Geology

GEOSPHERE VS
GEOLOGY
 GEOSPHERE
refers to the solid portion of
the Earth, the area from the
surface to the center of the
Earth, and studies the Earth's
crust as well as its interior.
 GEOLOGY
is the scientific study of the
Earth's structure, understanding
of the material with which the
Earth is composed of and the
different processes that occurs
below and on the earth surface.
GEOSPHERE
VS

GEOLOGY
LET’S PLAY!
 HOW TO PLAY

Topics will be The winners

shown Identify if will receive a
the topic is prize
Geosphere or
Geology
 GEOLOGY OR GEOSPHERE

Tectonic Plates
GEOLOGY
GEOLOGY OR GEOSPHERE

Fault
GEOLOGY
 GEOLOGY OR GEOSPHERE

Layers of the Earth

GEOSPHERE
Congratulations
to our winners
THE END
 WHAT IS GEOLOGY?
1. ​T he word geology means 'Study of the Earth'.
2. Also known as Geoscience or Earth Science
3. It is the primary Earth Science and it looks at how
the physical Earth has been formed its structure
and composition, and the types of processes acting
on it.
GEO LOGUS
Earth Speech/Study

James Hutton, the Scottish geologist, naturalist, chemist

and experimental farmer, is the father of modern geology.
A RECAP OF WHAT‘S INSIDE

THE EARTH
 THE CRUST
The outermost layer of Earth.

The thin skin of Earth - 3 to 40 miles

thick.

Accounting for less than 1% of

Earth’s volume
THE MANTLE
The mostly solid bulk of Earth's
interior

This deep layer of warm rock

accounts for 2,900 kilometers (1,802
miles) thick

Makes up 84% of Earth’s total

volume.

Generally the largest and most

massive layer of the planetary body
 THE OUTER
CORE
Made of molten iron, nickel, and
other ingredients yet to be
determined. Streaming at possibly
one to several miles per week.

The outer core consists of super-

heated liquid molten lava
THE INNER CORE
It is the centre and the hottest
layer of the Earth

A ball of iron alloy one-third the

size of the moon in the center of
earth.

This metal ball is broiling hot at

11,000 degrees Fahrenheit,
comparable to the surface of the
sun, but it remains solid because
of the enormous weight of all
the rest of Earth bearing down
on it.
Magnetic declination
the angle of difference between true
north and magnetic north.

At most places on the Earth's surface,

the compass doesn't point exactly
toward geographic north. The deviation
of the compass from true north is an
angle called "declination" (or
"magnetic declination")
Geological
Natural
Disasters
 Definition

Geological Natural Disasters

catastrophic event caused by natural geological
processes that impact human activities, resulting in loss
of life, injury, or economic loss.
Natural disasters
Volcanic Eruption

Tectonic Uplift and

Subsidence
Tsunami

Landslide

Sinkhole

Earthquake
 Explosive release of magma, gases,

Volcanic Eruption Definition and ash from a volcano onto the Earth's
surface.

caused by the movement of magma

from beneath the Earth's crust to the
surface. This movement can be
Cause
triggered by tectonic activity, or by the
buildup of pressure within a magma
chamber.

ash fall
pyroclastic flows
lava flows
lahars (mudflows)
Effect toxic gas emissions
destruction of property
loss of vegetation and wildlife
health and respiratory problems for
humans and animals.
 Tectonic Uplift and
Gradual movements of the Earth's
Subsidence
Definition crust, resulting in the uplift or
subsidence of land surfaces.

Caused by the movement of tectonic

plates, which can result in the
deformation of the Earth's crust. This
Cause
movement may be driven by processes
such as plate convergence,
divergence, or lateral displacement.

Tectonic uplift can lead to the

formation of mountains and
Effect mountain ranges.
Subsidence can result in the
sinking of land surfaces.
Tsunami
Large ocean waves caused by
the displacement of water, often
Definition as a result of undersea
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or
landslides.

