Me216 10

Applied Mathematics for Mechanical Engineers
ME216
Dr Ümit Keskin
umitkeskin@gazi.edu.tr
Gazi University,
Faculty of Engineering,
Mechanical Eng Dept,
Room 137,
https://mf-mm.gazi.edu.tr
June 3, 2024
L15 L16 FR
Lecture Content
1 L15: Vector Differential Calculus - Continued
2 L16: Vector Integral Calculus
3 Further Reading
Dr Ümit Keskin Gazi University, Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Eng Dept, Room 137, https://mf-mm.gazi.edu.tr
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Vector Differential Calculus - Continued
Divergence and Curl I

A Physical Interpretation of Curl
The curl vector is interpreted as a measure of rotation or swirl

about a point.
In British literature, the curl is often called the rot (for
rotation) of a vector field.
To understand this interpretation, suppose an object rotates
with uniform angular speed ω about a line L, as in Figure 1.1.
The angular velocity vector Ω has magnitude ω and is
directed along L as a right-handed screw would progress if
given the same sense of rotation as the object.
Put L through the origin and let R = xi + y j + zk for any
point (x, y , z) on the rotating object.
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Divergence and Curl II

Fig 1.1 Interpretation of curl.
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Divergence and Curl III

Let T(x, y , z) be the tangential linear velocity and R = ∥R∥.

Then
∥T∥ = ωR sin(θ) = ∥Ω × R∥,
with θ the angle between R and Ω.
Since T and Ω × R have the same direction and magnitude,
we conclude that T = Ω × R.
Now write Ω = ai + bj + ck to obtain
T = Ω × R = (bz − cy )i + (cx − az)j + (ay − bx)k.
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Divergence and Curl IV

Then
i j k
∇ × T = ∂/∂x ∂/∂y ∂/∂z
bz − cy cx − az ay − bx
= 2ai + 2bj + 2ck = 2Ω.
Therefore,
1
Ω = ∇ × T.
2
The angular velocity of a uniformly rotating body is a
constant times the curl of the linear velocity.
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Vector Integral Calculus
Line Integrals I
Intro
For line integrals we need some preliminary observations about

curves.
Suppose a curve C has parametric equations
x = x(t), y = y (t), z = z(t) for a ≤ t ≤ b.
These are the coordinate functions of C .

It is convenient to think of t as time and C as the trajectory
of an object, which at time t is at C (t) = (x(t), y (t), z(t)).
C has an orientation, since the object starts at the initial
point (x(a), y (a), z(a)) at time t = a and ends at the terminal
point (x(b), y (b), z(b)) at time t = b.
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Line Integrals II
Intro
We often indicate this orientation by putting arrows along the

graph.
We call C :
continuous if each coordinate function is continuous;
differentiable if each coordinate function is differentiable;
closed if the initial and terminal points coincide:
(x(a), y (a), z(a)) = (x(b), y (b), z(b));
simple if a < t1 < t2 < b implies that
(x(t1 ), y (t1 ), z(t1 )) ̸= (x(t2 ), y (t2 ), z(t2 ));
and smooth if the coordinate functions have continuous

derivatives which are never all zero for the same value of t.
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Line Integrals III

Intro
If C is smooth and we let R(t) = x(t)i + y (t)j + z(t)k be the

position function for C , then R′ (t) is continuous tangent
vector to C .
Smoothness of C means that the curve has a continuous
tangent vector as we move along it.
A curve is simple if it does not intersect itself at different
times.
The curve whose graph is shown in Figure 2.1 is not simple.
A closed curve has the same initial terminal points, but is still
called simple if it does not pass through any other point more
than once.
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Line Integrals IV
Intro
Fig 2.1 A nonsimple curve.
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Line Integrals V
Intro
We must be careful to distinguish between a curve and its

graph, although informally we often use these terms
interchangeably.
The graph is a drawing, while the curve carries with it a sense
of orientation from an initial to a terminal point.
The graph of a curve does not carry all of this information.
Example 2.1
Solution 2.1
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Line Integrals VI
Intro
Let C have coordinate functions
x = 4 cos(t), y = 4 sin(t), z = 9 for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
The graph of C is a circle of radius 4 about the origin in the

plane z = 9.
C is simple, closed and smooth.
Let K be given by
x = 4 cos(t), y = 4 sin(t), z = 9 for 0 ≤ t ≤ 4π.
The graph of K is the same as the graph of C , except that a

particle traversing/travelling K goes around this circle twice.
K is closed and smooth but not simple.
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Line Integrals VII

Intro
Fig 2.2 Graph of C .

ref: https://christopherchudzicki.github.io/MathBox-Demos/parametric curves 3D.html
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Line Integrals VIII

Intro
This information is not clear from the graph alone.

Let L be the curve given by
x(t) = 4 cos(t), y = 4 sin(t), z = 9 for 0 ≤ t ≤ 3π.
The graph of L is again the circle of radius 4 about the origin

in the plane z = 9.
L is smooth and not simple, but L is also not closed, since the
initial point is (4, 0, 9) and the terminal point is (−4, 0, 9).
A particle moving along L traverses the complete circle from
(4, 0, 9) to (4, 0, 9) and then continues on to (−4, 0, 9), where
it stops.
Again, this behaviour is not clear from the graph. ♦
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Line Integrals IX
Intro
We are now ready to define the line integral, which is an

integral over a curve.
Suppose C is a smooth curve with coordinate functions
Let f , g and h be continuous at least at points on the graph
of C .
R
Then the line integral C fdx + gdy + hdz is defined by
Z Z b
dx
fdx + gdy + hdz = f (x(t), y (t), z(t))
C a dt

dy dz
+g (x(t), y (t), z(t)) + h(x(t), y (t), z(t)) dt.
dt dt
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Line Integrals X
Intro
R
C fdx + gdy + hdz is a number obtained by replacing x, y
and z in f (x, y , z), g (x, y , z) and h(x, y , z) with the
coordinate functions x(t), y (t) and z(t) of C , replacing
dx = x ′ (t)dt, dy = y ′ (t)dt and dz = z ′ (t)dt
and integrating the resulting function of t from a to b.

