Anatomy &

UNIT 2 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY OF Physiology of

Various Body
VARIOUS BODY SYSTEMS-I Systems-I
Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Respiratory System
Organization and Structure
Components of the Respiratory System
The Respiratory Muscles
Process of Gas Exchange
Nervous Regulation of Respiration
Composition of Inhaled and Exhaled Air
Physiological Respiratory Volumes
2.3 Digestive System
Organisation Anatomy of the Digestive System
Absorption of Food from the GIT
2.4 Nervous System
Types of Neuron: Forming the Functional Unit of the Nervous System
Physiological Properties of the Nerve
Components of the Nervous System
Anatomical Structures of the Nervous System
Organisation of the Nervous System
Functions of the Nervous System
2.5 Summary
2.6 Terminal Questions
2.7 Answers

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In unit 1 of this course you have studied about the composition of the human
body. You have also studied about the circulatory and skeletal system of the
human body. In this unit you will study about the anatomical structure and
physiological functioning of (i) the respiratory system, (ii) the digestive
system, and (iii) the nervous system. The rest of the systems namely the
endocrine system, the special senses and the urino-genital system will be dealt
in unit 3 which is the next unit.
Objectives
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
• elaborate on the organization and structure of the respiratory system and
discuss the physiology of respiration;
• write about the organization, structure, anatomy of the digestive system and
the physiology of digestion;
• describe the role of functional unit the of the nervous system: the neuron;
• describe the organization of the nervous system; and 43
Introduction to • list and describe the structure, anatomy and physiological roles of the
Anatomy, Physiology various components of the nervous system.
and Pharmaceutical
Chemistry
2.2 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The respiratory system (Fig. 2.1) is the structure in the body through which the
oxygenation of blood takes place by means respiration. The importance of
respiration in the body is given below, that it:
• is required for the exchange of gases oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2)
• provides oxygen which causes oxidation of food materials for energy
requirements of the body.
• aids in maintaining the pH of the blood by eliminating CO2.
• helps in the excretion of volatile substances like ammonia, water vapour,
etc.
• also helps in maintaining the temperature of the body.
• filters inspired air.
• produces sounds.

44 Fig.2.1: The human respiratory tract

2.2.1 Organisation and Structure Anatomy &
Physiology of
The respiratory system is structurally divisible into two parts: Various Body
Systems-I
i) The upper respiratory system which comprises of the nose, or nasal
cavity, pharynx, and associated structures,

ii) The lower respiratory system which includes the larynx, trachea, bronchi
and lungs.
The respiratory system in humans is thus, composed of the following structures
(Fig. 2.1):
I) Nasal canal or nasal cavity,
Upper respiratory system
II) Pharynx,
III) Nasopharynx
IV) Larynx,
V) Trachea,
VI) Bronchi and Bronchioles Lower respiratory system
VII) Lungs and alveoli

On the basis of functions also the respiratory system can be divided into two
parts:

i) The conducting part, which consists of a series of interconnecting cavities

and tubes both outside and within the lungs which is formed of the nose,
pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and terminal bronchioles.
All these together form a passage for air to be filtered, warmed and
moistened and conducted into the lungs, and

ii) The respiratory part, which consists of tissues within the lungs where gas
exchange takes place. This respiratory part is formed by the respiratory
bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs and alveoli (the main sites of gas
exchange between air and blood).

2.2.2 Components of the Respiratory System

Let us now study the structure and function of the respiratory system in detail.

I) Nasal Cavity

Nasal cavity or nasal canal serves as the gateway for the respiratory
system (Figs. 2.1 and 2.2). The nasal cavity is divided by a central nasal
septum into two parts. The nasal cavity has olfactory (smell) receptors
(receptors which have ability to detect smells).The cavity is lined by the
mucous membrane that secrets mucous. The anterior part of the cavity is
lined by skin containing hair that helps in removing dust particles from
the air and humidifies the air in the nasal cavity.

II) Nasopharynx

Nasopharynx is the junction between the nasal and the oral cavity. An
epiglottis is present here which is a lid like structure that closes the air 45
Introduction to pipe (trachea) when food or water is swallowed, is present here (Fig. 2.1
Anatomy, Physiology & 2.2).
and Pharmaceutical
Chemistry III) Pharynx

The pharynx or throat is a funnel shaped tube about 5 inches long

(Fig. 2.1 & 2.2). It lies just posterior to the nasal cavity (with which it
communicate by means of the two openings, called internal nares) and
oral cavity. The pharynx lies above the larynx and functions as a passage
for air and food and provides a resonating (to be filled with sound)
chamber for speech sounds. The tonsils that are involved in
immunological reaction against foreign invaders are also located in the
pharynx.

IV) Larynx

Larynx is also called the voice box. The movement of air through this
cavity helps in the generation and modulation of voice (Fig. 2.1).

V) Trachea

The trachea or wind pipe (Fig. 2.1 & 2.2) is a tubular passageway for air
and is about five inches long. The anterior part of the trachea is composed
of 16-20 “C” shaped cartilaginous rings. The posterior portion of the
trachea is composed of fibrous tissue and extends from the lower end of
the larynx till it bifurcates into two bronchi (singular: bronchus) which
pass into the lungs.

Fig.2.2: Feature of the nasal cavity

46
VI) Bronchi and Bronchioles Anatomy &
Physiology of
The trachea bifurcates into two bronchi namely the: Various Body
Systems-I
i) Right primary bronchus which goes into the right lung, and
ii) Left primary bronchus which goes into the left lung.

Each primary bronchi divides into smaller secondary bronchi called the
lobar bronchi, one for each lobe of the lung. (The right lung has three
lobes and the left lung has two). The secondary bronchi continue to
branch forming smaller bronchi called tertiary bronchi that divide
further to form the bronchioles. The bronchioles in turn branch
repeatedly to form smaller tubes. The smallest bronchioles branch into
smaller tubes called terminal bronchioles. This extensive branching
from the trachea resembles an inverted tree and is commonly referred to
as the bronchial tree (Fig. 2.3).

