DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL

ENGINEERING
Strength of Materials (CENG 2102)
CHAPTER 5: COMPRESSION MEMBER

5.1 Introduction At the end of this chapter,

5.2 Buckling and Stability students will be able to
❑ Design the size of
5.3 Euler's Theory of Column Buckling Compression member
subjected to Critical load
5.4 Effective Length and Slenderness Ratio
5.5 Rankine’s formula for Column ❑

By SIMON H. May 2024

 5.1 Introduction
2

 A vertical member subjected to axial compressive load is called column.

 Load carrying capacity of a compression member depends not only on its
cross sectional area, but also on its length and the manner in which the
ends of a column are held.
 Columns are classified into three according to nature of failure; short,
medium and long columns.
 Short column – whose length is so related to its cross section area that
failure occurs mainly due to direct compressive stress only and the role of
bending stress is negligible
 Medium Column - whose length is so related to its cross section area that
failure occurs by a combination of direct compressive stress and bending
stress
 Long Column - whose length is so related to its cross section area that
failure occurs mainly due to bending stress and the role of direct
compressive stress is negligible
 5.2 Buckling and Stability
3

▪ Not only must a member satisfy specific strength and deflection

requirements but it must also be stable.
▪ Stability is particularly important if the member is long and slender,
and it supports a compressive loading that becomes large enough to
cause the member to suddenly deflect laterally or sideway.
▪ These members are called columns, and the lateral deflection that
occurs is called buckling.
▪ Quite often, the buckling of a column can lead to a sudden and
dramatic failure of a structure or mechanism, and as a result, special
attention must be given to the design of columns so that they can
safely support their intended loadings without buckling.
 The maximum axial load that a column can support when it is on the
verge of buckling is called the critical load, Pcr, Figure below (a).
 Any additional loading will cause the column to buckle and therefore
deflect laterally as shown in Figure below (b).
 5.2 Buckling and Stability
4

▪ We can study the nature of this instability by considering the two-bar

mechanism consisting of weightless rigid bars that are pin connected
as shown in Figure below (a).
▪ When the bars are in the vertical position, the spring, having a
stiffness k, is unstretched, and a small vertical force P is applied at
the top of one of the bars.
▪ To upset this equilibrium position the pin at A is displaced by a small
amount ∆, Figure below(b).
▪ As shown on the free-body diagram of the pin, Figure below(c), the
spring will produce a restoring force F = k∆ in order to resist the two
horizontal components, Px=Ptanθ, which tend to push the pin (and
the bars) further out of equilibrium.
▪ Since θ is small, ∆ ≈θ(L/2) and tanθ≈θ.
▪ Thus the restoring spring force becomes F = kθ(L/2), and the
disturbing force is 2Px= 2Pθ.
 5.2 Buckling and Stability
5

▪ If the restoring force is greater than the disturbing force, that is,
kθL/2 >2Pθ, then, noticing that θ cancels out, we can solve for P,
which gives
𝑲𝑳
𝑷< 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚
𝟒
▪ This is a condition for stable equilibrium, since the force developed
by the spring would be adequate to restore the bars back to their
vertical position. However, if kθL/2 < 2Pθ, or
𝐾𝐿
𝑃> un𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚
4
 Then the bars will be in unstable equilibrium. In other words, if
this load is applied, and a slight displacement occurs at A, the
bars will tend to move out of equilibrium and not be restored
to their original position.
 The intermediate value of P, which requires kθL/2 = 2Pθ, is
the critical load. Here
𝐾𝐿
𝑃𝑐𝑟 = 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚
 5.2 Buckling and Stability
6

▪ This loading represents a case of the bars being in neutral equilibrium.

▪ Since Pcr is independent of the (small) displacement θ of the bars, any slight disturbance given
to the mechanism will not cause it to move further out of equilibrium, nor will it be restored to
its original position. Instead, the bars will simply remain in the deflected position.