Example 2.2
Solution 2.2
We will evaluate C xdx − yzdy + e z dz if C is the curve with

R
coordinate functions
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Line Integrals XI
Intro
x = t 3 , y = −t, z = t 2 for 1 ≤ t ≤ 2.
First,
dx = 3t 2 dt, dy = −dt and dz = 2tdt.
Put the coordinate functions of C into x, −yz and e z to
obtain
Z Z 2
z
3 2
xdx − yzdy + e dz = t (3t ) − (−t)(t 2 )(−1)
C 1
Z 2h
2
i 2
i 111
+e t (2t) dt = 3t 5 − t 3 + 2te t dt = + e 4 − e. ♦
1 4
2 2
xe cx dx = [1/(2c)]e cx
R
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Line Integrals XII

Intro
Example 2.3
Solution 2.3
R
Evaluate C xyzdx − cos(yz)dy + xzdz along the straight line
segment L from (1, 1, 1) to (−2, 1, 3).
Parametric equations of L are
x = 1 − 3t, y = 1, z = 1 + 2t for 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.
Then
dx = −3dt, dy = 0 and dz = 2dt.
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Line Integrals XIII

Intro
The line integral is

Z Z 1
xyzdx − cos(yz)dy + xzdz = [(1 − 3t)(1 + 2t)(−3)
C 0
− cos(1 + 2t)(0) + (1 − 3t)(1 + 2t)(2)]dt
Z 1
3
= (−1 + t + 6t 2 )dt = . ♦
0 2
We have a line integral in the plane if C is in the plane and

the functions involve only x and y .
R (α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β
cos
R cos (ax) = (1/a) sin (ax)
sin (ax) = −(1/a) cos (ax)
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Line Integrals XIV

Intro
Example 2.4
Solution 2.4
R
Evaluate K xydx − y sin(x)dy if K has coordinate functions
x = t 2 and y = t for −1 ≤ t ≤ 2.
Here
dx = 2tdt and dy = dt
so
Z Z 2
xydx − y sin(x)dy = [t 2 t(2t) − t sin(t 2 )]dt
K −1
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Line Integrals XV
Intro
Z 2
66 1
= [2t 4 − t sin(t 2 )]dt = + (cos(4) − cos(1)).
−1 5 2
Line integrals have properties we normally expect of integrals.
1 The line integral of a sum is the sum of the line integrals:
Z
(f + f ∗ )dx + (g + g ∗ )dy + (h + h∗ )dz
Z C Z
= fdx + gdy + hdz + f ∗ dx + g ∗ dy + h∗ dz.
C C
2 Constants factor through a line integral:

Z Z
(cf )dx + (cg )dy + (ch)dz = c fdx + gdy + hdz.
C C
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Line Integrals XVI

Intro
Rb Ra
For definite integrals, a F (x)dx = − b F (x)dx.
The analogue of this for line integrals is that reversing the
direction on C changes the sign of the line integral.
Suppose C is a smooth curve from P0 to P1 .
Let C have coordinate functions
Define K as the curve with coordinate functions

x̃(t) = x(a + b − t), ỹ (t) = y (a + b − t),
z̃(t) = z(a + b − t) for a ≤ t ≤ b.
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Line Integrals XVII

Intro
The graphs of C and K are the same, but the initial point of
K is the terminal point of C , since
(x̃(a), ỹ (a), z̃(a)) = (x(b), y (b), z(b)).
Similarly, the terminal point of K is the initial point of C .

We denote a curve K formed from C in this way as −C .
The effect of this reversal of orientation is to change the sign
of a line integral.
3 Z Z
fdx + gdy + hdz = − fdx + gdy + hdz.
C −C
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Line Integrals XVIII

Intro
This can be proved by a simple change of variables in the

integrals with respect to t defining these line integrals.
The next property of line integrals reflects the fact that
Z b Z c Z b
F (x)dx = F (x)dx + F (x)dx
a a c
for definite integrals.

A curve C is piecewise smooth if it has a continuous tangent
at all but finitely many points.
Such a curve typically has the appearance of the graph in
Figure 2.3, with a finite number of “corners” at which there is
no tangent.
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Line Integrals XIX

Intro
Fig 2.3 A piecewise smooth curve.
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Line Integrals XX
Intro
Write
C = C1 ⊕ C2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Cn
if, as in Figure 2.3, C begins with a smooth piece C1 .
C2 begins where C1 ends, C3 begins where C2 ends, and so on.
Each Cj is smooth, but where Cj joins with Cj+1 there may be
no tangent in the resulting curve.
For C formed in this way,
4 Z Z
fdx + gdy + hdz = fdx + gdy + hdz
C C1 ⊕C2 ⊕···⊕Cn
n Z
X
= fdx + gdy + hdz.
j=1 Cj
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Line Integrals XXI