Fig.2.3: The bronchial tree of the respiratory tract

VII) Lungs and Alveoli

There are two lungs in the human body, one on either side of the chest
cavity or thorax also called thoracic cavity. The thoracic cavity houses
most of the vital organs of the body. The lungs are cone shaped spongy
organs which are divided into lobes the right lung has three lobes while
the left lung has two lobes. The surface of the lungs is covered by a
double membrane known as pleura. The superficial or outer layer of the
membrane lines the wall of the thoracic cavity and the inner layer covers
lung. The region between the two layers is filled with a fluid called
pleural fluid. Each lobe of the lung as you will recall is associated with a
bronchial tube which further divides into bronchioles. In each lung there 47
Introduction to are ten tertiary bronchi. The part of the lung supplied by tertiary bronchus
Anatomy, Physiology is called bronchopulmonary segment. Each bronchopulmonary segment
and Pharmaceutical
of the lungs has many small compartment called lobules each of which is
Chemistry
wrapped in elastic connective tissue and contains a lymphatic vessel, an
arteriole, a venule, and a branch from the terminal bronchiole (Fig 2.3).
These respiratory bronchioles penetrate deeply into the lungs and further
subdivide into several alveolar ducts which open into alveoli (singular:
alveolus – cup-shaped structure) and alveolar sacs (two or more alveoli
that share a common opening). The exchange of gases takes place in the
alveoli (Fig. 2.4).

Fig.2.4: The two primary functions of the lungs is to oxygenate the blood and get
rid of carbon dioxide. The deoxygenated blood enters the capillary
network around the alveoli by the pulmonary artery and after
oxygenation leaves the capillary network via the pulmonary vein. The
oxygenation of blood takes place in the thin walled alveoli of the lungs
which are surrounded by capillaries. In this process oxygen is taken up
by the hemoglobin of the blood and carbon dioxide is given up by the
48 blood.
2.2.3 The Respiratory Muscles Anatomy &
Physiology of
Several muscles are involved in respiration. These muscles of respiration aid in Various Body
both inspiration (breathing in) and expiration (breathing out). Both inspiration Systems-I
and expiration require changes in the pressure within the cavity. The
respiratory muscles achieve this by changing the size of the thoracic cavity.
The principal muscles associated with this process of respiration are the
intercostal muscles or rib muscles and the diaphragm (Fig.2.5 a & b).

2.2.4 Process of Gas Exchange

The process of gas exchange in the body is called respiration and consists of
three basic steps:

i) Breathing pulmonary ventilation (Pulmon: lung) which is the mechanical

flow of air into (inspiration) and out of (expiration) the lungs. The two
main function of the lungs are to oxygenate the blood and to remove the
carbondioxide.

The process of breathing involves the mechanical process of inhalation or

inspiration and exhalation or expiration.

Inhalation: Inhalation or inspiration as you can see from Fig. 2.5(a) is

initiated by the diaphragm and is supported by the external intercostals
muscles. Normal resting respirations are 10 to 18 breaths per minute, with a
time period of 2 seconds.

(a) (b)

Fig.2.5: Breathing pulmonary ventilation: a) inhalation and b) exhalation during

respiration
49
Introduction to
Anatomy, Physiology
and Pharmaceutical
Chemistry
ii) External respiration which involves the exchange of gases between the air
Cellular respiration is a
series of the metabolic
reactions that converts
food energy into
chemical energy in the
form of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP).
The alveoli have
special adaptations
for gas exchange
which are:
i) Thin walls.
ii) Huge surface
area.
iii) Rich supply of
capillaries.
iv) A wet lining that
enables gases to
dissolve.
iii) Internal respiration which is the exchange of gases between blood in the
50
Under normal conditions (Fig. 2.5 (a)) the diaphragm, is the primary driver
of inhalation. When the diaphragm contracts, the ribcage expands and the
contents of the abdomen are mover downward. This results in a larger
thoracic volume and negative (suction) pressure (with respect to
atmospheric pressure) inside the thorax. As the pressure in the chest falls,
atmospheric air moves into the mouth and from it into the air conducting
tubes. Here, the air is filtered, warmed, and humidified as it flows to the
lungs.
Exhalation: Exhalation or expiration is generally a passive process
(Fig. 2.5 (b)). The lungs have a natural elasticity: as they recoil from the
stretch of inhalation, air flows back outside to the atmosphere till the
pressures in the chest and the atmosphere reach equilibrium.
However, active or forced exhalation is achieved by the abdominal and the
internal intercostals muscles. During this process air is forced or exhaled
out. During forced exhalation, as when blowing out a candle, expiratory
muscles including the abdominal muscles and internal intercostals muscles
generate abdominal and thoracic pressure, which forces air out the lungs.
spaces of the lungs and blood in pulmonary capillaries. In this process,
blood of the pulmonary capillary becomes oxygenated by gaining oxygen
and losing carbon dioxide. This process of oxygenation of blood takes
place in the alveoli, which are thin walled structures, surrounded by
capillaries. The deoxygenated blood enters the capillary network around the
alveoli from the pulmonary artery and after oxygenation leaves the
capillary network via the pulmonary vein. During the oxygenation process,
oxygen from the oxygen rich inspired air diffuses into the deoxygenated
blood present in the pulmonary artery through the alveolar and capillary
walls and the carbon dioxide diffuses out from the blood. The surface of the
alveoli is about seventy square metres that makes the gas exchange
extremely fast.
Carbon dioxide is carried easily in the blood fluid as it can dissolve in
water and can also easily and reversibly form compounds such as carbonic
acid and bicarbonates. However oxygen is not very soluble in water and
hence is not soluble in blood. This problem is overcome in the body by the
red blood cells. The red blood cells as you will recall from unit 1 contain
haemoglobin which have the ability to combine easily with oxygen to form
oxyhaemoglobin. Thus the red blood cells can carry the oxygen in their
haemoglobin. The oxygen is transported from the lungs to the rest of the
body by the blood.
systemic (systems) capillaries and tissue cells (refer again to Fig. 2.4). The
haemoglobin in the blood loses oxygen and gains carbon dioxide. Within
the cells, the metabolic reactions that consume oxygen and give off carbon
 dioxide, also produce the energy rich molecules of adenosine-tri phosphate Anatomy &
(ATP). These metabolic reactions are termed cellular respiration. Physiology of
Various Body
2.2.5 Nervous Regulation of Respiration Systems-I

The process of respiration is controlled by the respiratory centre which

consists of groups of neurons located in three centres in the brain. These
centres control the action of the respiratory muscles causing them to contract or
relax in order to alter the size of the thorax. Nerve impulses are transmitted
from these centres in the brain to the respiratory muscles. The regions in the
brain (Fig.2.7 of this Unit) from which nerve impulses are sent to the
respiratory muscles consists of clusters of neuron located in the (i) medulla
oblongata, where one centre the medullary rhythmicity area is located and
(ii) the pons of the brainstem in which two respiratory centres are located (a)
pneumotaxic area in the pons and the (b) apneustic area.

2.2.6 Composition of Inhaled and Exhaled Air

The composition of the inhaled air (air that is breathed in) differs from that of
the exhaled air (air that is breathed out). Inhaled air has the same composition
as normal air and contains:

1. 78% nitrogen
2. 21% oxygen
3. 1% inert gases
4. 0.04% carbon dioxide
5. Little amount of water vapour.