Caused by the sudden vertical

displacement of a large volume
of water, usually due to tectonic
Cause
activity such as earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions or underwater
landslides.

extensive coastal flooding

destruction of property
Effect
loss of life,
contamination of freshwater
 The movement of rock, soil, and debris down a Landslide
slope, often triggered by factors such as heavy
Definition
rainfall, earthquakes, volcanic activity, or human
activities.

Triggered by:
Saturation of soil due to heavy rainfall or
snowmelt
Cause
deforestation or construction
earthquakes
volcanic eruptions.

destruction of infrastructure
loss of life
Effect disruption of transportation and
communication networks.
flooding upstream and erosion downstream
Sinkhole Sudden collapses of the Earth's
surface, often occurring in areas where
Definition
soluble bedrock, such as limestone, is
present.

Caused by the dissolution of soluble

Cause rocks, such as limestone or gypsum, by
groundwater.

Can result in the sudden formation

of large holes in the ground, which
may swallow buildings, vehicles,
Effect or infrastructure.
They can pose a significant risk to
life and property, particularly in
areas where they occur frequently.
 sudden shaking or trembling of Earthquake
the ground caused by the
Definition movement of tectonic plates
beneath the Earth's surface.

Caused by the release of energy

along fault lines, which are
Cause fractures in the Earth's crust
where tectonic plates interact.

widespread destruction
collapse of infrastructure
landslides
Effect tsunamis (if the earthquake
occurs under the ocean)
loss of life.
Fault and
Fold
 FAULT
• is a crack in the Earth's
lithosphere that occurs
between two pieces of
rock. Rock pieces are able
to move at a fault, meaning
earthquakes can occur if
the movement pushes
those rock pieces into or
past one another.
 Geometric
Classification of
Faulting
 Types of Fault

Normal Fault Strike-Split Fault

Reverse Fault Oblique Fault

 Normal Fault
FOOTWALL
BLOCK
Rocks above the fault
plane (hanging wall)
move down relative to
rocks below
HANGING WALL (footwall)
BLOCK DOWN

stretch or pulled apart

Reverse Fault
HANGING WALL

Hanging wall moves up BLOCK UP

relative to the
footwall.
FOOTWALL
BLOCK

compressed or pushed together

SINISTRAL (LEFT-LATERAL)

strike-slip Fault
Horizontal movement
of rocks on either
side of a nearly
DEXTRAL
(RIGHT-LATERAL) vertical fault plane.

experiencing sheer stress

oblique Fault
Special type of fault
where movement is not
exactly parallel with the
fault plane, involving
both horizontal and
vertical displacement.
 Fold
undulation or waves in the stratified rocks of Earth's crust.
Stratified rocks were originally formed from sediments that
were deposited in flat horizontal sheets, but in a number of
places the strata are no longer horizontal but have been
warped.
Types of Fold
 Anticline Fold
•Type of fold that is convex upward,
meaning that it looks like an "A" in cross-
section. The oldest rocks are at the core
of the fold, and the youngest rocks are on
the flanks. Anticlines are often found in
mountain ranges, where they are formed
by the compression of the Earth's crust

