Me216 9

Applied Mathematics for Mechanical Engineers
ME216
Dr Ümit Keskin
umitkeskin@gazi.edu.tr
Gazi University,
Faculty of Engineering,
Mechanical Eng Dept,
Room 137,
https://mf-mm.gazi.edu.tr
May 27, 2024

L14 L15 FR
Lecture Content
1 L14: Vector Differential Calculus
2 L15: Vector Integral Calculus
3 Further Reading
Dr Ümit Keskin Gazi University, Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Eng Dept, Room 137, https://mf-mm.gazi.edu.tr
ME216 2 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Differential Calculus
Vector Functions of One Variable I
A vector function of one variable is a function of the form

F(t) = x(t)i + y (t)j + z(t)k.
This vector function is continuous at t0 if each component
function is continuous at t0 .
We may think of F(t) as the position vector of a curve in
3-space.
For each t for which the vector is defined, draw F(t) as an
arrow from the origin to the point (x(t), y (t), z(t)).
This arrow sweeps out a curve C as t varies.
ME216 3 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Functions of One Variable II
When thought of in this way, the coordinate functions are

parametric equations of this curve.
Example 1.1
Solution 1.1
H(t) = t 2 i + sin(t)j − t 2 k is the position vector for the curve

given parametrically by
x = t 2 , y = sin(t), z = −t 2 .
Figure 1.1 shows part of a graph of this curve. ♦
ME216 4 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Functions of One Variable III
Fig 1.1 Graph of the curve of Example 2.1.
ME216 5 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Functions of One Variable IV

ref: https://christopherchudzicki.github.io/MathBox-Demos/parametric curves 3D.html
ME216 6 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Functions of One Variable V
F(t) = x(t)i + y (t)j + z(t)k is differentiable at t if each

component function is differentiable at t, and in this case
F′ (t) = x ′ (t)i + y ′ (t)j + z ′ (t)k.
We differentiate a vector function by differentiating each

component.
ME216 7 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Functions of One Variable VI
Fig 1.3 F′ (t0 ) as a tangent vector.
ME216 8 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Functions of One Variable VII
To give an interpretation to the vector F′ (t0 ), look at the limit

of the difference quotient/ratio/division:
F(t0 + h) − F(t0 )
F′ (t0 ) = lim

h→0 h
x(t0 + h) − x(t0 )
= lim i
h→0 h

y (t0 + h) − y (t0 )
+ lim j
h→0 h

z(t0 + h) − z(t0 )
+ lim k
h→0 h
= x ′ (t0 )i + y ′ (t0 )j + z ′ (t0 )k.
ME216 9 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Functions of One Variable VIII
Figure 1.3 shows the vectors F(t0 + h), F(t0 ) and

F(t0 + h) − F(t0 ), using the parallelogram law.
As h is chosen smaller, the tip of the vector F(t0 + h) − F(t0 )
slides along C toward F(t0 ), and (1/h)[F(t0 + h) − F(t0 )]
moves into the position of the tangent vector to C at the
point (f (t0 ), g (t0 ), h(t0 )).
In calculus, the derivative of a function gives the slope of the
tangent to the graph at a point.
In vector calculus, the derivative of the position vector of a
curve gives the tangent vector to the curve at a point.
In Example 2.1,
H′ (t) = 2ti + cos(t)j − 2tk,

ME216 10 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Functions of One Variable IX
and this vector is tangent to the curve at any point

(t 2 , sin(t), −t 2 ) on the curve.
The tangent vector at (0, 0, 0) is H′ (0) = j, as we can
visualise from Figure 1.1.
The length of a curve given parametrically by x = x(t),
y = y (t) and z = z(t) for a ≤ t ≤ b is
Z b q
length = (x ′ (t))2 + (y ′ (t))2 + (z ′ (t))2 dt.
a
In vector notation, this is

Z b
length = ∥F′ (t)∥dt.
a
ME216 11 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Functions of One Variable X

The length of a curve is the integral (over the defining
interval) of the length of the tangent vector to the curve,
assuming differentiability at each t.
Now imagine starting at (x(a), y (a), z(a)) at time t = a and
moving along the curve, reaching the point (x(t), y (t), z(t))
at time t.
Let s(t) be the distance along C from the starting point to
this point (Figure 1.4).
Then Z t
s(t) = ∥F′ (ξ)∥dξ.
a
This function measures length along C and is strictly
increasing, hence it has an inverse.
ME216 12 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Functions of One Variable XI
Fig 1.4 Distance function along a curve.
ME216 13 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Functions of One Variable XII
At least in theory, we can solve for t = t(s), writing the

parameter t in terms of arc length along C .
We can substitute this function into the position function to
obtain
G(s) = F(t(s)).
G is also a position vector for C , except now the variable is s
and s varies from 0 to L, the length of C .
Therefore, G′ (s) is also a tangent vector to C .
We claim that this tangent vector in terms of arc length is
always a unit vector.
ME216 14 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Functions of One Variable XIII
To see this, observe from the fundamental theorem of calculus

that
s ′ (t) = ∥F′ (t)∥.
Then
d d dt 1 1
G′ (s) = F(t(s)) = F(t) = F′ (t) = ′ F′ (t),
ds dt ds ds/dt ∥F (t)∥
and this vector has a length of 1.

Example 1.2
Solution 1.2
ME216 15 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Functions of One Variable XIV
Let C be defined by
x = cos(t), y = sin(t), z = t/3
for −4π ≤ t ≤ 4π.