The exhaled air has less amount of oxygen and more of carbon dioxide. It is
also saturated with water vapour. The composition of exhaled air is:
1. 78% nitrogen
2. 17% oxygen
3. 1% inert gases like argon
4. 4% carbon dioxide
5. saturated with water vapour.

The difference between the amount of oxygen in inhaled and exhaled air is
equal to the difference in the amount of carbon dioxide in exhaled and inhaled
air.

21 − 17 (oxygen) = 4 − 0.04 (carbondioxide) = ~4%

2.2.7 Physiological Respiratory Volumes

The respiratory volumes are studied for diagnosis of respiratory disease. These
respiratory volumes are obtained by using an instrument called the spirometer.
The physiological respiratory volumes in an adult are as follows (Table 2.1):
51
Introduction to Table 2.1: The various respiratory volumes studied for diagnosis of
Anatomy, Physiology respiratory diseases
and Pharmaceutical
Chemistry
Terms Definition Normal Values

Tidal volume The volume of air taken in, in one 500 mL.
breath

Inspiratory reserve The additional volume of air that can 3100 mL.
volume be taken in by forced inspiration,
over and above the tidal volume.

Expiratory reserve The volume of air in excess of tidal 1200 mL.

volume volume that can be exhaled forcibly.

Vital capacity The sum of inspiratory reserve 4330 mL in

volume, tidal volume and expiratory adult male.
reserve volume. 3100 mL in
adult female.

Residual volume The volume of air which remains in 1200mL.

the lungs after maximum expiration.

Total Lung capacity The sum of tidal volume, inspiratory 500mL to 6000
reserve volume, expiratory reserve mL.
volume and residual volume.

SAQ 1

Fill in the blanks:

a) The ………………. closes the trachea while food is swallowed

b) The respiratory centres are present in the ……………….. and the

………….. of the brain.

c) The volume of air taken in one breath is termed ……………..

d) The red blood cells contain ………………. which have the ability to
combine easily with oxygen.

2.3 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The digestive system is composed of the gastro-intestinal tract along with the
glands associated with it. It deals with the digestion and absorption of food
materials eaten or ingested by the human beings, and elimination of waste
52 materials from the body after food digestion (Fig. 2.6 a and b).
 Anatomy &
Physiology of
Various Body
Systems-I

(a) (b)

Fig.2.6: Human gastro-intestinal tract (a) showing the organs associated with
digestion (b) schematic diagram of the digestive system

2.3.1 Organisation Anatomy of the Digestive System

The digestive system is in the form of a long tube that starts at the mouth and
ends at the anus. This is also known as the gastro-intestinal (GI) tract. The tract
is around eight to ten metres in length. The organs of the digestive system
include:

I) Oral cavity or mouth

II) Part of the pharynx
III) Oesophagus
IV) Stomach
V) Small intestine
VI) Large intestine (colon)
VII) Rectum, and
VIII) Anus

The accessory digestive organs are:

I) Teeth
II) Tongue
III) Salivary glands
IV) Liver
V) Gall bladder
VI) Pancreas
53
Introduction to I) Oral Cavity
Anatomy, Physiology
and Pharmaceutical Oral cavity is also called the mouth (Fig 2.6 & 2.7). This is the first part
Chemistry of the tract and is enlarged. The nose also opens into it. The oral cavity
opens externally through the upper and the lower jaws. In the oral cavity,
the food is bitten, chewed and ground with the help of the upper and
lower teeth. The tongue also helps in this process by moving food
towards the teeth and by secreting mucous to moisten and consequently
soften the ingested food in the mouth. This process of chewing and
grinding the food is known as mastication. In the mouth, saliva is present
which is secreted by the paired salivary glands formed of three glands: (i)
parotid glands, (ii) submaxillary glands, and (iii) sublingual salivary
glands (Fig. 2.7). Saliva lubricates the food. The saliva also has the
digestive enzyme amylase also called ptyalin here that digests the starch
present in the food in the oral cavity. The mouth is involved in the first
phase of digestion where the starch in the eaten food is digested by the
enzyme amylase secreted by the salivary gland.

Fig.2.7: Oral cavity showing the accessory digestive organs the salivary glands,
teeth and tongue

II) Pharynx

As you will recall from the earlier section 2.2 of this unit, the pharynx is a
tube that functions as both a passage for air and food and as a result both
the nose and the mouth open into it. The pharynx connects the oral cavity
to the oesophagus of the digestive tract. When food is first swallowed it
passes from the mouth into the pharynx. The movement of food
downward from the mouth into the stomach via the oesophagus is
achieved by the act of swallowing or deglutition. Deglutition is facilitated
by saliva and mucous. This movement of food is also helped by the
mouth, pharynx and oesophagus. The passage of food from the pharynx
into the oesophagus is regulated at the entrance of the oesophagus by the
oesophageal sphincter which is a circular band or ring of contracted
54 muscle.
III) Oesophagus Anatomy &
Physiology of
Oesophagus is also called the gullet. It is a long hollow tube about 25 cm Various Body
long and connects the pharynx to the stomach. The food is pushed down Systems-I
from the mouth to the pharynx and then into the stomach by the
oesophagus which secretes mucous. The food is transported from the
oesophagus into the stomach by the peristaltic movement of the
oesophagus and by lubrication produced by mucous secretion. The
peristaltic movement involves contraction and relaxation of the
oesophageal muscles in a continuous manner that helps in pushing the
food downwards. The junction between the oesophagus and stomach has
a valve called the cardiac sphincter. During peristalsis, the cardiac
sphincter allows food bolus to pass into the stomach but usually prevents
backward flow of the chyme, a mixture of food bolus, stomach acid, and
digestive enzymes, from returning up the esophagus food from the
stomach. This therefore prevents gastroesophageal reflux.

The oesophagus does not produce digestive enzymes nor is it involved

in absorption.

IV) Stomach

The stomach (Fig. 2.8) is an enlargement of the GI tract. It is a J-shaped

hollow, muscular organ that lies in the abdomen below the diaphragm.
Lying beneath the stomach is the pancreas.

The stomach is involved in the second phase of digestion, following

mastication (chewing). The first stage of digestion as you will recall
takes place in the month. The stomach connects to the duodenum on the
other side. The duodenum is the first part of the small intestine. The
capacity of the stomach is 1-2 litres.

The stomach is divided into four sections, each of which has different
cells and functions. The sections are:
• Cardia: Where the contents of the oesophagus empty into the
stomach.
• Fundus: Formed by the upper curvature of the stomach
• Body or corpus: The main or central region of the stomach.
• Pylorus antrum: The lower section of the stomach which opens into
the duodenum and helps in emptying the stomach contents into the
small intestine. The pylorus communicates with the duodenum via the
pyloric sphincter.