Intro
Example 2.5
Solution 2.5
Let C be the curve consisting of the quarter circle

x 2 + y 2 = 1 in the x, y -plane from (1, 0) to (0, 1), followed by
the horizontal line segment from (0, 1) to (2, 1).
We will compute C dx + y 2 dy .
R
Write C = C1 ⊕ C2 , where C1 is the quarter circle part and C2

the line segment part.
Parametrise C1 by x = cos(t), y = sin(t) for 0 ≤ t ≤ π/2.
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Line Integrals XXII

Intro
On C1 ,
dx = − sin(t)dt and dy = cos(t)dt,
so
Z Z π/2
2
dx + y 2 dy = [− sin(t) + sin2 (t) cos(t)]dt = − .
C1 0 3
Parametrise C2 by x = s, y = 1 for 0 ≤ s ≤ 2.
On C2 ,
dx = ds and dy = 0
sinn (ax) cos(ax)dx = a(n+1)

1 sinn+1 (ax) for n ̸= −1
R
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Line Integrals XXIII

Intro
so Z Z 2
2
dx + y dy = ds = 2.
C2 0
Then Z
2 4
dx + y 2 dy = − + 2 = . ♦
C 3 3
We often write a line integral in vector notation.
Let F = f i + g j + hk and form the position vector
R(t) = x(t)i + y (t)j + z(t)k for C .
Then
dR = dxi + dy j + dzk
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Line Integrals XXIV

Intro
and
F · dR = fdx + gdy + hdz
suggesting the notation
Z Z
fdx + gdy + hdz = F · dR.
C C
Example 2.6
Solution 2.6
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Line Integrals XXV

Intro
A force F(x, y , z) = x 2 i − zy j + x cos(z)k moves an object

along the path C given by x = t 2 , y = t, z = πt for
0 ≤ t ≤ 3.
We want to calculate the work done by this force.
At any point on C the particle will be moving in the direction
of the tangent to C at that point.
We may approximate the work done along a small segment of
the curve starting at (x, y , z) by F(x, y , z) · dR, with the
dimensions of force times distance.
The work done in moving the object along the entire path is
approximated by the sum of these approximations along
segments of the path.
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Line Integrals XXVI

Intro
In the limit as the lengths of these segments tend to zero we

obtain
Z Z
work = F · dR = x 2 dx − zydy + x cos(z)dz
C C
Z 3
= [t 4 (2t) − (πt)(t) + t 2 cos(πt)(π)]dt
0
Z 3
6
= [2t 5 − πt 2 + πt 2 cos(πt)]dt = 243 − 9π − .♦
0 π
· Work is the energy transferred to or from an object via the application of force along a displacement.
·R Integration Rby parts formula Ris used for integrating the product of two functions:
uv dx = u v dx − ( du
R
dx
v dx) dx
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Line Integrals I
Line Integral With Respect to Arc Length
In some contexts it is useful to have a line integral with

respect to arc length along C .
If φ(x, y , z) is a scalar field and C is a smooth curve with
coordinate functions x = x(t), y = y (t), z = z(t) for
a ≤ t ≤ b, we define
Z
φ(x, y , z)ds
C
Z b q
= φ(x(t), y (t), z(t)) [x ′ (t)]2 + [y ′ (t)]2 + [z ′ (t)]2 dt.
a
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Line Integrals II
The rationale behind this definition is that

q
ds = [x ′ (t)]2 + [y ′ (t)]2 + [z ′ (t)]2 dt
is the differential element of arc length along C .

To see how such a line integral arises, suppose C is a thin wire
having density δ(x, y , z) at (x, y , z), and we want to compute
the mass.
Partition [a, b] into n subintervals by inserting points
a = t0 < t1 < t2 < · · · < tn−1 < tn = b
of length ∆t = (b − a)/n, where n is a positive integer.

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Line Integrals III

We can make ∆t as small as we want by choosing n large, so

that values of δ(x, y , z) are approximated as closely as we
want on [tj−1 , tj ] by δ(Pj ), where Pj = (x(tj ), y (tj ), z(tj )).
The length of wire between Pj−1 and Pj is
∆s = s(Pj ) − s(Pj−1 ) ≈ dsj .
The
Pn mass of this piece of wire is approximately δ(Pj )dsj , and
j=1 δ(Pj )dsj approximates the mass of the wire.
In the limit as n → ∞, this gives
Z
mass of the wire = δ(x, y , z)ds.
C
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Line Integrals IV
A similar argument gives the coordinates (x̃, ỹ , z̃) of the

centre of mass of the wire as
Z Z
1 1
x̃ = xδ(x, y , z)ds, ỹ = y δ(x, y , z)ds,
m C m C
Z
1
z̃ = zδ(x, y , z)ds,
m C
in which m is the mass.

Example 2.7
Solution 2.7
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Line Integrals V
A wire is bent into the shape of the quarter circle C given by

x = 2 cos(t), y = 2 sin(t), z = 3 for 0 ≤ t ≤ π/2.
The density function is δ(x, y , z) = xy 2 .
We want the mass and centre of mass of the wire.
The mass is
Z
m= xy 2 ds
C
Z π/2 q
= 2 cos(t)[2 sin(t)]2 4 sin2 (t) + 4 cos2 (t)dt
0
Z π/2
16
= 16 cos(t) sin2 (t)dt = .
0 3
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Line Integrals VI
Fig 2.4 Graph of the quarter circle.
sinn (ax) cos(ax)dx = a(n+1)

1 sinn+1 (ax) for n ̸= −1
R
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Line Integrals VII

Now compute the coordinates of the centre of mass.