•Anticlines can be symmetrical or

asymmetrical. A symmetrical anticline is
one in which the axial plane, which is the
plane that divides the fold into two equal
halves, is vertical. An asymmetrical
anticline is one in which the axial plane is
tilted.
 Syncline Fold
Typically downward folds, forming a
trough.
Younger layers are closer to the
center of the fold.
When strata have been overturned
and folded, synclines can point
upwards, termed perched or
antiformal synclines.
 Monocline Fold
- A monocline fold is a step-like fold in
rock strata.
- It features a zone of steeper dip within
an otherwise horizontal or gently dipping
sequence.
- Monoclines can be either symmetrical or
asymmetrical.
- The dip of the fold can range from a
few degrees to nearly vertical.
- It involves local warping in horizontal
strata.
- Rock beds lying at two levels are
separated by steep inclined limbs.
- Monoclines are formed by vertical
movement and are generally found below
faults.
 Chevron Fold
Repeated, well-behaved folded beds with
straight limbs and sharp hinges.
Develop repeated sets of V-shaped beds.
Form in response to regional or local
compressive stress.
Inter-limb angles are generally 60 degrees
or less.
Preferentially occur when bedding
regularly alternates between contrasting
competences.
Typically found in mountain belts.
Also found in sedimentary basins, aiding in
mapping out the distribution of different
rock types.
 Recumbent Fold
A recumbent fold is characterized by
a horizontal axial plane, with both
limbs parallel to the ground.
Often, recumbent folds are isoclinal,
meaning their limbs are also parallel to
each other.
They commonly form during mountain-
building events when tectonic plates
collide, causing thickening and
compression of the crust, resulting in
rock folding.
Recumbent folds can also develop in
response to extensional forces, such
as those found in rift valleys.
 Isoclinal Fold
An isoclinal fold is a type of fold where the
limbs are parallel or nearly parallel to each
other.
Isoclinal folds are formed by intense
compressional forces, often found in mountain
belts due to the collision of tectonic plates.
Limbs: Parallel or nearly parallel, unlike
symmetrical folds where the limbs are at an
angle to each other.
Intensity: Formed under strong compressional
forces, forcing the limbs to become parallel.
Isoclinal folds resemble symmetrical folds in
that both have the same angle and are parallel
to each other.
 plunging Fold
A fold with a non-horizontal axis plane
(not parallel to sea level) has a
direction of plunge, indicating the
axis's inclination.
In an anticline, the plunge is directed
towards the nose, which is the highest
point of the fold.
Conversely, in a syncline, the plunge is
directed away from the nose, which is
the lowest point of the fold.
 Dome and Basin
Dome and basin folds are geological structures
characterized by a central dome-shaped uplift
surrounded by a basin-shaped depression.
They are common in areas of compressional
deformation, such as mountain belts.
Dome and basin folds can form through the
interference of two or more sets of folds,
resulting in complex structures.
In a dome, strata dip away from the center in
all directions, with the oldest strata in the
center.
In a basin, strata dip toward the center in all
directions, with the youngest strata in the
center.
 Ptygmatic Fold
Folds can be messy and all over the
place, especially in certain types of
rocks like sedimentary slump folds,
migmatites, and decollement
detachment zones.
Ptygmatic folds are special because
they look wavy and lumpy.
You can find ptygmatic folds in rocks
called migmatites, which have both
metamorphic and igneous rocks mixed
together.
These folds might happen because the
rocks partly melt when they're
getting squished and heated up during
metamorphism.
 Slump fold
Slump folds form when a bunch of
sediment gets wobbly and slides down
a hill because of things like heavy
rain, earthquakes, or the slope being
too steep.
As the sediment slides, it gets
squished and bent, forming fold-like
shapes.
You can spot slump folds in places
with steep slopes and loose sediment,
like coastal cliffs, riverbanks, and
mountainsides.
They might also show up in areas
where earthquakes have happened
recently.
 PLATE
TECTONICS
Plate Tectonics
The Earth’s surface is made
up of a series of large plates
(It is like a giant jigsaw puzzle)

These plates are in constant

motion travelling at a few
centimeters per year.
Convection Currents
placed beneath the plates
that move plates in
different directions.

Radioactive Decay
source of heat driving the
convection currents
Three main types of Tectonic Plates Boundary

Divergent Convergent Transform

Divergent
Motion Spreding

Constructive
Effect (oceanic lithosphere
created)

Topography Ridge/Rift

Volcanic Activity Yes

Convergent
Motion Subduction

Destructive
Effect (oceanic lithosphere
destroyed)

Topography Trench

Volcanic Activity Yes

Transform
Motion Lateral Sliding

Conservative
Effect (lithosphere neither
created or destroyed)

Topography No major effect

Volcanic Activity No
 Ea r th ’s
m pos it io
Co n
Elements in Earth’s Crust
elements
Minerals
rocks
The Earth’s Crust’s Chemical Composition
It has 118 elements, but only 8 of them represent as
much as 99.5% of its mass.
 The Periodic Table
a list of all of the 118 elements arranged in groups
according to their atomic configuration.
The Eight Elements the represents the Earth’s crust’s overall composition
Element Percentage of mass representation