C has the position vector
1
F(t) = cos(t)i + sin(t)j + tk
3
and the tangent vector
1
F′ (t) = − sin(t)i + cos(t)j + k.
3
ME216 16 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Functions of One Variable XV
Fig 1.5 Curve C defined by x = cos(t), y = sin(t), z = t/3.
ref: https://christopherchudzicki.github.io/MathBox-Demos/parametric curves 3D.html
ME216 17 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Functions of One Variable XVI
√
It is routine to compute ∥F′ (t)∥ = 10/3, so the distance
function along C is
1√ 1√
Z t
s(t) = 10dξ = 10(t + 4π).
−4π 3 3
In this example, we can explicitly solve for t in terms of s:
3
t = t(s) = √ s − 4π.
10
ME216 18 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Functions of One Variable XVII
Substitute this into F(t) to get

3
G(s) = F(t(s)) = F √ s − 4π
10

3 3
= cos √ s − 4π i + sin √ s − 4π j
10 10

1 3
+ √ s − 4π k
3 10

3 3 1 4π
= cos √ s i + sin √ s j + √ s − k.
10 10 10 3
ME216 19 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Functions of One Variable XVIII
Now compute

′ 3 3 3 3 1
G (s) = − √ sin √ s i + √ cos √ s j + √ k,
10 10 10 10 10
and this is a unit tangent vector to C .
For instance,
√ when t = 0, the value of the distance function
10
s = 4π 3 .
In this case,
G(s) = F(t(s)) = i + 0j + 0k = i
ME216 20 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Functions of One Variable XIX
and
3 1
G′ (s) = F′ (t(s)) = 0i + √ j + √ k ∼
= 0.94868j + 0.31623k.
10 10
This tangent vector has a length of 1:
p
∥G′ (s)∥ = ∥F′ (t(s))∥ = 02 + 0.948682 + 0.316232 ∼
= 1,
and it is calculated from the origin (0, 0, 0).

Therefore, G′ (s) is now translated to its correct location
(1, 0, 0) the vector G(s) points to (see Figure 1.6). ♦
ME216 21 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Functions of One Variable XX
Fig 1.6 G(s), G′ (s) calculated and translated.
ref: https://www.desmos.com/3d/f7561f1632
ME216 22 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Functions of One Variable XXI
Rules for differentiating various combinations of vectors are

like those for functions of one variable.
If the functions and vectors are differentiable and α is a
number, then
1 [F(t) + G(t)]′ = F′ (t) + G′ (t).
2 (αF)′ (t) = αF′ (t).
3 [f (t)F(t)]′ = f ′ (t)F(t) + f (t)F′ (t).
4 [F(t) · G(t)]′ = F′ (t) · G(t) + F(t) · G′ (t).
5 [F(t) × G(t)]′ = F′ (t) × G(t) + F(t) × G′ (t).
6 [F(f (t))]′ = f ′ (t)F′ (f (t)).
ME216 23 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Functions of One Variable XXII
Rules (3), (4) and (5) are product rules, reminiscent of the
rule for differentiating a product of functions of one variable.
In rule (5), the order of the factors is important, since the
cross product is anti-commutative.
Rule (6) is a chain rule for vector differentiation.
ME216 24 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Velocity and Curvature I
Imagine a particle or object moving along a path C having the

position vector F(t) = x(t)i + y (t)j + z(t)k, as t varies from
a to b.
We want to relate F to the dynamics of the particle.
Assume that the coordinate functions are twice differentiable.
Define the velocity v(t) of the particle at time t to be
v(t) = F′ (t).
The speed v (t) is the magnitude of the velocity:
v (t) = ∥v(t)∥.
ME216 25 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Velocity and Curvature II
Then
ds
v (t) = ∥F′ (t)∥ =
,
dt
which is the rate of change with respect to time of the
distance along the trajectory or path of motion.
The acceleration a(t) is the rate of change of the velocity
with respect to time, or
a(t) = v′ (t) = F′′ (t).
If F′ (t) ̸= O, then this vector is a tangent vector to C .

We obtain a unit tangent vector T(t) by dividing F′ (t) by its
length.
ME216 26 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Velocity and Curvature III
This leads to various expressions for the unit tangent vector to

C:
1 1
T(t) = ′ F′ (t) = F′ (t)
∥F (t)∥ ds/dt
1 1
= v(t) = v(t).
∥v(t)∥ v (t)
Thus, the unit tangent vector is also the velocity vector
divided by the speed.
The curvature κ(s) of C is defined as the magnitude of the
rate of change of the unit tangent with respect to arc length
along C :
dT
κ(s) = .
ds
ME216 27 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Velocity and Curvature IV
This definition is motivated by Figure 1.7, which suggests that

the more a curve bends at a point, the faster the unit tangent
vector is changing direction there.
This expression for the curvature, however, is difficult to work
with because we usually have the unit tangent vector as a
function of t, not of s.
We, therefore, usually compute the curvature as a function of
t by using the chain rule:
dT dt 1
κ(s) = = ∥T′ (t)∥.
dt ds ∥F′ (t)∥
ME216 28 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Velocity and Curvature V
Fig 1.7 Curvature/curvedness as a rate of change of the tangent vector.
ME216 29 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Velocity and Curvature VI

Example 1.3
Solution 1.3
Let C have position vector
F(t) = [cos(t) + t sin(t)]i + [sin(t) − t cos(t)]j + t 2 k.
for t ≥ 0.
Figure 1.7 is part of the graph of C .
A tangent vector is given by
F′ (t) = t cos(t)i + t sin(t)j + 2tk.
ME216 30 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Velocity and Curvature VII
ME216 31 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Velocity and Curvature VIII
Fig 1.9 Position & tangent/velocity vectors of C in Example 1.3.
ME216 32 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Velocity and Curvature IX
Fig 1.10 Position & tangent/velocity vectors of C in Example 1.3.
ME216 33 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Velocity and Curvature X
This tangent vector has the length