First,
Z
1
x̃ = xδ(x, y , z)ds
m C
Z π/2
3
q
= [2 cos(t)]2 [2 sin(t)]2 4sin2 (t) + 4cos 2 (t)dt
16 0
Z π/2
3π
=6 cos 2 (t)sin2 (t)dt = .
0 8
sinn+1 (ax) cosm−1 (ax)

sinn (ax) cosm (ax)dx = + m−1 sinn (ax) cosm−2 (ax)dx for m, n > 0
R R
a(n+m) n+m
R 2 x 1
sin (ax)dx = 2
− 4a
sin (2ax)
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Line Integrals VIII

Next,
Z
1
ỹ = y δ(x, y , z)ds
m C
Z π/2
3
q
3
= [2 cos(t)][2 sin(t)] 4sin2 (t) + 4cos 2 (t)dt
16 0
Z π/2
3
=6 cos(t)sin3 (t)dt = .
0 2
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Line Integrals IX
And
Z
3
ỹ = zxy 2 ds
16 C
Z 16
3
q
= 3[2cos(t)][2sin(t)]2 4sin2 (t) + 4cos 2 (t)dt
16 0
Z π/2
=9 sin2 (t)cos(t)dt = 3.
0
It should not be surprising that z̃ = 3 because the wire is in

the z = 3 plane. ♦
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Green’s Theorem I
Green’s theorem is a relationship between double integrals and

line integrals around closed curves in the plane.
It was formulated independently by the self-taught amateur
British natural philosopher George Green and the Ukrainian
mathematician Michel Ostrogradsky, and is used in potential
theory and partial differential equations.
A closed curve C in the x, y -plane is positively oriented if a
point on the curve moves counter-clockwise as the parameter
describing C increases.
If the point moves clockwise, then C is negatively oriented.
We denote orientation by placing an arrow on the graph, as in
Figure 2.5.
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Green’s Theorem II
Fig 2.5 Orientation on a curve.
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Green’s Theorem III
A simple closed curve C in the plane encloses a region, called

the interior of C .
The unbounded region that remains if the interior is cut out is
the exterior of C (Figure 2.6).
If C is positively oriented then, as we walk around C in the
positive direction, the interior is over our left shoulder.
We will use the term path for a piecewise smooth curve.
And
H we often denote a line integral over a closed path C as
C , with a small oval on the integral sign.
This is not obligatory and does not affect the meaning of the
line integral or the way it is evaluated.
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Green’s Theorem IV
Fig 2.6 Interior and exterior of a simple closed curve.
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Green’s Theorem V
Theorem 2.1
Green’s Theorem
Let C be a simple closed positively oriented path in the plane.
Let D consist of all points on C and in its interior.
Let f , g , ∂f /∂y and ∂g /∂x be continuous on D.
Then
I ZZ
∂g ∂f
f (x, y )dx + g (x, y )dy = − dA.
C D ∂x ∂y
A proof under special conditions on D is sketched in Problem

14 in Chapter 12 of the reference book.
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Green’s Theorem VI
Example 2.8
Solution 2.8
Sometimes Green’s theorem simplifies an integration.

Suppose we want to compute the work done by
F(x, y ) = (y − x 2 e x )i + (cos(2y 2 ) − x)j in moving a particle
counter-clockwise about the rectangular path C having
vertices (0, 1), (1, 1), (1, 3) and (0, 3).
R
If we attempt to evaluate C F · dR we encounter integrals
that cannot be done in elementary form.
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Green’s Theorem VII
However, by Green’s theorem, with D the solid rectangle

bounded by C ,
I
work = F · dR
C
ZZ
∂ 2 ∂ 2 x
= (cos (2y ) − x) − (y − x e ) dA
∂x ∂y
ZZ D
= −2dA = (−2)[area of D] = (−2)(2) = −4. ♦
D
Example 2.9
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Green’s Theorem VIII

Solution 2.9
Another use of Green’s theorem is in deriving general results.

Suppose we want to evaluate
I
2x cos (2y )dx − 2x 2 sin (2y )dy
C
for every positively oriented simple closed path C in the plane.

There are infinitely many such paths.
However, f (x, y ) and g (x, y ) have the special property that
∂ ∂
−2x 2 sin (2y ) −

(2x cos (2y ))
∂x ∂y
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Green’s Theorem IX
= −4x sin (2y ) + 4x sin (2y ) = 0.

By Green’s theorem, for any such closed path C in the plane,
I ZZ
2
2x cos (2y )dx − 2x sin (2y )dy = 0dA = 0. ♦
C D
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An Extension of Green’s Theorem I
There is an extension of Green’s theorem to include the case

that there are finitely many points P1 , · · · , Pn enclosed by C
at which f , g , ∂f /∂y and/or ∂g /∂x are not continuous, or
perhaps not even defined.
The idea is to excise/remove these points by enclosing them
in small disks which are thought of as cut out of D.
Enclose each Pj with a circle Kj of sufficiently small radius
that no circle intersects either C or any of the other circles
(Figure 2.7).
Draw a channel consisting of two parallel line segments from
C to K1 , then from K1 to K2 , and so on, until the last
channel is drawn from Kn−1 to Kn .
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An Extension of Green’s Theorem II
Fig 2.7 Enclosing points with small circles interior to C .
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An Extension of Green’s Theorem III
Fig 2.8 Channels connecting C to K1 , K1 to K2 , · · · , Kn−1 to Kn .
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An Extension of Green’s Theorem IV