Histologically the stomach is composed of the same basic four parts as

the rest of the GI tract. From lumen outwards the stomach consists of:

i) mucosa,
ii) submucosa,
iii) muscularis propria, and
iv) serosa. 55
Introduction to i) Mucosa
Anatomy, Physiology
and Pharmaceutical The mucosa is the innermost layer of the stomach. It is thrown into
Chemistry longitudinal folds (gastric folds or rugae), which disappear when the
stomach is fully distended (Fig. 2.8). On the mucosal surface we see
small, funnel-shaped depressions (gastric pits). Simple, tubular gastric
glands open into the bottom of these gastric pits.

ii) Submucosa

The submucosa layer lies under the mucosa. It separates the mucosa
from the next layer, the muscularis externa.

iii) Muscularis externa

The muscularis externa forms the muscular region. It lies under the
submucosa. The muscularis externa in the stomach differs from other
regions of the gastro intestinal tract organs in consisting of three
layers of smooth muscle instead of two.

a) The inner oblique layer:

b) The middle circular layer:
c) The outer longitudinal layer

iv) Serosa

The serosa layer covers the muscularis externa.It consists of layers of

connective tissue.

56 Fig.2.8: Stomach showing its internal features

 The three main functions of the stomach are to kill any bacteria ingested, Anatomy &
break down the food into smaller pieces, to create a larger surface area Physiology of
for easier digestion, and to hold or store food and release it at a constant Various Body
Systems-I
rate. The movement and the flow of chemicals into the stomach are
controlled by both the autonomic nervous system and by various
digestive system hormones.

Two smooth muscle valves, or sphincters, keep the contents of the

stomach contained. They are the esophageal sphincter also called cardiac
sphincter (found in the cardiac region) dividing the tract above, and the
pyloric sphincter dividing the stomach from the small intestine. The
food from the stomach is passed down into the intestines through the
pyloric sphincter.

V) Small Intestine

The small intestine begins at the pyloric sphincter of the stomach. The
small intestine is the largest component of the digestive tract and the
major site of digestion and absorption. In addition to receiving chyme
from the stomach, the initial segment of the small intestine, the
duodenum, receives bile from the gall bladder and digestive enzymes
from the pancreas (Fig. 2.9). The pancreatic enzymes are produced in an
inactive form and only become active in the lumen of the duodenum. The
small intestine is a coiled up, tubular structure that is divided into three
parts:

i) Duodenum (25 cm),

ii) Jejunum (2.5 m)
iii) Ileum (3.5 m).

Fig.2.9: Stomach and pancreas and gall bladder showing the common bile duct
and pancreatic duct.

i) Duodenum is the first and shortest part of the small intestine and is
totally above the stomach region. It starts at the pyloric sphincter of
57
Introduction to
Anatomy, Physiology
and Pharmaceutical
Chemistry
In humans, the
appendix also called
vermiform appendix;
or caecal appendix or
vermix is a blind
ended tube connected
to the caecum from
which it develops
embryologically. The
caecum is a pouch-like
structure of the colon.
The appendix is near the
junction of the small
intestine and the large
intestine.
VI) Large Intestine (colon)
58
the stomach. The duodenum is a hollow C-shaped structure,
connecting the stomach to the next part of the intestine which is the
jejunum. Most of the chemical digestion takes place in the duodenum
of the GI tract. As a result a large number of glands that secrete the
intestinal juice are present in the duodenum. The descending part of
the duodenum contains the opening of the pancreatic duct and
common bile duct commonly known together as the hepatopancreatic
duct (or pancreatic duct in the United States) through which
pancreatic juice and bile juice respectively is secreted into the
duodenum (Fig. 2.9).
ii) Jejunum is a continuation of the duodenum. It is a coiled up,
muscular structure that performs peristaltic movements and pushes
the intestinal contents into the next part of the intestine which is
called the ileum.
iii) Ileum is the continuation of the jejunum. It opens into the large
intestine. Ileum is less muscular than the jejunum but has a larger
number of mucosal folds (villi) that help in the absorption of
nutrients.
The mucosa of the small intestine is highly modified. The surface of the
intestine facing the lumen is called the luminal surface. This surface has a
number of villi, (singular: villus) which are finger- or leaf-like projections
about 0.5-1.5 mm in length.
The predominant cell type of the epithelium of the small intestine is the
enterocyte or absorptive cell. Digested food is absorbed by these cells.
The absorbed substances enter either the capillaries or the lymphatic
lacteal (mostly lipids and lipoprotein particles) which are present below
the epithelium of the small intestine.
The large intestine is the terminal part of the GI tract and extends from
the ileum to the rectum. The opening from the ileum into the large
intestine is guarded by a fold of mucous membrane called the ileocaecal
sphincter or valve which allows materials from the small intestine to pass
into the large intestine. Hanging below the ileocaecal sphincter is a blind
pouch called caecum. Attached to the caecum is a twisted coiled tube,
called appendix or vermiform appendix. The open end of the caecum
merges with a long tube of the large intestine called colon, which is the
beginning of the large intestine. The colon can structurally be subdivided
into the (i) ascending colon, (ii) transverse colon, (iii) descending colon
and (iv) sigmoid colon.
The main functions of the large intestine are absorption of water and
formation of solid stool (faeces), absorption of electrolytes, secretion of
mucous, and absorption of vitamins synthesized by bacteria called the
colonic bacteria found in the colon.
VII) Rectum and Anus Anatomy &
Physiology of
Rectum starts from the sigmoid colon and continues into the anal canal Various Body
which is a small canal 2.5-4 cm long. The rectum forms the terminal part Systems-I
of the digestive tract and terminates at the anus. The rectum stores the
faecal material from the colon. When the rectum gets filled up and when
there is stimulation, then faeces are passed out through the anus. This
process of passing out of stool to the outside by the anus is known as
defecation and is under voluntary control. The anal canal is guarded by
two muscle bands called sphincters, (i) the internal (involuntary)
sphincter and the (ii) external (voluntary) sphincter.

VIII) Glands associated with the digestive system

There are a number of glands in our digestive system. Some important

glands are discussed briefly here.

i) The salivary glands

In humans there are three pairs of salivary glands, the parotids, the Emulsification: It is
submandibular and the sublingual (Refer again to Figs. 2.1, 2.2 and the dispersion of large
2.5). These secrete a watery fluid that contains the enzyme amylase lipid globules into
which aids in the digestion of polysaccharide which are complex smaller, uniformly
carbohydrates into disaccharides (simpler carbohydrates). distributed particles in
the presence of bile.
ii) The gastric glands of the stomach

The gastric glands are located in the stomach. They are glandular
tubules. Each gastric gland consists of three parts: (i) a deep body, (ii)
an intermediary neck and (iii) an upper isthmus. The gastric glands
depending upon their location in the stomach are lined with different
types of epithelial cells, Furthermore different types of cells are at
different locations down the pits.

