkey. The fact that Turkey
called these states Turkic states at the meetings held within the
framework of this organization began to worry countries. Coming to
power in 2002, the AKP is pursuing a more active foreign policy in the
direction of the region. Central Asia is also a region that provides
Turkey's energy interests. In 2002-2009, Turkey's trade volume with
Central Asian countries increased by 30 per cent.

The main principles of Turkey's policy in Central Asia during the reign
of the AKP are as follows:

Strengthening the independence of Central Asian countries;

Assistance in the formation and creation of states;

A period of peaceful economic and political transition in these

countries;

Support for reforms in this context;

Development of relations based on the principle of sovereign

equality.