√
v (t) = ∥F′ (t)∥ = 5t.
The unit tangent vector in terms of t is

1 1
T(t) = F′ (t) = √ [cos(t)i + sin(t)j + 2k].
∥F′ (t)∥ 5
Then
1
T′ (t) = √ [− sin(t)i + cos(t)j],
5
and the curvature of C is
ME216 34 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Velocity and Curvature XI
r
1 1 1 1
κ(t) = ′ ∥T′ (t)∥ = √ [sin2 (t) + cos2 (t)] =
∥F (t)∥ 5t 5 5t
for t > 0.
It is usually more convenient to compute such quantities as
the unit tangent and the curvature in terms of the parameter
t used to define C , rather than attempting to solve for t in
terms of the arc length s. ♦
Given a position vector F(t) for a curve C , we have a unit
tangent at any point where the component functions are
differentiable and their derivatives are not all zero.
ME216 35 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Velocity and Curvature XII
We claim that, in terms of s, the vector

1
N(s) = T′ (s).
κ(s)
is a unit normal vector (orthogonal to the tangent) to C .

First, N(s) is a unit vector because κ(s) = ∥T′ (s)∥, so
1
∥N(s)∥ = ∥T′ (s)∥ = 1.
∥T′ (s)∥
We claim also that N(s) is orthogonal to the tangent vector

T(s).
ME216 36 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Velocity and Curvature XIII

To see this, recall that T(s) is a unit vector, so
∥T(s)∥2 = T(s) · T(s) = 1.
Differentiate this equation to get
dT(s) dT(s) d(1)

· T(s) + T(s) · =
ds ds ds
T (s) · T(s) + T(s) · T (s) = 2T(s) · T′ (s) = 0.
′ ′
Therefore, T(s) is orthogonal to T′ (s).

But N(s) is a scalar multiple of T′ (s), hence it is in the same
direction as T′ (s).
Therefore, T(s) is orthogonal to N(s).
ME216 37 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Velocity and Curvature XIV
At any point where F is twice differentiable, we may now place

a unit tangent and a unit normal vector, as in Figure 1.11.
Fig 1.11 Unit tangent and normal vectors to a curve.
ME216 38 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Velocity and Curvature XV
With these in hand, we claim that we can write the

acceleration in terms of tangential and normal components:
a(t) = aT T(t) + aN N(t)
where
dv
aT = tangential component of the acceleration =
dt
and
aN = normal component of the acceleration = [v (t)]2 κ(t).
ME216 39 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Velocity and Curvature XVI
To verify this decomposition of a(t), begin with
1 1
T(t) = F′ (t) = v(t).
∥F′ (t)∥ v (t)
Then
v = v T,
so
d dv
a= v= T + v T′
dt dt
dv ds dT
= T+v
dt dt ds
dv dv
= T + v 2 T′ (s) = T + v 2 κN.
dt dt
ME216 40 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Velocity and Curvature XVII
Because T and N are orthogonal, then
∥a∥2 = a · a = (aT T + aN N) · (aT T + aN N)

2 2
= aT T · T + 2aT aN T · N + aN N·N
= aT 2 + aN 2 .
This means that, whenever two of ∥a∥, aT and aN are known,

we can compute the third quantity.
If aN is known, it is sometimes convenient to compute the
curvature κ(t) as
aN
κ(t) = 2 .
v
ME216 41 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Velocity and Curvature XVIII

Example 1.4
Solution 1.4
Let F(t) be as in Example 1.3.

√
There we computed v(t) = 5t.
Therefore,
dv √
aT = = 5.
dt
The acceleration is
a = v′ = F′′ (t) = [cos(t) − t sin(t)]i + [sin(t) + t cos(t)]j + 2k.
Then
ME216 42 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Velocity and Curvature XIX

p
∥a∥ = 5 + t 2.
so
2
aN = ∥a∥2 − aT
2
= 5 + t 2 − 5 = t 2.
Since t > 0, aN = t.
The acceleration may be written as
√
a = 5T + tN.
If we know aN and v , it is easy to compute the curvature,

since
aN = t = κv 2 = 5t 2 κ,
implying that κ = 1/5t, as we found in Example 1.3. ♦
ME216 43 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Fields and Streamlines I
Vector functions F(x, y ) in two variables, and G(x, y , z) in

three variables, are called vector fields.
At each point where the vector field is defined, we can draw
an arrow representing the vector at that point.
This suggests fields of arrows “growing” out of points in
regions of the plane or 3-space.
Take partial derivatives of vector fields by differentiating each
component.
For example, if
F(x, y , z) = cos(x + y 2 + 2z)i − xyzj + xye z k,
ME216 44 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Fields and Streamlines II
then
∂F
= − sin(x + y 2 + 2z)i − yzj + ye z k,
∂x
∂F
= −2y sin(x + y 2 + 2z)i − xzj + xe z k
∂y
and
∂F
= −2 sin(x + y 2 + 2z)i − xy j + xye z k.
∂z
Given a vector field F in 3-space, a streamline of F is a curve
with the property that, at each point (x, y , z) of the curve,
F(x, y , z) is a tangent vector to the curve.
ME216 45 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Fields and Streamlines III

If F is the velocity field for a fluid flowing through some
region, then the streamlines are called flow lines of the fluid
and describe trajectories of imaginary particles moving with
the fluid.
If F is a magnetic field, the streamlines are called lines of
force.
Iron filings put on a piece of cardboard held over a magnet
will align themselves on the lines of force.
Given a vector field, we would like to find all of the
streamlines.
This is the problem of constructing a curve through each
point of a region of space, given the tangent to the curve at
each point.
ME216 46 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Fields and Streamlines IV
(a) (b)
Fig 1.12 Iron filings aligned on the lines of magnetic forces.

ref: https://www.seattleu.edu/scieng/physics/physics-demos/electricity-and-magnetism/magnetic-fields—
iron-filings/
ME216 47 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Fields and Streamlines V
To solve this problem suppose that C is a streamline of