Four cell types generally occur in these glands: (a) chief or

zymogenic cells, (b) parietal (oxygnatic) cells, (c) mucous neck cells
and (d) endocrine cells. The three cells types, namely the chief cells,
parietal cells, and mucous neck cells are exocrine gland cells that
secrete their products into the stomach lumen.

a) The chief or zymogenic cells: These cells are responsible for

production of pepsinogen, an inactive precursor for pepsin
(protein digesting enzyme). Pepsin which degrades proteins into
simpler protein compound. Pepsin acts in an acidic medium. The
secretion of pepsinogen which is the inactive form of pepsin
prevents self-digestion of the stomach cells.

b) The parietal cells: These cells produce the gastric acid, in the
form of action of hydrochloric acid (HCl). HCl kills most of the
bacteria in food, stimulates hunger, and activates pepsinogen into
pepsin. Parietal cells also help in absorption for vitamin B12. 59
Introduction to c) Mucous neck cells: These cells secrete mucous. Similarly goblet
Anatomy, Physiology cells present in the GIT also produce mucous. The mucous
and Pharmaceutical
secreted by the cells is alkaline and protects the mucosa from the
Chemistry
acidic contents of the stomach. The mucous cells also secrete
bicarbonate and play an important role in protecting the stomach
from injury due to acid, pepsin, and/or ingested irritants. In fact,
all epithelial cells of the stomach (except the endocrine cells) are
capable of producing bicarbonate.

The mucous surface cells of the mucosa of the stomach, the

mucous neck cells, and goblet cells secrete mucous that help
protect the stomach from self-digestion.

d) Endocrine cells: These cells are also called the enteroendocrine

cells. They are usually solitary (alone). They are a part of the
gastro-entero-pancreatic (GEP) endocrine system. The best known
endocrine cells in the gastric mucosa are gastrin-producing cells
(G cells) and somatostatin-producing cells (D cells). G cells
stimulate the secretion of acid and pepsinogen. D cells are
found mainly in glands of the pyloric antrum. They inhibit G cells
and so acid production.

iii) Glands of the small intestine

The epithelium of the small intestine consists of the following

secretory cell types:

a) Goblet cells

Goblet cells are mucous-secreting cells. The abundance of goblet

cells increases from the duodenum to the terminal ileum.

b) Enteroendocrine cells

Enteroendocrine cells also occur in the small intestine. Their most

abundant products here are: (i) cholecystokinin or CCK, which
stimulates pancreatic enzyme secretion and gall bladder
contraction, (ii) secretin, which stimulates pancreatic and biliary
(bile secretion of liver), (iii) bicarbonate secretion, and (iv) gastric
inhibitory peptide or GIP, which inhibits gastric acid secretion.

c) Brunner’s glands

The submucosa of the small intestine contains glands called

Brunner’s glands, which occur only in the duodenum. The
duodenum is thus, recognizable by the presence of these
Brunner’s glands, which occupy most of the submucosa of the
duodenum. These glands secrete mucous which is slightly alkaline
and protects the duodenal mucosa from the action of hydrochloric
acid.
60
 The intestine also produces the enzymes maltase and sucrase Anatomy &
which convert disaccharides into mono sacchhides complex Physiology of
carbohydrates. Various Body
Systems-I
iv) Glands of the colon The liver has several
functions. Some of
Goblet cells are present in large numbers in the colon and secrete the functions of liver
mucous, which acts as a lubricant during the transport of the intestinal are:
contents. i) it produces bile
that helps break
v) Liver down of fats,
ii) it converts
The liver is the heaviest gland of the body. It weighs about 1.36 kg. glucose to
The liver is reddish brown in colour and is divided into four lobes of glycogen,
unequal size and shape. The liver lies on the right side of the iii) it produces urea
abdominal cavity beneath the diaphragm. The liver secretes bile juice (which is the
main substance of
which helps in the emulsification of fats. The bile is stored in the gall urine,
bladder (Fig. 2.9) from which it is released in response to hormonal iv) it filters harmful
stimulus. The gall bladder is a pear shaped sac with a diameter of 7- substances from
10 cm. It is located in the posterior surface of the liver. the blood (such as
alcohol),
vi) Pancreas v) it stores vitamins
and minerals
(vitamins A, D, K
Pancreas is a leaf like gland 12-15 cm long that lies beneath the
and B12),
stomach and is connected to the small intestine at the duodenum vi) it maintains a
(Fig 2.9 and 2.10). It is connected to the duodenum by usually two proper level of
ducts. The pancreas is made up of small clusters of glandular glucose in the
epithelial cells, about 99% of which are arranged in clusters called blood, and
acini and form the exocrine gland (a gland that secretes its secretion vii) it is also
responsible for
into ducts). The cells within acini secrete a mixture of fluid and producing
digestive enzymes called pancreatic juice which consists of cholesterol that is
pancreatic amylase (carbohydrate digesting enzyme), pancreatic a component of
lipase (fat digesting enzyme), pancreatic trypsin (protein digesting all plasma
enzyme) and pancreatic chymotrypsin (protein digesting enzyme) etc. membranes.
About 80% of the
The Pancreas also secretes sodium bicarbonate which increases the
cholesterol in
pH of the intestine making it alkaline. The Pancreatic digestive your body is
enzymes act only in a medium which has an alkaline pH. The amylase produced by liver.
converts polysaccharides into disaccharides. Lipases are involved in
the hydrolysis of fats, and chymotrypsin and trypsin are involved in
the digestion of proteins.

The remaining 1% of the cells of the pancreas are organized into

clusters called pancreatic islets or islets of Langerhans that form the
endocrine part of the pancreas. These cells secrete the hormones
(i) glucagon, (ii) insulin, (iii) somatostatin and (iv) pancreatic
polypeptide. These hormones are secreted into the blood stream
directly and not into ducts.

61
Introduction to
Anatomy, Physiology
and Pharmaceutical
Chemistry

Fig.2.10: Pancreas and its cross section showing the exocrine and endocrine
glands

2.3.2 Absorption of Food from the GIT

The absorption of the digested food materials from the gastro-intestinal tract
(GIT) takes place mainly through the oral mucosa, the gastric mucosa, small
intestinal mucosa and the colon. Fig. 2.11 shows the main sites of absorption of
nutrients form different parts of the digestive system.