Oxygen 46.6%,

Silicon 27.72%

Aluminium 8.13%

Iron 5.00%

Calcium 3.63%

Sodium 2.83%

Potassium 2.60%

Magnesium 2.08%
 Mineral
Naturally occurring Founded in nature, not synthetic

Solid crystalline substance Composed of atoms, arranged in an

orderly, repeating, 3-D array
Generally inorganic Formed independently of plants
and animals
With a specific chemical composition Unique combination and arrangement of
atoms: can be represented with a chemical
formula
Rocks
Rocks naturally occurring and
coherent aggregate of one
or more minerals.
 types of rock

Igneous sedimentary metamorphic

rocks rocks rocks
 IGNEOUS ROCK
Igneous rocks forms when the magma cools down, and it
hardens and forms new rocks

Magma- rocks and minerals that melted under tremendous heat.

 Two types of Igneous Rock
Based on their cooling condition

INTRUSIVE
EXTRUSIVE Forms from molten rock
Magma cools slowly
forms when lava cooling and solidifying
over millions of years
cools quickly on
deep beneath the
Earth’s surface
surface- results in
Crystalline formation
 IGNEOUS ROCKS EXAMPLE
Basalt Granite Pumice

most common type of a hard igneous rock a light igneous rock

igneous rock. made of clearly visible with thousands of tiny
a dark-coloured, fine- crystals of various bubbles in them.
grained igneous rock minerals. used in abrasive
used as an ingredient used for buildings and cleaning products
in concrete houses
 Mt. Rushmore
A large block of granite is what forms the upper portion of Mount Rushmore
Today we see only igneous and metamorphic rocks at Mount Rushmore and in
the center of the Black Hills.
SEDIMENTARY ROCK
formed from deposits of pre-existing rocks or
pieces of once-living organism that accumulate
on the Earth's surface
SEDIMENTARY ROCK

deposition

compaction

cementation
 3 Categories of
Sedimentary Rocks

Chemical Clastic Biologic

Mineral are dissolved in Made from form when living
to the water. The water is eroded organisms die, pile up,
evaporated off leaves fragments of and are then
behind chemical other rocks compressed and
sedimentary rocks cemented together.
Example: Example:
Limestone Shale Example:
dolomite Sandstone Coal
Conglomerate Limestone
 Example of Sedimentary Rocks

limestone

sandstone conglomerate

shale
Bryce Canyon, Utah
The sea dried up, the sandstone was uplifted to form a vast plateau.
The Paria River eroded the layers to form the spectacular scenery.
 metamorphic rocks
Meta- Change
Morphos- Shape
Metamorphic- Change in shape of form

started out as some other type of rock, but have been

substantially changed from their original form (igneous,
sedimentary, or earlier metamorphic form)

form when rocks are subjected to high heat, high

pressure, hot mineral-rich fluids or, more commonly,
some combination of these factors.
 2 Types of Metamorphic rock
Foliated
As pressure squeezes on a parent rock during
recrystallization it causes the platy or elongated
minerals within the rock to become aligned, or
foliated. Foliated rocks develop a platy or sheet-
like structure that reflects the direction that
pressure was applied in.
ribbonlike/ banded layer
slate, schist, and gneiss
Non-foliated
Not all parent rocks have platy or
elongated minerals and when these
rocks undergo metamorphism the
individual mineral grains do not align.
crystals (no banding)
marble, quartzite and hornfels
Foliated Metamorphic Rocks

Slate Schist Gneiss

Non-foliated Metamorphic Rocks

Marble Quartzite Hornfels

Mt. Arapiles, australia
primarily composed of quartzite, a
metamorphic rock that was originally
quartzose conglomerate and
sandstone (quartz arenite).
 Pieta by Michaelangelo
Made of marble resulted from Usually whitish but can be
the metamorphism by heat of found in other clours due to
limestone or dolomite impurities
 Occur through
The rock cycle describes processes of:
how the three main melting
rock types: igneous, solidification
sedimentary, and lithification.
metamorphic—change
from one type to Driven by energy from
another. Earth's interior and the
sun.
 How Rocks Change?
Rocks change due to various processes.