This is illustrated in Figure 2.8 for n = 3.
Now form the simple closed path C ∗ of Figure 2.9, consisting
of “most of” C , “most of” each Kj , and the inserted channel
lines.
By “most of” C , we mean that a small arc of C and each
circle between the channel cuts has been excised in forming
C ∗.
Each Pj is external to C ∗ and f , g , ∂f /∂y and ∂g /∂x are
continuous on and in the interior of C ∗ .
The orientation on C ∗ is also crucial.
If we begin at a point of C just before the channel to K1 , we
move counter-clockwise on C until we reach the first channel
cut,
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An Extension of Green’s Theorem V
Fig 2.9 The simple closed path C ∗ , with each Pj exterior to C ∗ .
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An Extension of Green’s Theorem VI

then go along this cut to K1 , then clockwise around part of
K1 until we reach a channel cut to K2 , then clockwise around
K2 until we reach a cut to K3 .
After going clockwise around part of K3 , we reach the other
side of the cut from this circle to K2 , move clockwise around
it to the cut to K1 , then clockwise around it to the cut back
to C , and then continue counter-clockwise around C .
If D ∗ is the interior of C ∗ , then by Green’s theorem,
I ZZ
∂g ∂f
fdx + gdy = − dA. (2.1)
C∗ D∗ ∂x ∂y
Now take a limit in Figure 2.9 as the channels are made

narrower.
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An Extension of Green’s Theorem VII
The opposite sides of each channel merge to single line

segments, which are integrated over in both directions in
equation 2.1.
The contributions to the sum in this equation from the
channel cuts is therefore zero.
Further, as the channels narrow, the small arcs of C and each
Kj cut out in making the channels are restored, and the line
integrals in equation 2.1 are over all of C and the circles Kj.
Recalling that in equation 2.1 the integrations over the Kj ’s
are clockwise, equation 2.1 can be written
Pn
H H RR ∂g ∂f
C fdx + gdy − j=1 Kj fdx + gdy = D∗ ∂x − ∂y dA. (2.2)
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An Extension of Green’s Theorem VIII
in which all integrations (over C and each Kj ) are now taken

in the positive, counter-clockwise sense.
This
H accounts for the minus sign on each of the integrals
Kj fdx + gdy in equation 2.2.
Finally, write equation 2.2 as
I n I
X
fdx + gdy = fdx + gdy
C j=1 Kj
ZZ (2.3)
∂g ∂f
+ − dA.
D∗ ∂x ∂y
This is the extended form of Green’s theorem.
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An Extension of Green’s Theorem IX
When D contains points atH which f , g , ∂f /∂y and/or ∂g /∂x

are not continuous,
H then C ∗ fdx + gdy is the sum of the line
integrals Kj fdx + gdy about small circles centred at the Pj ’s,
together with ZZ
∂g ∂f
− dA
D∗ ∂x ∂y
over the region D ∗ formed by excising from D the disks
bounded by the Kj ’s.
Example 2.10
Solution 2.10
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An Extension of Green’s Theorem X

We will evaluate
−y
I
x
dx + 2 dy
C x2 +y 2 x + y2
in which C is any simple closed positively oriented path in the
plane, but not passing through the origin.
With
−y x
f (x, y ) = 2 and g (x, y ) = 2
(x + y 2 ) (x + y 2 )
we have
∂g ∂f (y 2 − x 2 )
= = 2 .
∂x ∂y (x + y 2 )2
Given two differentiable functions f (x) and g (x) such that g (x) ̸= 0, the derivative with respect to x of
f ′ (x)g (x)−f (x)g ′ (x)
h i
d f (x)
the quotient of f (x) and g (x) is dx g (x)
= 2 .
[g (x)]
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An Extension of Green’s Theorem XI
This suggests that we consider two cases.

Case 1 If C does not enclose the origin, Green’s theorem
applies and
ZZ
−y
I
x ∂g ∂f
2 2
dx + 2 dy = − dA = 0.
C x +y x + y2 D∗ ∂x ∂y
Case 2 If C encloses the origin, then C encloses a point

where f and g are not defined.
Now use equation 2.3.
Let K be a circle about the origin, with sufficiently small
radius r that K does not intersect C (Figure 2.10).
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An Extension of Green’s Theorem XII
Fig 2.10 Case 2 of Example 2.10.
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An Extension of Green’s Theorem XIII
Then
I I :0
ZZ
∂g ∂f

fdx + gdy = fdx + gdy + −
∂x
dA.
C K D∗
∂y
where D ∗ is the region between D and K , including both

curves.
Both of these line integrals are in the counter-clockwise sense.
The last line integral is over a circle and can be evaluated
explicitly.
Parametrise K by x = r cos(θ), y = r sin(θ) for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
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An Extension of Green’s Theorem XIV

Then
I
fdx + gdy
K
2π
−r sin(θ)
Z
r cos(θ)
= [−r sin(θ)] + [r cos(θ)] dθ
0 r2 r2
Z 2π
= dθ = 2π.
0
We conclude that
I (
0 if C does not enclose the origin
fdx + gdy =
C 2π if C encloses the origin.
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Independence of Path and Potential Theory I
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Surface Integrals I
Intro
Just as there are integrals of vector fields over curves, there

are also integrals of vector fields over surfaces.
We begin with some facts about surfaces.
A curve in R 3 is given by coordinate functions of one variable,
and may be thought of as a one-dimensional object (such as a
thin wire).
A surface is defined by coordinate or parametric functions of
two variables,
x = x(u, v ), y = y (u, v ), z = z(u, v )
for (u, v ) in some specified set in the u, v -plane.
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Surface Integrals II
Intro
We call u and v parameters for the surface.