Fig.2.11: Sites of food absorption

62
SAQ 2 Anatomy &
Physiology of
Fill in the blank with appropriate word(s): Various Body
Systems-I
a) Saliva is secreted by the __________, __________ and ________ glands.

b) The space between the oral cavity and the oesophagus is known as the
_________.

c) Before secretion, the bile is stored in the ____________ _______.

d) The process of expulsion of the faeces is known as __________________.

e) Amylase is primarily secreted by the ___________ and _______________.

2.4 NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system along with the endocrine system shares the responsibility
for maintaining the homeostasis of the body. In the human body, both these
systems work in order to keep controlled conditions within limits for
maintaining life, but their method of doing so is different. The nervous system
achieves this, by responding rapidly to stimuli and transmitting nerve impulses
(action potentials) in order to adjust the body processes. The endocrine system
as you will study later in this course (Refer unit 3) responds more slowly
though equally effectively to stimuli by releasing hormones that are responsible
for adjusting the body processes.

In this unit we will study in brief the various components of the nervous system
and their structures. You will also study the properties of the nerves which are
responsible for transmission of nerve impulses. You will also learnt how nerve
impulse is transmitted.

2.4.1 Types of Neurons: Forming the Functional Unit of the Nervous

System

The functional unit of the nervous system is a neuron. The neuron has been
discussed in section 1.3.4 of Unit 1. Physiologically the neurons can be divided
into two types:

i) Afferent or sensory nerves

ii) Efferent or motor nerves

i) Afferent or Sensory Nerves

Afferent or sensory nerves carry impulses or signals from various

organs/tissues in the periphery (outer side e.g. skin) to the brain or the
spinal cord.

ii) Efferent or motor nerves

Efferent or motor nerves carry the impulses (commands) from the brain and
spinal cord to the effecter organ (action site). 63
Introduction to The neurons may be present as a single neuron or may be present in the
Anatomy, Physiology form of a cluster or collective. When they are present as a collective, they
and Pharmaceutical
are known as a ganglion. These ganglions lie outside the central nervous
Chemistry
system (CNS). The CNS as you will read later in this unit is composed of
the brain and spinal cord. The ganglions are composed of the nerve bodies
and processes. The processes are connected to each other through a
synapse. A synapse is defined as the junction where the process of one
neuron ends and the process of another begins (Fig. 2.12).

2.4.2 Physiological Properties of the Nerve

There are two main properties of nerve which are:

i) Excitability
ii) Conductivity

i) Excitability

Excitability is the property of the nerve to respond to a stimulus which may

be mechanical, electrical or chemical. For example when smell reaches the
nostrils the nerves in the nostrils are stimulated by the smell. The smell acts
as the stimulus.

ii) Conductivity

Conductivity is the ability of a nerve fibre to conduct or transmit the

impulse that has been generated along its entire length.

preganglion postganglion

Fig.2.12: Two neurons preganglion and postganglion forming a ganglion and

showing a synapse

Now that you have become familiar with the basic functional unit of the
nervous system we will focus on the organization of the nervous system,
components of the nervous system and functioning of the nervous system as a
64 whole.
2.4.3 Components of the Nervous System Anatomy &
Physiology of
The nervous system is a complex, highly organized network of billions of Various Body
neurons and even more neuroglia. The structures that make up the nervous Systems-I
system are briefly defined and include:

i) The brain and its nerves called the cranial nerves and their branches,
ii) The spinal cord, which is the continuation of the brain along with the spinal
nerves and their branches,
iii) Ganglia, which as you will recall are small masses of nervous tissue.
Ganglions contain mainly cell bodies of neurons which are located outside
the brain and spinal cord. Ganglia are closely associated with cranial and
spinal nerves.

iv) Enteric plexuses, which are extensive networks of neurons, and occur in the
walls of organs of the gastrointestinal tract. These help regulate the Only 10% of brain
digestive system. and spinal cord cells
are composed of
v) Sensory receptors which are either the dendrites of sensory neurons neurons. The
(described in subsection sensory organs of Unit 1) or separate, specialized remaining 90% are
cells that monitor changes in the internal or external environment. support cells called
glia or neuroglia.
Among these five components of the nervous system we will discuss the These cells bind the
brain and the spinal cord in greater detail in subsection 2.4.4 and 2.4.5 nervous system
respectively. together. Glial cells
include astrocytes,
2.4.4 Anatomical Structures of the Nervous System oligodendrocytes
and Schwann cells.
Anatomically the structures of nervous system can be divided into five parts
i.e.

I) Brain
II) Protective Coverings of the Brain:
a) Bones: cranial bones ands spinal chord
b) Meninges
c) Cerebro-spinal Fluid
III) Cerebral Ventricles
IV) The Spinal Cord

I) Brain

The adult human brain (Fig. 2.13) is made up of about 100 billion neurons
and 1000 billions neuroglia. The brain is the centre for registering
sensations, correlating them with one another and is also the centre for
with stored information.

Division of the Brain

The brain is contained within the cranium (cranial bones forming a skull or
brain box) as you will recall from Unit 1. In a human adult, the brain
weighs approximately 1.3 kg and is divided into three parts (Fig. 2.13): 65
Introduction to i) fore brain
Anatomy, Physiology ii) mid brain, and
and Pharmaceutical
iii) hind brain
Chemistry

Fig.2.13: The human brain showing the tree main parts

i) Fore brain

The forebrain (prosencephalon) is composed of the (i) cerebrum

(Fig. 2.15), (ii) the thalamus, and (iii) the hypothalamus.

ii) Mid brain

The midbrain (mesencephalon) is composed of tectum, and the

cerebral peduncles, as well as several nuclei and fasciculi
(bundles of nerve fibers).

iii) Hind brain

The hind brain (rhombencephalon = myelencephalon+

metencephalon) is composed of the cerebellum, the pons and the
medulla oblongata.

Twelve pairs (right and left) of cranial nerves, numbered I

through XII, arise from the base of the brain. A nerve as you will
recall from unit 2 is a bundle of neurons that contains hundreds to
thousands of axons along with associated connective tissue and
blood vessels. Each nerve follows a defined path and serves a
specific region of the body. For example, the right cranial nerve I
carries signals for the sense of smell from the right side of the
nose to the brain.
66
 The main functions of the brain are: Anatomy &
Physiology of
• Detection and processing of sensory information, Various Body
• Orientation and control of muscular movement, Systems-I
• Maintenance of consciousness.