Processes Include:
Heat and Pressure
Melting and Cooling
Weathering and Erosion
Compacting and Cementing
 Heat and Pressure
Heat from the earth's interior can melt rock and pressure from
overlying rock can also morph (change) rocks from one type to
another.
Heat increases dramatically the deeper a rock gets pulled under
the earth's surface - prior to melting a rock can change
chemically to become another rock.
Pressure from overlying rock also can change a rock chemically
into another type of rock.
Heat and pressure work together and this is known as
metamorphism -> thus creating metamorphic rocks.
 Melting and Cooling
Temperatures
Temperatures between
between 600
600 any rock that forms from
and
and 1300
1300 degrees
degrees Celsius
Celsius cooling magma is an igneous
(1100
(1100 -- 2400
2400 degrees
degrees rock
Fahrenheit)
Fahrenheit) melt
melt rock
rock and
and turn
turn
it
it into
into magma
magma Two Types of Igneous Rock:
1. Intrusive - form from slowly
cooling magma inside earth
2. Extrusive - form from quickly
cooling lava above/on earth's
crust
Weathering and Erosion
the breaking apart or
Transportation of
wearing down of rock due
weathered material via
to water, wind, gravity,
water, wind, or gravity.
temperatures, and other
elements at the earth's
surface.
Creates sediments.
Compacting and Cementing
Sediment formed from When water passes through
weathering and erosion spaces in between particles of
accumulates (is deposited/left sediment -> this helps cement
behind) in oceans, lakes, and the particles together forming
valleys -> this allows for layers sedimentary rock
of sediment to build up
Each layer presses down on
the layer below it, thus
compacting (pushing down on)
bottom layers.
 COAL
Formed by the decomposition of organic
(vegetable) matter under high pressure and heat.
It is neither mineral or rock but it’s a fossil fuel.
Stages of Coal Formation
 Stage One: Peat
fibrous, soft, spongy substance in
which plant remains are easily
recognizable
contains a large amount of water
and must be dried before use.
seldom used as a source of heat.
burns with a long flame and
considerable smoke.
 Stage two: Lignite
formed when peat is subjected to
increased vertical pressure from
accumulating sediments.
dark brown in colour and, like
peat, contains traces of plants.
found in many places but is used
only when more efficient fuel is not
available.
crumbles easily and should not be
shipped or handled before use.
Stage three: Bituminous Coal
Also known as “soft coal”, found in
Cape Breton and is our most
abundant fuel.
Added pressure has made it
compact and virtually all traces of
plant life have disappeared.
It is greatly used in industry as a
source of heat energy.
Stage four: Anthracite
also known as “hard coal” because
it is hard and has a high lustre.
It appears to have been formed as
a result of combined pressure and
high temperature.
burns with a short flame and little
smoke.
Applying
Geology
as an
Environmen
tal Planner
Geology serves as a
foundational pillar in the
creation of resilient and
environmentally conscious
planning strategies.
Studying geology as an
environmental planner is crucial for
assessing risks associated with
geological hazards, guiding resource
management decisions, conducting
environmental impact assessments,
planning land use sustainably, and
effectively managing water
resources.
Application of Geology
in Environmental
Planning
Geological Hazards
Assessment
Resource Exploration
and Management
Environmental Impact
Assessment
Geologically-Informed
Land-Use Planning
Water Resource
Management
Recitation
 Provide an example of a
geological hazard impacting
communities, and suggest
strategies for mitigation and
adaptation.
 In what ways does
environmental planning
contribute to safeguarding
the geological landscape and
minimizing man made
disturbances?
 As a student studying
environmental planning, why is
it important to understand
the connection between
geological processes and
environmental planning?