F = f i + g j + hk.
Let C have parametric equations x = x(ξ), y = y (ξ),
z = z(ξ).
A position vector for C is
R(ξ) = x(ξ)i + y (ξ)j + z(ξ)k.
Now
R′ (ξ) = x ′ (ξ)i + y ′ (ξ)j + z ′ (ξ)k
is tangent to C at (x(ξ), y (ξ), z(ξ)) and is therefore parallel
to the tangent vector F(x(ξ), y (ξ), z(ξ)) at this point.
ME216 48 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Fields and Streamlines VI
These vectors must therefore be scalar multiples of each

other, say
R′ (ξ) = tF(x(ξ), y (ξ), z(ξ)).
Then
dx dy dz
i+ j+ k = tf (x(ξ), y (ξ), z(ξ))i
dξ dξ dξ
+tg (x(ξ), y (ξ), z(ξ))j + th(x(ξ), y (ξ), z(ξ))k.
Equating respective components in this equation gives us
dx dy dz
= tf , = tg , = th.
dξ dξ dξ
ME216 49 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Fields and Streamlines VII
This is a system of differential equations for the parametric

equations of the streamlines.
If f , g and h are nonzero this system can be written as
dx dy dz
= = .
f g h
Example 1.5
Solution 1.5
We will find the streamlines of F(x, y , z) = x 2 i + 2y j − k.
ME216 50 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Fields and Streamlines VIII
If x and y are not zero, the streamlines satisfy
dx dy dz
= = .
x2 2y −1
These differential equations can be solved in pairs.

First integrate
dx
= −dz
x2
to get
−1
= −z + c
x
with c an arbitrary constant.
ME216 51 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Fields and Streamlines IX
Next integrate
dy
= −dz
2y
to get
1
ln |y | = −z + k.
2
It is convenient to express two of the variables in terms of the
third.
If we write x and y in terms of z, we have
1
x= and y = ae −2z ,
z −c
in which a is constant.
ME216 52 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Fields and Streamlines X
This gives us parametric equations of the streamlines, with z

as the parameter.
If we want the streamline through a particular point, we must
choose a and c accordingly.
For example, suppose we want the streamline through
(−1, 6, 2).
Then z = 2 and we need
1
−1 = and 6 = ae −4 .
2−c
ME216 53 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Fields and Streamlines XI
Then c = 3 and a = 6e 4 so the streamline through (−1, 6, 2)

has parametric equations
1
x= , y = 6e 4−2z , z = z. ♦
z −3
ME216 54 of 107
L14 L15 FR
The Gradient Field I
Let φ(x, y , z) be a real-valued function of three variables.

In the context of vector fields, φ is called a scalar field.
The gradient of φ is the vector field
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
∇= i+ j+ k.
∂x ∂y ∂z
The symbol ∇φ is read ”del φ” and ∇ is called the del

operator.
If φ is a function of just (x, y ), then ∇φ is a vector field in
the plane.
∇ is also often called nabla.
ME216 55 of 107
L14 L15 FR
The Gradient Field II
For example, if φ(x, y , z) = x 2 y cos(yz), then
∇φ = 2xy cos(yz)i
+[x cos(yz) − x 2 yz sin(yz)]j − x 2 y 2 sin(yz)k.
2
If P is a point, then the gradient of φ evaluated at P is

denoted ∇φ(P).
The gradient has the obvious properties
∇(φ + ψ) = ∇(φ) + ∇(ψ)
and, for any number c,
∇(cφ) = c∇(φ).
ME216 56 of 107
L14 L15 FR
The Gradient Field III
The gradient is related to the directional derivative.

Let P0 : (x0 , y0 , z0 ) be a point and let u = ai + bj + ck be a
unit vector, represented as an arrow from P0 .
We want to measure the rate of change of φ(x, y , z) as
(x, y , z) varies from P0 in the direction of u.
To do this let t > 0.
The point P : (x0 + at, y0 + bt, z0 + ct) is on the line through
P0 in the direction of u and P varies in this direction as t
varies.
We measure the rate of change Du φ(P0 ) of φ(x, y , z) in the
direction of u, at P0 , by setting
ME216 57 of 107
L14 L15 FR
The Gradient Field IV

d
Du φ(P0 ) = [φ(x0 + at, y0 + bt, z0 + ct)]t=0 .
dt
Du φ(P0 ) is the directional derivative of φ at P0 in the
direction of u.
We can compute a directional derivative in terms of the
gradient as follows.
By the chain rule,

d
Du φ(P0 ) = φ(x0 + at, y0 + bt, z0 + ct)
dt t=0
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
= a (x0 , y0 , z0 ) + b (x0 , y0 , z0 ) + c (x0 , y0 , z0 )
∂x ∂y ∂z
ME216 58 of 107
L14 L15 FR
The Gradient Field V

∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
=a (P0 ) + b (P0 ) + c (P0 )
∂x ∂y ∂z
= ∇φ(P0 ) · (ai + bj + ck)
= ∇φ(P0 ) · u.
Therefore Du φ(P0 ) is the dot product of the gradient of φ at
the point, with the unit vector specifying the direction.
Example 1.6
Solution 1.6
Let φ(x, y , z) = x 2 y − xe z and P0 = (2, −1, π).
ME216 59 of 107
L14 L15 FR
The Gradient Field VI
We will compute the√rate of change of φ(x, y , z) at P0 in the

direction of u = (1/ 6)(i − 2j + k).
The gradient is
∇φ = (2xy − e z )i + x 2 j − xe z k.
Then
∇φ(2, −1, π) = (−4 − e π )i + 4j − 2e π k.
The directional derivative of φ at P0 in the direction of u is
1
Du φ(2, −1, π) = ((−4 − e π )i + 4j − 2e π k) · √ (i − 2j + k)
6
√ √
= (1/ 6)(−4 − e − 8 − 2e ) = (−3/ 6)(4 + e π ). ♦
π π
ME216 60 of 107
L14 L15 FR
The Gradient Field VII
If a direction is specified by a vector that is not of length 1,

divide it by its length before computing the directional
derivative.
Now imagine standing at P0 and observing φ(x, y , z) as
(x, y , z) moves away from P0 .
In what direction will φ(x, y , z) increase at the greatest rate?
We claim that this is the direction of the gradient of φ at P0 .
Theorem 1.1
Let φ and its first partial derivatives be continuous in some