II) Protective Coverings of the Brain

The delicate nervous tissue of both the brain and spinal cord is protected
by two types of connective tissue covering (a) bones and (b) meninges and
non conctive tissue (c) the cerebro spinal fluid:

a) Bones

i) Cranial bones about which as you have already read in Unit 1

subsection 1.5. These cranial bones enclose and protect the brain.

ii) Similarly the vertebral column which encloses and protects the
spinal cord.
iii) The tough meninges cover and enclose the brain and spinal cord,
and
iv) The cerebrospinal fluid (non conctive tissue) is produced in the
brain and surrounds and cushions both the brain and spinal cord
and will be dealt later.

b) Meninges

The Meninges form a covering that encloses the brain and the spinal
cord (Fig. 2.17). The meninges surrounding the brain are called the
cranial meninges. These meninges continue downwards in the spinal
region as the spinal meninges and protect the spinal cord. The cranial
and spinal meninges have the same basic structure and same horns.
The meninges consist of three layers: (i) the inner layer is called the
piamater, (ii) the middle layer is called arachnoidmater and the
outermost layer named as duramater. The piamater closely covers the
spinal cord and the brain. It invaginates into the fissures (spaces) of
the brain. The arachnoid matter is the middle layer. The duramater is
the outer most layer of the meninges. The duramater is a tough fibrous
membrane which is attached to the vertebrae in case of spinal cord or
the skull in case of brain. A fluid known as the cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF) about which you will read later in this unit is present in between
the subarachnoid space which is the space between the arachnoid and
the piamater.

c) Cerebro-spinal Fluid

Cerebro-spinal fluid is a clear, colourless, watery tissue fluid present in

the subarachnoid space, ventricles and the central canal of the spinal
cord. In a human adult, the volume of CSF is approximately about
150ml. The cerebro-spinal fluid is composed of 40-60mg% glucose,
67
Introduction to traces of proteins, electrolytes, etc. The main function of the CSF is to
Anatomy, Physiology act as a buoyant fluid and as a shock absorber to the brain and the
and Pharmaceutical
spinal cord, and to supply nutrition to the nervous tissue.
Chemistry
III) Cerebral Ventricles

The brain has cavities called cerebral ventricles within it (Fig. 2.14) which
are filled with Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF). There are four ventricles in the
brain: (i) two lateral ventricles in the cerebrum, (ii) the third ventricle
between the halves of the thalamus, and (iii) the fourth ventricle in front of
the cerebellum.

Fig.2.14: The meninges and the ventricles of the brain

IV) The Spinal Cord

The spinal cord is the downward continuation of the brain. It connects to

the brain at the foramen magnum bone of the skull. The spinal cord is
encircled and protected as mentioned before by the bones of the vertebral
column. The spinal cord contains about 100 million neurons. Thirty-one
pairs of spinal nerves emerge from the spinal cord, each serving a specific
region on the right or left side of the body.
68
 This spinal cord contained within the vertebral column, extends from the Anatomy &
medulla oblongata of the brain which is the posterior most part of the brain Physiology of
upto the second lumbar vertebra (Fig. 2.15). Various Body
Systems-I

Fig.2.15: Spinal cord: showing nerves coming out of it at different segments. The
spinal cord conveys information between the brain and spinal cord and
vice versa 69
Introduction to
Anatomy, Physiology
and Pharmaceutical
Chemistry
Interneuron: A nerve
cell found entirely
within the central
nervous system that
acts as a link or
connects a sensory
neurons to the motor
neurons.
A transverse section of the spinal cord (Fig 2.16) reveals a central grey
region or grey matter which is shaped like the letter ‘H’ or a butterfly.
The grey matter is composed primarily of cell bodies of neurons,
neuroglia, unmylinated axons and dendrites of interneuron and motor
neurons of nerve cells as well as supporting cells. The grey matter on
each side of the spinal cord is sub-divided into regions called horns
which are: (i) the anterior (ventral) grey horns and (ii) the posterior
(dorsal) grey horns (iii) the lateral grey horns which are located in
between the anterior and posterior horns and which occur only in the
upper lumber and sacral segments of the spinal cord. In the centre of
the grey matter is a central canal which extends the entire length of the
spinal cord.

The grey matter is surrounded by a white region called the white

matter. The white matter of the spinal cord is divided it into the right
and left sides (Fig. 2.16) by two grooves: (i) the anterior median
fissure which is a deep wide groove on the anterior (ventral) side and
(ii) the posterior median sulcus which is a shallow, narrow groove on
the posterior (dorsal) surface. The white matter is composed bundles
of unmyelinated and myelinated axons of sensory neurons,
interneurons and motor neurons. These bundles are called tracts and
run to and fro from the brain.

Fig.2.16: Transverse section of the spinal cord showing its structures

alongwith neurons of spinal nerve

The function of the spinal cord is to establish a link between the brain and
other parts of the body. The spinal neurons send out processes that innervate
different organs and the skeletal muscles (Refer again to Fig. 2.15).
70
2.4.5 Organisation of the Nervous System Anatomy &
Physiology of
The nervous system can be divided on the basis of the structural organization Various Body
or on the basis of function. The nervous system can be divided on the basis of Systems-I
their functions (Fig 2.17) as follows:

I) The Central Nervous System (CNS) comprises of brain and spinal cord
about which you have already read in subsection 2.4.4. Both the CNS and
spinal cord integrate and correlate many different kinds of incoming
sensory information. The CNS is also the source of thoughts, emotions,
and memories. Most nerve impulses that stimulate muscles to contract and
glands to secrete originate in the CNS.

II) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): The PNS includes all nervous tissue
outside the CNS, namely, cranial nerves and their branches, spinal nerves
and their branches, ganglia, and sensory receptors.
The Peripheral Nervous System may be subdivided further into:

i) The somatic nervous system

ii) The autonomic nervous system, and
iii) The enteric nervous system.

Fig.2.17: Outline of the organization of the nervous system. a) The nervous

system is divisible into (I) the central nervous system that consists of the
brain and spinal cord and (II) the peripheral nervous system consisting
of all nervous tissue outside the central nervous system
71
Introduction to i) The Somatic Nervous System
Anatomy, Physiology
and Pharmaceutical The voluntary or motor nervous system is called the somatic (somat- =
Chemistry body), nervous system (SNS). The somatic nervous system (SNS)
consist of (1) somatic sensory neurons that convey information from
somatic and special sensory receptors primarily in the head, body wall,
and limbs to the CNS, and (2) somatic motor neurons from the CNS
that conduct impulses to skeletal muscles only. Because these motor
responses can be consciously controlled, the action of this part of the
PNS is voluntary.

ii) The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

The involuntary (not under conscious control) nervous system is called

the autonomic (auto- = self; -nomic = law) nervous system (ANS).
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is the part of the nervous
system which works below the level of consciousness. It governs the
activities of visceral organs like heart, stomach etc. It also controls
blood pressure, secretion of various glands of the body, etc. While the
somatic nervous system of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)
supplies the skeletal muscles of the body, the autonomic nerves of the
PNS supply all organs except the skeletal muscles. The ANS consists
of (1) sensory neurons that convey information from autonomic
sensory receptors, located primarily in the viscera, to the CNS, and (2)
motor neurons from the CNS that conduct nerve impulses to smooth
muscle, cardiac muscle, glands, and adipose tissue. The motor
responses of the ANS are not normally under conscious or voluntary
control. The organs generally supplied by the ANS have inherent
activity of their own as well as we can see in the beating of the heart. It
is because of this that the interruption of the nerve supply can only
alter the functioning of the organs and not stop them completely.