▪ These three different states of equilibrium are represented

graphically in Fig. below.
▪ The transition point where the load is equal to its critical value
P = Pcr is called the bifurcation point.
▪ Here the bars will be in neutral equilibrium for any small value of
θ.
▪ If a larger load P is placed on the bars, then they will undergo a
larger deflection, so that the spring is compressed or elongated
enough to hold them in equilibrium.
▪ In a similar manner, if the load on an actual column exceeds its
critical loading, then this loading will also require the column to
undergo a large deflection; however, this is generally not Fig: Three different
tolerated in engineering structures or machines. states of equilibrium
 5.3 Euler's Theory of Column Buckling
7
▪ Once a member shows signs of buckling, it will lead to the failure of the member.
▪ This load at which the member just buckles is called the buckling load or critical load or
crippling load.
▪ The buckling load is less than the crushing load.
▪ The value of buckling load is low for long columns and relatively high for short columns.
▪ The value of the buckling load for a given member depends upon the length of the
member and the least lateral dimension.
▪ It also depends upon the types of end-constraints of the column (hinged, fixed etc.).
▪ Thus, when an axially loaded compression member just buckles, it is said to develop an
elastic Instability.
▪ Column buckling is a curious and unique subject. It is perhaps the only area of structural
mechanics in which failure is not related to the strength of the material.
▪ A column buckling analysis consists of determining the maximum load a column can
support before it collapses. But for long columns, the collapse has nothing to do with
material yield.
▪ It is instead governed by the column's stiffness, both material and geometric.
 5.3 Euler's Theory of Column Buckling
8

▪ Euler's theory of column buckling is used to estimate the critical

buckling load of column since the stress in the column remains elastic.
▪ The critical buckling load is the maximum load that a column can
withstand when it is on the verge of buckling.
▪ The buckling failure occurs when the length of the column is greater
when compared with its cross-section.
▪ The Euler's theory is based on certain assumptions related to the point
of axial load application, column material, cross-section, stress limits,
and column failure.
▪ The validity of Euler’s theory is subjected to a condition that failure
occurs due to buckling.
 5.3 Euler's Theory of Column Buckling
9
 The Euler’s theory states that the stress in the column due to direct loads is small compared to
the stress due to buckling failure.
 Based on this statement, a formula derived to compute the critical buckling load of column.
 So, the equation is based on bending stress and neglects direct stress due to direct loads on
the column.
 The followings are the general assumptions in Euler's theory of column buckling:
▪ Initially, the column is perfectly straight.
▪ The cross-section of the column is uniform throughout its length.
▪ The load is axial and passes through the centroid of the section.
▪ The stresses in the column are within the elastic limit.
▪ The materials of the column are homogenous and isotropic.
▪ The self-weight of the column itself is neglected.
▪ The failure of the column occurs due to buckling only.
▪ Length of column is large compared to its cross-sectional dimensions.
▪ The ends of the column are frictionless.
▪ The shortening of column due to axial compression is negligible.
 5.3 Euler's Theory of Column Buckling
10

 The tendency of a column to remain stable or become unstable when

subjected to an axial load actually depends upon its ability to resist
bending.
 Hence, in order to determine the critical load and the buckled shape
of the column, we will apply equation which relates the internal
moment in the column to its deflected shape, i.e.,
DERIVE THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF ELASTIC CURVE OF
BEAM

 θ = Angle made by tangent at A with X axis

 θ + dθ = Angle made by tangent at B with X axis
 C = Centre of curvature of the curve PQ.
 y = Deflection of point A
 y + dy = Deflection of point B
 dx = Length of the infinitesimal portion AB
Additional information
 M = Bending moment acting over the infinitesimal portion AB
 E = Young’s modulus of elasticity of the material of the beam
 I = Moment of inertia of the beam section
 EI = Flexural rigidity of the beam and it will be remain
constant through the beam
 5.3 Euler's Theory of Column Buckling
12

 Case (i) Both Ends Pinned

The equation can be written as

▪ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 of this differential equation is

𝑖𝑠
𝑦 = 𝐴 sin 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐵 cos 𝑎𝑥

Figure : Column with pinned ends: (a) ideal column, (b) buckled shape, and (c) axial force P
and bending moment M acting at a cross section
 5.3 Euler's Theory of Column Buckling
13

 If A=0, y is zero for all values of load and there is no bending, this
solution is not of interest.
∴ sin𝑎𝐿 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝐿 = 𝑛𝜋 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, …
 𝑎𝑙 = 𝜋 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)
 𝑜𝑟 a = 𝜋/𝐿
𝝅𝟐 𝑬𝑰
∴ 𝑪𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅, 𝑷𝒄𝒓 = 𝒂𝟐𝑬𝑰 =
𝑳𝟐
 5.3 Euler's Theory of Column Buckling
14

Case (ii) One end fixed other free

The equation can be written as

Figure : Ideal column fixed at the base and free at the top
 5.3 Euler's Theory of Column Buckling
15