sphere about P0 , and suppose that ∇φ(P0 ) ̸= O.
Then
ME216 61 of 107
L14 L15 FR
The Gradient Field VIII
1 At P0 , φ(x, y , z) has its maximum rate of change in the

direction of ∇φ(P0 ). This maximum rate of change is
∥∇φ(P0 )∥.
2 At P0 , φ(x, y , z) has its minimum rate of change in the
direction of −∇φ(P0 ). This minimum rate of change is
−∥∇φ(P0 )∥. ♦
For condition (1), let u be any unit vector from P0 and
consider
Du φ(P0 ) = ∇φ(P0 ) · u
= ∥∇φ(P0 )∥∥u∥ cos(θ)
= ∥∇φ(P0 )∥ cos(θ)
where θ is the angle between u and ∇φ(P0 ).
ME216 62 of 107
L14 L15 FR
The Gradient Field IX
Clearly Du φ(P0 ) has its maximum when cos(θ) = 1, which

occurs when θ = 0, hence when u is in the same direction as
∇φ(P0 ).
For condition (2), Du φ(P0 ) has its minimum when
cos(θ) = −1, hence when θ = π and ∇φ(P0 ) is opposite u.
Example 1.7
Solution 1.7
Let φ(x, y , z) = 2xz + z 2 e y and P0 : (2, 1, 1).
ME216 63 of 107
L14 L15 FR
The Gradient Field X
The gradient of φ is
∇φ(x, y , z) = 2zi + z 2 e y j + (2x + 2ze y )k
so
∇φ(2, 1, 1) = 2i + ej + (4 + 2e)k.
The maximum rate of increase of φ(x, y , z) at (2, 1, 1) is in
the direction of 2i + ej + (4 + 2e)k and this maximum rate of
change is q
4 + e 2 + (4 + 2e)2 ,
or p
20 + 16e + 5e 2 . ♦
ME216 64 of 107
L14 L15 FR
The Gradient Field I

Level Surfaces, Tangent Planes and Normal Lines
Depending on φ and the number k, the locus of points

(x, y , z) such that φ(x, y , z) = k may be a surface in 3-space.
Any such surface is called a level surface of φ.
For example, if φ(x, y , z) = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 , then√the level
surface of φ(x, y , z) = k is a sphere of radius k if k > 0, a
single point (0, 0, 0) if k = 0, and is vacuous/empty if k < 0.
Part of the level surface φ(x, y , z) = z − sin(xy ) = 0 is shown
in Figure 1.13.
Suppose P0 : (x0 , y0 , z0 ) is on a level surface S given by
φ(x, y , z) = k.
ME216 65 of 107
L14 L15 FR
The Gradient Field II

Fig 1.13 Part of the graph of the level surface z = sin(xy ).
ME216 66 of 107
L14 L15 FR
The Gradient Field III

Assume that there are smooth (having continuous tangents)

curves on the surface passing through P0 , as typified by C in
Figure 1.14.
Each such curve has a tangent vector at P0 .
The plane containing these tangent vectors is called the
tangent plane to S at P0 .
A vector orthogonal to this tangent plane at P0 is called a
normal vector, or normal, to this tangent plane at P0 .
We will determine this tangent plane and normal vector.
The key lies in the following fact about the gradient vector.
ME216 67 of 107
L14 L15 FR
The Gradient Field IV

Fig 1.14 Normal to a level surface.
ME216 68 of 107
L14 L15 FR
The Gradient Field V

Theorem 1.2
Normal to a Level Surface
Let φ and its first partial derivatives be continuous.
Then ∇φ(P) is normal to the level surface φ(x, y , z) = k at
any point P on this surface such that ∇φ(P) ̸= O. ♦
To understand this conclusion, let P0 be on the level surface
S and suppose a smooth curve C on the surface passes
through P0 , as in Figure 1.14.
Let C have parametric equations x = x(t), y = y (t),
z = z(t) for a ≤ t ≤ b.
ME216 69 of 107
L14 L15 FR
The Gradient Field VI

Since P0 is on C , for some t0 ,
x(t0 ) = x0 , y (t0 ) = y0 , z(t0 ) = z0 .
Furthermore, because C lies on the level surface,
φ(x(t), y (t), z(t)) = k
for a ≤ t ≤ b.
Then
d ∂φ ′ ∂φ ′ ∂φ ′
φ(x(t), y (t), z(t)) = 0 = x (t) + y (t) + z (t)
dt ∂x ∂y ∂z
ME216 70 of 107
L14 L15 FR
The Gradient Field VII

= ∇φ · [x ′ (t)i + y ′ (t)j + z ′ (t)k].

But x ′ (t)i + y ′ (t)j + z ′ (t)k = T(t) is a tangent vector to C .
Letting t = t0 , T(t0 ) is tangent to C at P0 and the last
equation tells us that
∇φ(P0 ) · T(t0 ) = 0.
Therefore ∇φ(P0 ) is normal to the tangent to C at P0 .

But C is any smooth curve on S and passes through P0 .
Therefore ∇φ(P0 ) is normal to every tangent vector at P0 to
any curve on S through P0 , and is therefore normal to the
tangent plane to S at P0 .
ME216 71 of 107
L14 L15 FR
The Gradient Field VIII

Now we have a point P0 on the normal plane at P0 , and a

vector ∇φ(P0 ) orthogonal to this plane.
The equation of the tangent plane is
∇φ(P0 ) · [(x − x0 )i + (y − y0 )j + (z − z0 )k] = 0,
or
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
(P0 )(x −x0 )+ (P0 )(y −y0 )+ (P0 )(z −z0 ) = 0. (1.1)
∂x ∂y ∂z
A straight line through P0 and parallel to the normal vector is

called the normal line to S at P0 .
ME216 72 of 107
L14 L15 FR
The Gradient Field IX