Example 2.11
Solution 2.11
Figure 2.11 shows part of the surface having coordinate

functions
1
x = u cos(v ), y = u sin(v ), z = u 2 sin(2v )
2
in which u and v can be any real numbers.
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Surface Integrals III

Intro
Fig 2.11 The surface x = u cos(v ), y = u sin(v ), z = (u 2 /2) sin(2v )

in Example 2.11.
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Surface Integrals IV
Intro
Since z = xy , the surface cuts any plane z = k in a hyperbola

xy = k.
However, the surface intersects a plane y = ±x in a parabola
z = ±x 2 .
For this reason the surface is called a hyperbolic paraboloid. ♦
Often a surface is defined as a level surface f (x, y , z) = k,
with f a given function.
For example
f (x, y , z) = (x − 1)2 + y 2 + (z + 4)2 = 16
has the sphere of radius 4 and centre (1, 0, −4) as its graph.
sin (2θ) = 2 sin θ cos θ
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Surface Integrals V
Intro
Fig 2.12 The surface z = xy cutting the plane z = 2 in the

hyperbola xy = 2.
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Surface Integrals VI
Intro
Fig 2.13 The surface z = xy intersecting the plane y = ±x in the

parabola z = ±x 2 .
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Surface Integrals VII

Intro
Fig 2.14 Sphere of radius 4 at the centre (1, 0, −4).
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Surface Integrals VIII

Intro
We may also express a surface as a locus/set of points

satisfying an equation z = f (x, y ) or y = h(x, z) or
x = w (y , z).
Figure 2.15 showsppart of the graph of
z = 6 sin(x − y )/ 1 + x 2 + y 2 .
We often write a position vector
R(u, v ) = x(u, v )i + y (u, v )j + z(u, v )k
for a surface.
R(u, v ) can be thought of as an arrow from the origin to the
point (x(u, v ), y (u, v ), z(u, v )) on the surface.
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Surface Integrals IX
Intro
p
Fig 2.15 The surface z = 6 sin (x − y )/ 1 + x 2 + y 2 .
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Surface Integrals X
Intro
Although a surface is different from its graph (the surface is a

triple of coordinate functions, the graph is a geometric locus
in R 3 ), often we will informally identify the surface with its
graph, just as we sometimes identify a curve with its graph.
A surface is simple if it does not fold over and intersect itself.
This means that R(u1 , v1 ) = R(u2 , v2 ) can occur only when
u1 = u2 and v1 = v2 .
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Surface Integrals I
Normal Vector to a Surface
We would like to define a normal vector to a surface at a

point.
Previously this was done for
alertlevel surfaces.
Let Σ be a surface with coordinate functions x(u, v ), y (u, v ),
z(u, v ).
Let P0 be a point on Σ corresponding to u = u0 , v = v0 .
If we fix v = v0 we can define the curve Σu on Σ, having
coordinate functions
x = x(u, v0 ), y = y (u, v0 ), z = z(u, v0 ).
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The tangent vector to this curve at P0 is
∂x ∂y ∂z
Tu 0 = (u0 , v0 )i + (u0 , v0 )j + (u0 , v0 )k.
∂u ∂u ∂u
Similarly, we can fix u = u0 and form the curve Σv on the
surface.
The tangent to this curve at P0 is
∂x ∂y ∂z
Tv0 = (u0 , v0 )i + (u0 , v0 )j + (u0 , v0 )k.
∂v ∂v ∂v
These two curves and tangent vectors are shown in Figure
2.16.
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Fig 2.16 Curves Σu and Σv and tangent vectors Tu0 and Tv0 .
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Assuming that neither of these tangent vectors is the zero

vector, they both lie in the tangent plane to the surface at P0 .
Their cross product is therefore normal to this tangent plane.
This leads us to define the normal to the surface at P0 to be
the vector
N(P0 ) = Tu0 × Tv0

i j k
∂x ∂y ∂z
= ∂u (u0 , v0 ) ∂u (u0 , v0 ) ∂u (u0 , v0 )
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂v (u0 , v0 ) ∂v (u0 , v0 ) ∂v (u0 , v0 )
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Surface Integrals V

∂y ∂z ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂z
= − i+ − j
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v

∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
+ − k,
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
in which all partial derivatives are evaluated at (u0 , v0 ).
To make this vector easier to write, define the Jacobian of two
functions f and g to be
∂(f , g ) ∂f /∂u ∂f /∂v ∂f ∂g ∂g ∂f

= = − .
∂(u, v ) ∂g /∂u ∂g /∂v ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
Then
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∂(y , z) ∂(z, x) ∂(x, y )

N(P0 ) = i+ j+ k,
∂(u, v ) ∂(u, v ) ∂(u, v )
with all the partial derivatives evaluated at (u0 , v0 ).
This expression is easy to remember with an observation.
Write x, y , z in this order.
For the i component of N, delete x, leaving y , z, (in this
order) in the numerator of the Jacobian.
For the j component, delete y from x, y , z, but move to the
right, getting z, x in the Jacobian.
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Surface Integrals VII

For the k component, delete z, leaving x, y , in this order.