 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠
𝑃𝑎
 𝑦 = 𝐴 sin 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐵 cos 𝑎𝑥 + = 𝐴 sin 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐵 cos 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎
𝐸𝐼𝑎2
 𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0, ∴ 𝐵 = −𝑎
𝑑𝑦
 𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 0, = 𝟎, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝐴𝑎 cos 𝑎𝑥 − 𝐵𝑎 sin 𝑎𝑥 = 0 →𝐴=0
𝑑𝑥

 𝑦 = −𝑎 cos 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎 = 𝑎(1 − cos 𝑎𝑥)

 𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 𝐿, 𝑦 = 𝑎,
 ∴ 𝑎 = 𝑎(1 − cos 𝑎𝐿) → cos 𝑎𝐿 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝐿 =𝑛𝜋/2 𝑛 = 1, 3, 5,
…
 𝑎𝑙 = 𝜋/2 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)
 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = 𝜋/2L
𝜋𝟐𝑬𝑰
∴ 𝑪𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅, 𝑷𝒄𝒓 = 𝒂𝟐𝑬𝑰 =
4𝐿𝟐
 5.3 Euler's Theory of Column Buckling
16

Case (iii) Fixed at both ends

The equation can be written as

Figure : Buckling of a
𝑎𝑙 = 2𝜋 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒) column with both ends
Or a= 2𝜋 /L fixed against rotation
𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝟐𝑬𝑰
∴ 𝑪𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅, 𝑷𝒄𝒓 = 𝒂 𝑬𝑰 = 𝐿2
 5.3 Euler's Theory of Column Buckling
17

 Case (iv) One end fixed, other Pinned

Fig: Column fixed at the

base and pinned at the top
 5.4 Effective Length and Slenderness Ratio
18

 The critical loads for columns with various support conditions can be related
to the critical load of a column through the concept of an effective length.
 Effective length of column (Le) is defined as vertical height between the two
points of contra flexure of the buckled column or it can be also defined as
vertical distance between to deflection caused due to buckling of column.
 Another way of expressing this idea is to say that the effective length of a
column is the distance between points of inflection (that is, points of zero
moment) in its deflection curve, assuming that the curve is extended (if
necessary) until points of inflection are reached.
▪ Thus, for a fixed- free column (Fig.), the effective length is

Fig: Deflection curves showing the effective length Le for a

column fixed at the base and free at the top
 5.4 Effective Length and Slenderness Ratio
19

 The general critical load for various boundary conditions can be

written as follows:
Where
k is effective length factor (𝑘 = 1 ⁄ 𝑛),
n is factor accounting for the end conditions and
L is the actual length of the column.
 The effective length is often expressed in terms of an effective length

factor, k:
 5.4 Effective Length and Slenderness Ratio
20

 Thus, the critical load is

 This load is termed as Euler's load and is denoted by PE and the

equation is known as Euler's formula.
 It can be seen that the column will have a tendency to bend or buckle
in that plane about which flexural rigidity El is least.
 Therefore in the above equation minimum moment of inertia should
be used. It can be seen that critical load is proportional to flexural
rigidity and inversely proportional to length does not depend upon
permissible and stress of material from which the column is made.
 5.4 Effective Length and Slenderness Ratio
21

 Thus, the critical load is

Fig: Effective length of column for various end conditions.

 5.4 Effective Length and Slenderness Ratio
22

 Critical stress (σcr) is average stress over the cross section

 For a pivot-ended concentrically loaded column with no intermediate bracing to

restrain lateral motion, bending occurs about the axis of minimum moment of
inertia. Therefore, r, radius of gyration is taken as minimum.
 5.4 Effective Length and Slenderness Ratio
23

 The Euler buckling load as given by Euler’s formula agrees well with experiment
only if the slenderness ratio is large, whereas short compression members can be
analyzed easily considering direct stress σ = P/A.
 Many columns lie between these extremes in which neither of these solutions is
applicable.
 These intermediate length columns are analyzed by secant formulae.
 To check the validity of Euler's formula consider that if the slenderness ratio is small,
the stress at the failure σcr will be large. Let σc be the crushing strength of column
material.
 If σcr > σc the failure of column will be due to crushing and not due to buckling.
 Hence, the Euler's formula will not be applicable for smaller slenderness ratio. In
other word, Euler’s formula is only applicable for long columns.
 For validity of Euler's formula,
 5.5 Rankine’s formula for Column
24