Since the gradient of φ at P0 is a normal vector, if (x, y , z) is

on this normal line, then for some scalar t,
(x − x0 )i + (y − y0 )j + (z − z0 )k = t∇φ(P0 ).
The parametric equations of the normal line to S at P0 are
∂φ ∂φ
x = x0 + t (P0 ), y = y0 + t (P0 ),
∂x ∂y
(1.2)
∂φ
z = z0 + t (P0 ).
∂z
ME216 73 of 107
L14 L15 FR
The Gradient Field X

Example 1.8
Solution 1.8
p
The level surface φ(x, y , z) = z − x 2 + y 2 is a cone with
vertex at the origin (see Figure 1.15).
Compute
∂φ x ∂φ y ∂φ
= −p , = −p , =1
∂x x 2 + y 2 ∂y x 2 + y 2 ∂z
and √ √ √
∇φ(1, 1, 2) = −(1/ 2)i − (1/ 2)j + k.
ME216 74 of 107
L14 L15 FR
The Gradient Field XI

√
The tangent plane to the cone at (1, 1, 2) has the equations
√ √ √
−(1/ 2)(x − 1) − (1/ 2)(y − 1) + z − 2 = 0
or √
x +y −
2z = 0.
√
The normal line to the cone at (1, 1, 2) has parametric
equations
√ √ √
x = 1 − (1/ 2)t, y = 1 − (1/ 2)t, z = 2 + t. ♦
ME216 75 of 107
L14 L15 FR
The Gradient Field XII

p
Fig 1.15 Circular cone z = x 2 + y 2.
ME216 76 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Divergence and Curl I

Intro
The gradient operator produces a vector field from a scalar

function.
We will discuss two other important vector operations.
One produces a scalar field from a vector field, and the other
produces a vector field from a vector field.
Let
F(x, y , z) = f (x, y , z)i + g (x, y , z)j + h(x, y , z)k.
The divergence of F is the scalar field

∂f ∂g ∂h
div F = + + .
∂x ∂y ∂z
ME216 77 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Divergence and Curl II

Intro
The curl of F is the vector field

∂h ∂g ∂f ∂h ∂g ∂f
curl F = − i+ − j+ − k.
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
Divergence, curl and gradient can all be written as vector

operations with the del operator ∇, which is a symbolic
vector defined by
∂ ∂ ∂
∇= i+ j+ k.
∂x ∂y ∂z
The symbol ∇, which is called ”del”, or sometimes “nabla”,

is treated like a vector in carrying out calculations,
ME216 78 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Divergence and Curl III

Intro
and the “product” of ∂/∂x, ∂/∂y and ∂/∂z with a scalar

function φ is interpreted to mean, respectively, ∂φ/∂x,
∂φ/∂y and ∂φ/∂z.
Now observe how gradient, divergence and curl are obtained
using this operator.
1 The product of the vector ∇ and the scalar function φ is the
gradient of φ:

∂ ∂ ∂
∇φ = i+ j+ k φ
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
= i+ j+ k = gradient of φ.
∂x ∂y ∂z
ME216 79 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Divergence and Curl IV

Intro
2 The dot product of ∇ and F is the divergence of F:

∂ ∂ ∂
∇·F= i+ j+ k · (f i + g j + hk)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂f ∂f ∂f
= + + = divergence of F.
∂x ∂y ∂z
3 The cross product of ∇ with F is the curl of F:
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
∇×F= ∂x ∂y ∂z
f g h

∂h ∂g ∂f ∂h ∂g ∂f
= − i+ − j+ − k
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
= curl of F.
ME216 80 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Divergence and Curl V

Intro
The del (or nabla) operator is part of the MAPLE set of

routines collected under the VectorCalculus designation.
Using this and the operations of scalar multiplication, dot
product (DotProduct) and cross product (CrossProduct), we
can carry out computations with vector fields.
This package can also be used to compute divergence and curl
in other coordinate systems, such as cylindrical and spherical
coordinates.
There are two relationships between gradient, divergence and
curl that are fundamental to vector analysis:
1 the curl of a gradient is the zero vector, and
2 the divergence of a curl is (the number) zero.
ME216 81 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Divergence and Curl VI

Intro
Theorem 1.3
Let F be a continuous vector field whose components have

continuous first and second partial derivatives and let φ be a
continuous scalar field with continuous first and second partial
derivatives.
Then
1 ∇ × (∇φ) = O.
2 ∇ · (∇ × F) = 0. ♦
These conclusions may be paraphrased:
curl grad = O, div curl = 0.
ME216 82 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Divergence and Curl VII

Intro
Both of these identities can be verified by direct computation,

using the equality of mixed second partial derivatives with
respect to the same two variables.
For example, for conclusion (1),

∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
∇ × (∇φ) = ∇ × i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
= ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
∂x ∂y ∂z
ME216 83 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Divergence and Curl VIII

Intro
∂2φ ∂2φ
2
∂2φ

∂ φ
= − i+ − j
∂y ∂z ∂z∂y ∂z∂x ∂x∂z
2
∂2φ

∂ φ
+ − k=O
∂x∂y ∂y ∂x
because the mixed partials cancel in pairs in the components
of ∇ × (∇φ).
Operator notation with ∇ can simplify such calculations.
In this notation, ∇ × (∇φ) = O is immediate because
∇ × ∇ is the cross product of a “vector” with itself, which is
always zero.
Similarly, for conclusion (2), ∇ × F is orthogonal to ∇, so its
dot product with ∇ is zero.
ME216 84 of 107
L14 L15 FR

A Physical Interpretation of Divergence
Suppose F(x, y , z, t) is the velocity of a fluid at point (x, y , z)

and time t.
Time plays no role in computing divergence, but is included
here because a flow may depend on time.
We will show that the divergence of F measures the outward
flow of the fluid from any point.
Imagine a small rectangular box in the fluid, as in Figure 1.16.
First look at the front and back faces II and I, respectively.
ME216 85 of 107
L14 L15 FR

Fig 1.16 Interpretation of divergence.
ME216 86 of 107
L14 L15 FR

The flux of the flow out of this box across II is the normal
component of the velocity (dot product of F with i) multiplied
by the area of this face:
flux outward across face II = F(x + ∆x, y , z, t) · i∆y ∆z

= f (x + ∆x, y , z, t)∆y ∆z.
On face I the unit outer normal is −i, so the flux outward

across this face is −f (x, y , z, t)∆y ∆z.
The total outward flux across faces II and I is therefore
[f (x + ∆x, y , z, t) − f (x, y , z, t)]∆y ∆z.
ME216 87 of 107
L14 L15 FR

A similar calculation holds for the pairs of other opposite sides.