Example 2.12
Solution 2.12
The elliptical cone has coordinate functions
x = au cos (v ), y = bu sin (v ), z = u
with a and b positive constants.

Part of this surface is shown in Figure 2.17.
Since
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Surface Integrals VIII

Fig 2.17 Elliptical cone x = au cos(v ), y = bu sin(v ), z = u.
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Surface Integrals IX
x 2 y 2
z2 = . +
a b
this surface is a “cone” with major axis the z-axis.
Planes z = k parallel to the x, y -plane intersect this surface in
ellipses.
We will √ write the normal vector N(P0 ) at
P0 = (a 3/4, b/4, 1/2) obtained when u = u0 = 1/2 and
v = v0 = π/6.
Compute the Jacobian components:

∂(y , z) ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂y
= −
∂(u, v ) ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v (1/2,π/6)
√
= [b sin(v )(0) − bu cos(v )](1/2,π/6) = − 3b/4,
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Surface Integrals X

∂(z, x) ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂z
= −
∂(u, v ) ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v (1/2,π/6)
= [−au sin(v ) − a cos(v )(0)](1/2,π/6) = −a/4,

∂(x, y ) ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
= −
∂(u, v ) ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v (1/2,π/6)
= [a cos(v )bu cos(v ) − b sin(v )(−au sin(v ))](1/2,π/6)
= ab/2.
Then √
3b a ab
N(P0 ) = − i − j + k. ♦
4 4 2
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Surface Integrals XI
We frequently encounter the case that a surface is given by an

equation z = S(x, y ), with u = x and v = y as parameters.
In this case
∂(y , z) ∂(y , z) 0 1 ∂S
= = =− ,
∂(u, v ) ∂(x, y ) ∂S/∂x ∂S/∂y ∂x
∂(z, x) ∂(z, x) ∂S/∂x ∂S/∂y ∂S
= = =− ,
∂(u, v ) ∂(x, y ) 1 0 ∂y
and
∂(x, y ) ∂(x, y ) 1 0
= = = 1.
∂(u, v ) ∂(x, y ) 0 1
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Surface Integrals XII

Now the normal vector at P0 : (x0 , y0 ) is
∂S ∂S
N(P0 ) = − (x0 , y0 )i − (x0 , y0 )j + k
∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z
= − (x0 , y0 )i − (x0 , y0 )j + k.
∂x ∂y
Example 2.13
Solution 2.13
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Surface Integrals XIII

Let Σ be the hemisphere given by

p
z = 4 − x 2 − y 2.
√
We will find the normal vector at P0 : (1, 2, 1).
Compute
∂z x
√ = −p = −1
∂x (1, 2) −x 2 − y 2 + 4
and
∂z y √
√ = −p = − 2.
∂y (1, 2) −y 2 − x 2 + 4
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Surface Integrals XIV

Then √
N(P0 ) = i + 2j + k.
This result is consistent with the fact that a line from the
origin through a point on this hemisphere is normal to the
hemisphere at that point. ♦
p
Fig 2.18 Hemisphere given by z = 4 − x 2 − y 2.
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Surface Integrals I
Tangent Plane to a Surface
If a surface Σ has a normal vector N(P0 ) at a point then it

has a tangent plane at P0 .
This is the plane through P0 : (x0 , y0 , z0 ) having normal vector
N(P0 ).
The equation of this tangent plane is
N(P0 ) · [(x − x0 )i + (y − y0 )j + (z − z0 )k] = 0,
or

∂(y , z) ∂(z, x)
(x − x0 ) + (y − y0 )
∂(u, v ) (u0 ,v0 ) ∂(u, v ) (u0 ,v0 )

∂(x, y )
+ (z − z0 ) = 0.
∂(u, v ) (u0 ,v0 )
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If Σ is given by z = S(x, y ), this tangent plane has equation

∂S ∂S
− (x − x0 ) − (y − y0 ) + z − z0 = 0.
∂x (x0 ,y0 ) ∂y (x0 ,y0 )
Example 2.14
Solution 2.14
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For
√ the elliptical cone of Example 2.12, the tangent plane at
( 3a/4, b/4, 1/2) has equation
√ √ !
3b 3a a b ab 1
− x− − x− + z− = 0.
4 4 4 4 2 2
Example 2.15
Solution 2.15
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For√the hemisphere of Example 2.13, the tangent plane at

(1, 2, 1) has equation
√ √
(x − 1) + 2(y − 2) + (z − 1) = 0,
or √
x+ 2y + z = 4.
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Surface Integrals I
Piecewise Smooth Surfaces
A curve is smooth if it has a continuous tangent.

A smooth surface is one that has a continuous normal.
A piecewise smooth surface is one that consists of a finite
number of smooth surfaces.
For example, a sphere is smooth and the surface of a cube is
piecewise smooth, consisting of six smooth faces.
The cube does not have a normal vector (or tangent plane)
along an edge.
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In calculus it is shown that the area of a smooth surface Σ

given by z = S(x, y ) is
s 2 2
ZZ
∂S ∂S
area of Σ = 1+ + dA
D ∂x ∂y
where D is the set of points in the x, y -plane over which the

surface is defined.
We now recognise that this area is actually the integral of the
length of the normal vector:
ZZ
area of Σ = ∥N(x, y )∥dx dy . (2.4)
D
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This is analogous to the formula for the length of a curve as