 Rankine proposed an empirical formula for columns,

which cover all cases ranging from short to long
columns. He proposed the relation
 5.5 Rankine’s formula for Column
25

 For short columns, Pe is very large and hence 1/Pe is small in comparison to
1/Pc, thus making the critical load P approximately equal to PC.
 For long columns, Pe is extremely small and hence 1/Pe is large as
compared to 1/Pc, thus making the critical load P approximately equal to
Pe.
 Thus, the value of P obtained from the above relation covers all cases
ranging from short to long columns.
 5.5 Rankine’s formula for Column
26
 Worked Examples
27

 Example5.1: A steel column has a length of 9 m and is

fixed at both ends. If the cross-sectional area has the
dimensions shown, determine the critical load. Est =
200GPa, σy = 250 MPa.
 Worked Examples
28

Solution :
 Worked Examples
29

 Example5.2: A steel column, which is pinned at its top

and bottom, has a length of 9 m. If the cross-sectional
area has the dimensions shown, determine the critical
load. Est = 200GPa, σy = 250 MPa.
 Worked Examples
30

Solution :
 Worked Examples
31

 Example5.3: A steel bar of rectangular cross section 30

x 50 mm pinned at each end is 2 m long. Determine the
buckling load when it is subjected to axial compression
and calculate axial stress using Euler's expression.
Determine the minimum length for which Euler's equation
may be valid. Take σy=250MPa and Est = 200GPa
 Worked Examples
32

Solution :

𝐿 = 0.77𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

 Worked Examples
33

 Example5.4: A 2m long pin-ended column with a square cross

section is to be made of wood. Assuming E = 13GPa, σall = 12MPa,
and using a factor of safety of 2.5 to calculate Euler’s critical load
for buckling, determine the size of the cross section if the column is to
safely support (a) a 100kN load, (b) a 200kN load.

Figure: Pin-ended wood column of square

cross section.
 Worked Examples
34

Solution :
 Worked Examples
35

Solution :
 Worked Examples
36

 Example5.5: The A992 steel W200 x 46 member shown

in figure is to be used as a pin- connected column.
Determine the largest axial load it can support before it
begins to buckle or yields. Use E=200GPa for steel.
 Worked Examples
37

Solution :
 Worked Examples
38

 Example5.6: A W150 x 24 steel column is 8 m long and

is fixed at its ends as shown in figure. Its load-carrying
capacity is increased by bracing it about the y–y (weak)
axis using struts that are assumed to be pin connected to
its mid height. Determine the load it can support so that
the column does not buckle nor the material exceed the
yield stress. Take Est = 200GPa and σy = 410MPa.
 Worked Examples
39

Solution :
 Worked Examples
40

Solution :

𝑷𝒄𝒓 = 𝟒𝟔𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝒌𝑵

 Worked Examples
41

 Example5.7: The aluminum column is braced at its top by cables so

as to prevent movement at the top along the x axis. If it is assumed
to be fixed at its base, determine the largest allowable load P that
can be applied. Use a factor of safety for buckling of F.S. = 3.0.
Take Eal=70GPa, σy= 215MPa,
A = 7.5(10-3)m2, Ix = 61.3(10-6)m4,
Iy= 23.2(10-6)m4.
 Worked Examples
42

Solution :
 Worked Examples
43

Solution :
 Worked Examples
44

 Example5.8: Calculate safe compressive load on a

hollow cast iron column with one end hinged and other
rigidly fixed. The external and internal diameters
are120mm and 90mm respectively and length of the
column is 9m.
Take factor of safety as 3, σc=550MPa and E = 95GPa.
 Also calculate critical axial stress.
 Worked Examples
45

Solution :
 Worked Examples
46

Solution :
 Worked Examples
47

 Example5.9: Using Rankine's formula find the crippling

load for a mild steel strut of 500mm long with a
rectangular cross-section 50mm x 12.5mm having (a)
hinged ends, aid (b) both ends fixed. Take σc = 330MPa
and a for hinged ends = 1/7500.
 Worked Examples
48

Solution :
 Worked Examples
49

 Example5.10: A hollow cylindrical cast iron colulm

150mm external diameter and 20mm thick is 6 meter in
length having both ends hinged. Find the load using
Rankine's formula. Take σ c = 550MPa and a = 1/1600.
 Worked Examples
50

Solution :
51

The End.
Thank you!