The total flux of fluid flowing out of the box across its faces is
total flux = [f (x + ∆x, y , z, t) − f (x, y , z, t)]∆y ∆z

+[g (x, y + ∆y , z, t) − g (x, y , z, t)]∆x∆z
+[h(x, y , z + ∆z, t) − h(x, y , z, t)]∆x∆y .
The total flux per unit volume out of the box is obtained by
dividing this quantity by ∆x∆y ∆z, obtaining
ME216 88 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Divergence and Curl V

f (x + ∆x, y , z, t) − f (x, y , z, t)
flux per unit volume =
∆x
g (x, y + ∆y , z, t) − g (x, y , z, t)
+
∆y
h(x, y , z + ∆z, t) − h(x, y , z, t)
+ .
∆z
In the limit as (∆x, ∆y , ∆z) → (0, 0, 0), this sum approaches
the divergence of F (x, y , z, t).
ME216 89 of 107
L14 L15 FR

A Physical Interpretation of Curl
The curl vector is interpreted as a measure of rotation or swirl

about a point.
In British literature, the curl is often called the rot (for
rotation) of a vector field.
To understand this interpretation, suppose an object rotates
with uniform angular speed ω about a line L, as in Figure 1.17.
The angular velocity vector Ω has magnitude ω and is
directed along L as a right-handed screw would progress if
given the same sense of rotation as the object.
Put L through the origin and let R = xi + y j + zk for any
point (x, y , z) on the rotating object.
ME216 90 of 107
L14 L15 FR

Fig 1.17 Interpretation of curl.
ME216 91 of 107
L14 L15 FR

Let T(x, y , z) be the tangential linear velocity and R = ∥R∥.

Then
∥T∥ = ωR sin(θ) = ∥Ω × R∥,
with θ the angle between R and Ω.
Since T and Ω × R have the same direction and magnitude,
we conclude that T = Ω × R.
Now write Ω = ai + bj + ck to obtain
T = Ω × R = (bz − cy )i + (cx − az)j + (ay − bx)k.
ME216 92 of 107
L14 L15 FR

Then
i j k
∇ × T = ∂/∂x ∂/∂y ∂/∂z
bz − cy cx − az ay − bx
= 2ai + 2bj + 2ck = 2Ω.
Therefore,
1
Ω = ∇ × T.
2
The angular velocity of a uniformly rotating body is a
constant times the curl of the linear velocity.
ME216 93 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Vector Integral Calculus
Line Integrals I
For line integrals we need some preliminary observations about

curves.
Suppose a curve C has parametric equations
x = x(t), y = y (t), z = z(t) for a ≤ t ≤ b.
These are the coordinate functions of C .

It is convenient to think of t as time and C as the trajectory
of an object, which at time t is at C (t) = (x(t), y (t), z(t)).
C has an orientation, since the object starts at the initial
point (x(a), y (a), z(a)) at time t = a and ends at the terminal
point (x(b), y (b), z(b)) at time t = b.
ME216 94 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Line Integrals II
We often indicate this orientation by putting arrows along the

graph.
We call C :
continuous if each coordinate function is continuous;
differentiable if each coordinate function is differentiable;
closed if the initial and terminal points coincide:
(x(a), y (a), z(a)) = (x(b), y (b), z(b));
simple if a < t1 < t2 < b implies that
(x(t1), y )t1), z(t1)) ̸= (x(t2), y (t2), z(t2));
and smooth if the coordinate functions have continuous

derivatives which are never all zero for the same value of t.
ME216 95 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Line Integrals III
Fig 2.1 A nonsimple curve.
ME216 96 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Line Integrals IV
If C is smooth and we let R(t) = x(t)i + y (t)j + z(t)k be the

position function for C , then R′ (t) is continuous tangent
vector to C .
Smoothness of C means that the curve has a continuous
tangent vector as we move along it.
A curve is simple if it does not intersect itself at different
times.
The curve whose graph is shown in Figure 2.1 is not simple.
A closed curve has the same initial terminal points, but is still
called simple if it does not pass through any other point more
than once.
ME216 97 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Line Integrals V
We must be careful to distinguish between a curve and its

graph, although informally we often use these terms
interchangeably.
The graph is a drawing, while the curve carries with it a sense
of orientation from an initial to a terminal point.
The graph of a curve does not carry all of this information.
Example 2.1
Solution 2.1
ME216 98 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Line Integrals VI
Let C have coordinate functions
x = 4 cos(t), y = 4 sin(t), z = 9 for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
The graph of C is a circle of radius 4 about the origin in the

plane z = 9.
C is simple, closed and smooth.
Let K be given by
x = 4 cos(t), y = 4 sin(t), z = 9 for 0 ≤ t ≤ 4π.
The graph of K is the same as the graph of C , except that a

particle traversing/travelling K goes around this circle twice.
K is closed and smooth but not simple.
ME216 99 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Line Integrals VII
This information is not clear from the graph alone.