the integral of the length of the tangent vector.
More generally, if Σ is given by coordinate functions x(u, v ),
y (u, v ), z(u, v ) for (u, v ) varying over some set D in the
u, v -plane, then
ZZ
area of Σ = ∥N(u, v )∥du dv .
D
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Surface Integrals I
Surface Integrals
The line integral of f (x, y , z) over C with respect to arc

length is
Z
f (x, y , z)ds
C
Z b q
= f (x(t), y (t), z(t)) x ′ (t)2 + y ′ (t)2 + z ′ (t)2 dt.
a
We want to lift this idea up one dimension to integrate a

function over a surface instead of over a curve.
To do this, imagine that the coordinateR functions are
b
two variables u and v , so a · · · dt will be
functions of RR
replaced by D · · · dudv .
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Surface Integrals
The differential element of arc length ds for C will be replaced

by the differential element of surface area on Σ, which by
equation 2.4 is dσ = ∥N(u, v )∥du dv .
Let Σ be a smooth surface with coordinate functions x(u, v ),
y (u, v ), z(u, v ) for (u, v ) in D.
Let f be continuous on Σ.
Then the surface integral of f over Σ is denoted
RR
Σ f (x, y , z)dσ and is defined by
ZZ
f (x, y , z)dσ
ZZ Σ
= f (x(u, v ), y (u, v ), z(u, v ))∥N(u, v )∥du dv .

D
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Surface Integrals
If Σ is piecewise smooth, then the line integral of f over Σ is

the sum of the line integrals over the smooth pieces.
If Σ is given by z = S(x, y ) for (x, y ) in D, then
ZZ
f (x, y , z)dσ
Σ
s 2 2
ZZ
∂S ∂S
= f (x, y , S(x, y )) 1 + + dx dy ..
D ∂x ∂y
Example 2.16
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Surface Integrals
Solution 2.16
RR
We will evaluate Σ zdσ over the part of the plane
x + y + z = 4 lying above the rectangle D : 0 ≤ x ≤ 2,
0 ≤ 1 ≤ 1.
This surface is shown in Figure 2.19.
With z = S(x, y ) = 4 − x − y we have
ZZ ZZ q
zdσ = z 1 + (−1)2 + (−1)2 dy dx
Σ D
√ Z 2Z 1
= 3 (4 − x − y )dy dx.
0 0
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Surface Integrals V
Surface Integrals
Fig 2.19 Part of the plane x + y + z = 4.
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Surface Integrals
First compute
Z 1
1 1 1 7
(4 − x − y )dy = (4 − x)y − y 2 =4−x − = − x.
0 2 0 2 2
Then
√ Z 2 √
ZZ
7
zdσ = 3 − x dx = 5 3. ♦
Σ 0 2
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Further Reading
PV O’Neil.
Advanced Engineering Mathematics.
Cengage Learning, 7th edition, 2011.
ME216 103 of 103

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Applied Mathematics for Mechanical Engineers

1 L15: Vector Differential Calculus - Continued

2 L16: Vector Integral Calculus

Vector Differential Calculus - Continued

Divergence and Curl I

The curl vector is interpreted as a measure of rotation or swirl

Vector Differential Calculus - Continued

Divergence and Curl II

Fig 1.1 Interpretation of curl.

Vector Differential Calculus - Continued

Divergence and Curl III

Let T(x, y , z) be the tangential linear velocity and R = ∥R∥.

T = Ω × R = (bz − cy )i + (cx − az)j + (ay − bx)k.

Vector Differential Calculus - Continued

Divergence and Curl IV

Vector Integral Calculus

For line integrals we need some preliminary observations about

x = x(t), y = y (t), z = z(t) for a ≤ t ≤ b.

These are the coordinate functions of C .

Vector Integral Calculus

We often indicate this orientation by putting arrows along the

(x(t1 ), y (t1 ), z(t1 )) ̸= (x(t2 ), y (t2 ), z(t2 ));

and smooth if the coordinate functions have continuous

Vector Integral Calculus

Line Integrals III

If C is smooth and we let R(t) = x(t)i + y (t)j + z(t)k be the

Vector Integral Calculus

Fig 2.1 A nonsimple curve.

Vector Integral Calculus

We must be careful to distinguish between a curve and its

Vector Integral Calculus

Let C have coordinate functions

x = 4 cos(t), y = 4 sin(t), z = 9 for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.

The graph of C is a circle of radius 4 about the origin in the

x = 4 cos(t), y = 4 sin(t), z = 9 for 0 ≤ t ≤ 4π.

The graph of K is the same as the graph of C , except that a

Vector Integral Calculus

Line Integrals VII

Fig 2.2 Graph of C .

Vector Integral Calculus

Line Integrals VIII

This information is not clear from the graph alone.

x(t) = 4 cos(t), y = 4 sin(t), z = 9 for 0 ≤ t ≤ 3π.

The graph of L is again the circle of radius 4 about the origin

Vector Integral Calculus

We are now ready to define the line integral, which is an

Vector Integral Calculus

dx = x ′ (t)dt, dy = y ′ (t)dt and dz = z ′ (t)dt

and integrating the resulting function of t from a to b.

We will evaluate C xdx − yzdy + e z dz if C is the curve with

Vector Integral Calculus

Vector Integral Calculus

Line Integrals XII

Vector Integral Calculus

Line Integrals XIII

The line integral is

We have a line integral in the plane if C is in the plane and

Vector Integral Calculus

Line Integrals XIV

Vector Integral Calculus

2 Constants factor through a line integral:

Vector Integral Calculus

Line Integrals XVI