The motor portion of the autonomic nervous system is divided into

two divisions (Refer again to Fig. 2.11):

• Parasympathetic nervous system: This is also referred to as the

cranio-sacral nervous system as it is formed by the 3rd, 7th, 9th
and the 10th cranial nerves and the 3rd – 5th sacral nerves.

• Sympathetic nervous system: The sympathetic nervous system

is also known as the thoraco-lumbar nervous system.

iii) The Enteric Nervous System

The visceral nervous system also called the enteric (enter- = intestines)
nervous system (ENS) acts as the “brain of the gut”, and its action is
involuntary. The ENS was earlier considered as a part of the ANS but
now it is considered a separate system. The ENS consists of
approximately 100 million neurons in enteric plexuses that extend the
entire length of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Many of the neurons of
72 the enteric plexuses function independently of the ANS and CNS to
 some extent, although they also communicate with the CNS via Anatomy &
sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons. Sensory neurons of the Physiology of
ENS monitor chemical changes within the GI tract and the stretching Various Body
Systems-I
of its walls. Enteric motor neurons govern contraction of GI tract
smooth muscle, secretions of the GI tract organs such as acid secretion
by the stomach, and activity of GI tract endocrine cells.

2.4.6 Functions of the Nervous System

The nervous system governs the function of other organs and organ systems in
the body. It mainly plays the role of storage and transmitter of messages that
control various physiological functions in the body. The functions of the
nervous system that govern the body can be divided into two types:

• functions that can be governed consciously (contraction of skeletal

muscles), and

• functions that cannot be governed consciously (peristalsis of GIT, pumping

action of the heart).

The functions of the nervous are accomplished in the following three ways:
• Sensory functions. Sensory receptors detect (i) internal stimuli, such as an
increase in blood acidity, and (ii) external stimuli, such as when skin
touches something hot. The neurons that carry sensory information to the
brain and spinal cord are as you will recall sensory or afferent neurons
(towards – carried).

• Integrative function. The nervous system integrates (processes) sensory

information by analyzing and storing some of it and by making decisions
regarding appropriate responses. The neurons that serve this function, are
the interneurons (association neurons). The interneurons make up the vast
majority of neurons in the body.

• Motor function. The nervous system’s motor function involves responding

to integration decision of the brain and/or spinal cord. The neurons that
serve this function as you will recall are motor or efferent (away from
brain) neurons, which carry information out of the brain and spinal cord to
the effector organ which also simply called effectors. The cells and organs
innervated by motor neurons are termed effectors. Examples of effectors
organs are muscle fibres and glandular cells.

SAQ 3

Fill in the blank(s):

a) ______________,________________ carry impulses or signals from

various organs/tissues in the periphery to the brain or the spinal cord.

b) The outermost layer of the meninges is known as __________________.

c) The two arms of the ANS are the _____________ and the ____________.
73
Introduction to
Anatomy, Physiology 2.5 SUMMARY
and Pharmaceutical
Chemistry • The respiratory system is the anatomical structure in the body through
which the oxygenation of blood takes place through the process called
respiration.

• Anatomically, the respiratory system is composed of the nasal canal,

nasopharynx, the larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and the alveoli.

• The skeletal muscles associated with the process of respiration are the
diaphragm and the intercostals muscles.

• The process of respiration is controlled by one respiratory centre in the

medulla and two in the pons of the brain

• The digestive system, also called the gastro-intestinal tract is in the form of
a long tube that starts at the mouth and ends at the anus.

• The stomach is divisible into four parts: cardia, fundus, body or corpus, and
pylorus antrum. The inner surface of the stomach is thrown into folds.

• The small intestine is divided into three parts, the duodenum, the jejunum
and the ileum.

• The large intestine is divided into the caecum, ascending, transverse,

descending and sigmoid colon.

• The glands associated with the digestive system are the salivary glands, the
gastric glands, the intestinal (small and large intestine) glands, the liver and
the pancreas.

• The functional unit of the nervous system is a neuron. The nervous system
can be divided into the central and peripheral nervous system.

• The components of the nervous system are the brain, the spinal cord, the
nerve fibres, the meninges, the ventricles and the cerebro-spinal fluid.

• The voluntary or motor nervous system is called the somatic nervous

system (SNS). The motor nervous system is under voluntary control.

• The autonomic nervous system is that part of the nervous system which
works below the level of consciousness. It governs the activities of the
visceral organ and is divided into two arms, the sympathetic and the
parasympathetic.

2.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What is the importance of respiration?

74
2. Explain the mechanism of mechanical process of pulmonary ventilation. Anatomy &
Physiology of
3. List the four regions of the stomach and describe the histology of the Various Body
stomach. Systems-I

4. Describe the structure of the spinal cord.

5. Describe the physiological properties of the nerve.

2.7 ANSWERS

Self Assessment Questions

1. a) Epiglottis
b) Medulla oblongata and the pons
c) Tidal volume
d) Haemoglobin

2. a) Parotid, submaxillary, sublingual glands

b) Pharynx
c) Gall bladder
d) Defecation
e) Salivary glands and pancreas.

3. a) Afferent/Sensory nerves
b) Duramater
c) Sympathetic and the parasympathetic

Terminal Questions

1. Respiration is important as it:

i) is required for the exchange of gases oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide
(CO2)

ii) provides the oxygen which causes oxidation of food materials for
energy requirements of the body.

iii) aids in maintaining the pH of the blood by eliminating CO2.

iv) helps in the excretion of volatile substances like ammonia, water

vapour, etc.

v) also helps in maintaining the temperature of the body.

75
Introduction to vi) filters inspired air.
Anatomy, Physiology
and Pharmaceutical vii) helps produces sounds because of which we communicate.
Chemistry
2. Explain the mechanism of respiration by Referring to, subsection 2.2.5.

3. Refer to subsection 2.3.1(IV-Stomach).

4. Refer to subsection 2.4.4 ((IV) Spinal cord).

5. Refer to subsection 2.4.2

76