Let L be the curve given by
x(t) = 4 cos(t), y = 4 sin(t), z = 9 for 0 ≤ t ≤ 3π.
The graph of L is again the circle of radius 4 about the origin

in the plane z = 9.
L is smooth and not simple, but L is also not closed, since the
initial point is (4, 0, 9) and the terminal point is (−4, 0, 9).
A particle moving along L traverses the complete circle from
(4, 0, 9) to (4, 0, 9) and then continues on to (−4, 0, 9), where
it stops.
Again, this behaviour is not clear from the graph. ♦
ME216 100 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Line Integrals VIII
We are now ready to define the line integral, which is an

integral over a curve.
Suppose C is a smooth curve with coordinate functions
x = x(t), y = y (t), z = z(t) for a ≤ t ≤ b.
Let f , g and h be continuous at least at points on the graph
of C .
R
Then the line integral C fdx + gdy + hdz is defined by
Z Z b
dx
fdx + gdy + hdz = f (x(t), y (t), z(t))
C a dt

dy dz
+g (x(t), y (t), z(t)) + h(x(t), y (t), z(t)) dt.
dt dt
ME216 101 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Line Integrals IX
R
fdx + gdy + hdz is a number obtained by replacing x, y
C
and z in f (x, y , z), g (x, y , z) and h(x, y , z) with the
coordinate functions x(t), y (t) and z(t) of C , replacing
dx = x ′ (t)dt, dy = y ′ (t)dt and dz = z ′ (t)dt
and integrating the resulting function of t from a to b.

Example 2.2
Solution 2.2
ME216 102 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Line Integrals X
We will evaluate C xdx − yzdy + e z dz if C is the curve with
R
coordinate functions
x = t 3 , y = −t, z = t 2 for 1 ≤ t ≤ 2.
First,
dx = 3t 2 dt, dy = −dt and dz = 2tdt.
Put the coordinate functions of C into x, −yz and e z to
obtain
Z Z 2
z
3 2
xdx − yzdy + e dz = t (3t ) − (−t)(t 2 )(−1)
C 1
Z 2h
2
i 2
i 111
+e t (2t) dt = 3t 5 − t 3 + 2te t dt = + e 4 − e. ♦
1 4
ME216 103 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Line Integrals XI
Example 2.3
Solution 2.3
R
Evaluate C xyzdx − cos(yz)dy + xzdz along the straight line
segment L from (1, 1, 1) to (−2, 1, 3).
Parametric equations of L are
x = 1 − 3t, y = 1, z = 1 + 2t for 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.
Then
dx = −3dt, dy = 0 and dz = 2dt.
ME216 104 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Line Integrals XII
The line integral is

Z Z 1
xyzdx − cos(yz)dy + xzdz = [(1 − 3t)(1 + 2t)(−3)
C 0
− cos(1 + 2t)(0) + (1 − 3t)(1 + 2t)(2)]dt
Z 1
3
= (−1 + t + 6t 2 )dt = . ♦
0 2
We have a line integral in the plane if C is in the plane and

the functions involve only x and y .
Example 2.4
ME216 105 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Line Integrals XIII

Solution 2.4
R
Evaluate K xydx − y sin(x)dy if K has coordinate functions
x = t 2 and y = t for −1 ≤ t ≤ 2.
Here
dx = 2tdt and dy = dt
so
Z Z 2
xydx − y sin(x)dy = [t 2 t(2t) − t sin(t 2 )]dt
K −1
Z 2
66 1
= [2t 4 − t sin(t 2 )]dt = + (cos(4) − cos(1)).
−1 5 2
ME216 106 of 107
L14 L15 FR
Further Reading
PV O’Neil.
Advanced Engineering Mathematics.
Cengage Learning, 7th edition, 2011.
ME216 107 of 107

Me216 9

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Me216 9

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Me216 9

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Applied Mathematics for Mechanical Engineers

May 27, 2024

1 L14: Vector Differential Calculus

2 L15: Vector Integral Calculus

Vector Differential Calculus

Vector Functions of One Variable I

A vector function of one variable is a function of the form

Vector Differential Calculus

Vector Functions of One Variable II

When thought of in this way, the coordinate functions are

H(t) = t 2 i + sin(t)j − t 2 k is the position vector for the curve

Figure 1.1 shows part of a graph of this curve. ♦

Vector Differential Calculus

Vector Functions of One Variable III

Fig 1.1 Graph of the curve of Example 2.1.

Vector Differential Calculus

Vector Functions of One Variable IV

Fig 1.2 Graph of the curve of Example 2.1.

Vector Differential Calculus

Vector Functions of One Variable V

F(t) = x(t)i + y (t)j + z(t)k is differentiable at t if each

F′ (t) = x ′ (t)i + y ′ (t)j + z ′ (t)k.

We differentiate a vector function by differentiating each

Vector Differential Calculus

Vector Functions of One Variable VI

Fig 1.3 F′ (t0 ) as a tangent vector.

Vector Differential Calculus

Vector Functions of One Variable VII

To give an interpretation to the vector F′ (t0 ), look at the limit

Vector Differential Calculus

Vector Functions of One Variable VIII

Figure 1.3 shows the vectors F(t0 + h), F(t0 ) and

H′ (t) = 2ti + cos(t)j − 2tk,

Vector Differential Calculus

Vector Functions of One Variable IX

and this vector is tangent to the curve at any point

In vector notation, this is

Vector Differential Calculus

Vector Functions of One Variable X

Vector Differential Calculus

Vector Functions of One Variable XI

Fig 1.4 Distance function along a curve.

Vector Differential Calculus

Vector Functions of One Variable XII

At least in theory, we can solve for t = t(s), writing the

Vector Differential Calculus

Vector Functions of One Variable XIII

To see this, observe from the fundamental theorem of calculus

and this vector has a length of 1.

Vector Differential Calculus

Vector Functions of One Variable XIV

x = cos(t), y = sin(t), z = t/3

for −4π ≤ t ≤ 4π.

Vector Differential Calculus

Vector Functions of One Variable XV

Fig 1.5 Curve C defined by x = cos(t), y = sin(t), z = t/3.

ref: https://christopherchudzicki.github.io/MathBox-Demos/parametric curves 3D.html

Vector Differential Calculus